factor in human behavior, because of its sinister influence on weather
states (aside from its intrinsically pernicious qualities), is at
least suggested by the only comprehensive study extant of the relation
of weather to abnormal behavior: viz., Dexter’s investigation of the
influences of various weather states on the conduct of a large number
of child and adult offenders in Denver and New York City (5). The
data which he studied included records of misdemeanors in schools,
penitentiaries, and hospitals for the insane, arrests for assault and
battery, for suicide and murder, records of deaths and bank errors,
and strength tests. From this study Dexter arrives at the conclusion
that days with high temperature and high humidity are unfavorable
to metabolism. More specifically: anabolism is favored by high
temperatures (though high temperatures deplete the vital reserve),
high winds (because of better ventilation), and fair days with low
humidity; while katabolism is increased by low temperatures, high
humidities, high barometric pressures, rainy and cloudy days, and
calms. (During fogs there is usually a condition of calm and a fall of
temperature.) The katabolic weather states tend to deplete vitality,
lower the vital reserve and augment the death rate, while the anabolic
states tend to stimulate, invigorate, irritate and increase the nervous
tension. Conformably with this classification of weather states Dexter
finds statistically that anabolic conditions increase all the data
which are of the nature of offenses.
Thus--to limit the discussion to the weather states which are
influenced by smoke--school misdemeanors were increased on fair and dry
days, on days with high winds (an increase of 200% in Denver), and days
with low humidities (increase of 200% in Denver between 10° and 30°;
and 33% in New York City between 50° and 55°). Assaults were likewise
increased on clear days. The records of suicide and attempted suicide
during a period of 5 years in New York City indicated that suicides
were 31% more frequent on dry than on wet days; 21% more frequent on
clear than cloudy days (another investigation gave an increase of
1700% on clear and dry days, while an article in the Popular Science
Monthly states that the excesses were on days of high humidity),
and less frequent on rainy days. The traditional view is that most
suicides occur on cloudy and not on clear days. Villemair claimed that
nine-tenths of all suicides took place on rainy and cloudy days, while
Dickens, Lytton and Pope stage their tragic climaxes on cloudy days.
Statistical evidence does not support these popular notions.
Likewise clear, and particularly excessively dry days, increased
the number of arrests for inebriety, although in the article in the
International Journal of Ethics it is said that humidity increases
drunkenness.
On the other hand, school misdemeanors were reduced on humid, rainy,
snowy and possibly on cloudy days and days with high temperature; while
adult assaults, murders and disciplinary cases in penitentiaries and
institutions for the insane were also reduced on excessively humid
days. On foggy days more bank errors were made in New York City, a
finding in harmony with the practice adopted by the Bank of England of
requiring clerks to work at less intricate and less important problems
on foggy and depressing days.
Waiving certain discrepancies which appear in a comparative examination
of Dexter’s various articles it appears that school misdemeanors,
assaults, suicides and drunkenness are increased on clear and dry days.
The increase in the assaults and drunkenness may be due to the fact
that people go out more on clear than on wet days, hence have more
opportunities for getting into brawls--though one might argue that
on dark, foggy days they would be driven into the saloons, thereby
increasing the offenses. On dry days perspiration is increased and
therefore there is more demand for liquid refreshment. But, what
is more important, there is also very probably some stimulating or
irritating quality in clear, dry, sunshiny weather. Dexter assumes
this, though he does not ascribe the stimulating quality to the
dryness but to the increased electrical potential of dry air. Pupils
are stimulated on clear, dry, sunny days, hence they are more active,
aggressive and enterprising, but likewise more restless, high
strung, emotionally unstable and therefore also more mischievous. A
superabundance of energy and not a state of enervation predisposes to
childish pranks and nervous explosions. An increase of vitality and
nervous tension upsets the unstable equilibrium of the predisposed
offender, gives him a false sense of strength, and an exaggerated idea
of self-importance (often paranoia-like in its intensity), and hence
he becomes more aggressively criminalistic. Moreover, the exhilarating
qualities of tonic days give the potential suicide just the courage
he needs to take his own life, the courage which he may be unable to
muster during states of depleted vitality. Devitalized states of the
body breed fear, diffidence and cowardice.
On the other hand, the humid and hot days are devitalizing (because of
low electrical potential, according to Dexter) and therefore lead to
inaction. Depleted vitality and nervous exhaustion are inhibitory of
action, hence during devitalizing weather states misdemeanors decrease
in number.
There is no doubt that opposed weather states exercise stimulating and
irritating influences, on the one hand, and enervating and inhibitory
influences, on the other hand; but it is not clear that this is due
to a difference of electrical potential. It remains to be shown that
heightened electrical potential acts as a nervous tonic and irritant.
The theory assumes that heightened winds and sunshine increase the
potential; but meteorologists tell us that the potential is independent
of both the direction and the velocity of wind; and that the more
intense the sunshine the higher the temperature, and the purer the
air, the lower is the potential (14). It is apparent that these
conclusions go counter to the theory demanded by Dexter’s empirical
findings (except in the case of humidity uncomplicated by fogginess),
and that a more satisfactory basis of explanation is to be sought in
the bio-dynamic properties of the sun’s rays, especially of the blue
and ultra-violet rays. These rays dilate the blood vessels, increase
the hemoglobin, increase anabolism, transpiration, irritate the skin,
stimulate and vitalize nervous, muscular and mental action, and augment
the potential reserve, working force and functional efficiency of the
individual. If this is true it is clear that bright, sunny states
while they increase misdemeanors and crimes in unstable individuals,
also--and this is more important--energize the human organism.
On this theory the damp, dark, smoky, foggy days are depleting and
depressing just because (at least so far forth) they are lacking in
the tonic, health-giving rays of the sun. The investigations cited
above indicate that these weather conditions actually are in the main
devitalizing, depressing and inhibitive of action, and that they,
therefore, decrease breaches against law and order. These conclusions
do indeed seem to be justified by the rather incomplete statistics of
violence which are available from the various cities of the country.
Thus, Table V, statistics of homicide, show that there is no increase
in the frequency of murders in the cities whose atmosphere is supposed
to be surcharged with smoke and where, accordingly, depleting weather
conditions obtain.
TABLE V.
HOMICIDE STATISTICS FOR 31 AMERICAN CITIES.
1901-1910. 1911.
No. Rate per No. Rate per
100,000 100,000
Memphis, Tenn. 556 47.1 85 63.4
Charleston, N. C. 159 27.7 25 42.3
Savannah, Ga. 154 25.6 25 37.8
New Orleans, La. 702 22.2 83 24.1
Atlanta, Ga. 215 17.1 48 29.8
Louisville, Ky. 356 16.5 36 15.9
Nashville, Tenn. 132 13.6 40 35.3
St. Louis, Mo. 804 12.6 108 15.5
San Francisco, Cal. 343 11.42 44 10.4
Cincinnati, Ohio 328 9.4
Chicago, Ill. 1659 8.4 203 9.1
Spokane, Wash. 55 8.0 3 2.7
Seattle, Wash. 119 7.6 20 7.9
Washington, D. C. 210 6.8 31 9.2
Manhattan and The Bronx, N. Y. 1249 5.1 197 6.9
Cleveland, Ohio 234 4.9 50 8.6
Pittsburgh, Pa. 243 4.9 50 5.3
Providence, R.I. 97 4.8
Boston, Mass. 283 4.6 33 4.8
Dayton, Ohio 44 4.3 8 6.7
Brooklyn, N. Y. 583 4.2 61 3.6
Baltimore, Md. 215 4.0 27 4.8
Reading, Pa. 32 4.0 7 7.2
Philadelphia, Pa. 529 3.7 66 4.2
Memphis, Tenn. 556 47.1 85 63.4
Hartford, Conn. 24 3.3 4 4.0
Buffalo, N. Y. 109 2.8 25 5.8
Minneapolis, Minn. 71 2.7 11 3.6
Newark, N. J. 68 2.3 6 1.7
Rochester, N. Y. 43 2.3 14 6.2
Milwaukee, Wis. 56 1.7 11 2.8
As a matter of fact, Shipley has argued that the ratio of murders
in various cities of the United States is directly related to the
prevalence of various alien races, the Mexicans being the chief
homicidal offenders (121 murders per 100,000 of the population),
followed by the Chinese (65) and the Italians (50.2) (20).
The statistics for suicide in Table VI are mostly for cities with low
smoke density. It is observable, however, that the suicide rates are
low in the two worst smoke-offending cities tabulated, viz., St. Louis
and Pueblo.
TABLE VI.
SUICIDE RATES PER 100,000 IN AMERICAN CITIES FROM 1900-1909.
(L. L. Hoffman.)
San Francisco 52.0
San Diego 38.5
Hoboken 35.4
Sacramento 35.3
Los Angeles 30.2
Oakland, Cal. 29.7
St. Louis 29.7
Seattle 27.8
Springfield, Ill. 27.8
Pueblo 27.7
These statistics are in complete agreement with European suicide
statistics. The traditional view had it there was an abnormally large
percentage of suicides in England and that this was largely due to a
cosmic factor--the murky, smoky gloom of Great Britain. Investigation
shows, however, that the percentage of suicide in England is less than
in any other European country. (See 15, and references in 2.)
For assault and battery, and drunkenness I have been unable to obtain
statistics. I believe, however, that we are justified in concluding,
from the rather meager facts in our possession, that the devitalizing
weather conditions produced by manufacturing cities do not increase
misdemeanors and crime. On the contrary, they seem to inhibit rather
than incite offenses against the law. From the standpoint of the police
courts depleting days seem to be a desirable asset, while bright,
tonic, irritating days are an undesirable asset. Granting the truth of
this contention, let us not forget the complementary and more important
facts presented in the preceding pages; namely, that gloomy, humid,
foggy days (such days as are produced by smoke-begrimed skies) lessen
vital potential, reduce or retard activity and impair efficiency, while
bright, dry, sunshiny days increase the potential reserve, liberate
energy, augment working capacity and stimulate ambition. To be sure, an
unbroken series of smoky days might prove too stimulating, or at least
too monotonous, but the elimination of city smoke will at the most only
eliminate the frequent and oppressive smoke-induced weather clouds.
Nature will still furnish an ample supply of misty, cloudy and rainy
days.
_NOTE ON THE INFLUENCE OF CLOUDY AND CLEAR DAYS ON THE INSANE._
Books on psychiatry and several psychopathologists whom I have
consulted have very little scientifically established information to
offer on the reactions of the insane to divers weather states. The
following reply from Dr. Max E. Witte who, as Superintendent of large
hospitals, has been in intimate contact with the insane for over a
third of a century, is suggestive: “I regret that I am unable to give
you anything definitely set down in black and white, and in figures,
but there is no question whatsoever, and it is a matter of remark,
even to the least observant of our nurses, that the insane are very
sensitive to weather conditions, and are particularly disturbed and
influenced in an unfavorable way by clouded, overcast weather. Those
who are of an excitable, maniacal tendency are more noisy, boisterous,
and restless; those who are depressed are more gloomy, and inclined
to forebodings, and generally more miserable in feeling than they are
during dry and clear weather.
A period of several consecutive days of clouded, overcast weather is
promptly followed by reports of restlessness, greater depression, and a
general disposition to be disorderly, and even violent, on the part of
those who are disposed that way.
On the other hand, dry, sunshiny weather coming on after such a period,
is soon followed by quieter, gentler and generally more comfortable
moods.
The insane, unless materially demented, react more fully to outside
influences, due in part, in some forms, to greater emotional mobility,
and more particularly to a lack of restraint by the will; and also, in
part, to the fact that they have their attention less occupied with the
matters and affairs of every day life, than do the sane. Still, I take
it, that the sane, judging by myself, are subconsciously influenced by
weather conditions. I notice in myself, on observation and analysis,
that the shades that haunt me during gloomy weather, fade with the
coming of the sun.
I have no doubt that the climatic conditions that permanently manifest
themselves, the clearness or cloudiness of the sky, have impressed
the peoples, say for instance of Europe, in the course of ages, with
certain national racial characteristics; and I have no doubt that the
murky, smoky atmosphere of your city exerts an influence to a greater
or lesser degree upon the morals and disposition of the young people
who dwell habitually in your climate.
I do not recall ever having seen any study, or more extensive
investigation of this interesting topic.”
FOOTNOTES:
[1] Figures placed within parenthesis refer to the corresponding
references in the bibliography at the close of the paper.
[2] The writer has confirmed this statement in inquiries made among a
number of recent professional arrivals in Pittsburgh, who say they are
more fatigued by their work here than in other cities where they have
labored.
II. The Aesthetic Aspects of Smoke Pollution
“The smoke nuisance is the greatest hindrance to the highest
development of civic beauty and refinement” (Holdsworth, 33).
Historically the first anti-smoke propagandas were waged against
the nuisance on aesthetic grounds. In London the use of “Sea cole”
was legally prohibited during a portion of the middle ages because
the smoke palls marred the beauty of buildings, which were at that
time painted in whitewash, with colored decorations in front (34).
Violations of the smoke statute were considered so serious that a
citizen of London was executed in 1306 for burning “Sea cole” (22).
With the lapse of the anti-smoke ordinance in the middle of the
sixteenth century the use of lime white and colored effects on the
exterior of buildings was abandoned, and in their place appeared an
unsightly, discolored, mottled, greasy coat of tarry soot on the
outside of buildings.
A smoke-contaminated atmosphere imposes very severe restrictions on the
efforts of the architect, sculptor, painter, decorator and landscape
gardener to beautify our cities. This limitation applies to the
character of the paints and colors, the nature of the materials, the
style of architecture, interior decoration, and the possibilities of
artistic horticultural effects.
Exterior painting in the form of mosaic or polychromic ornamentation
cannot be successfully employed to any extent in smoky cities (32).
Colored effects on stones, metals, ordinary or glazed bricks or
faience will not for long retain their purity in a murky atmosphere. A
grimy, blotchy, streaky, inartistic, abject appearance of the exterior
chromatic decoration of buildings in smoky cities is a matter of common
observation. Even glazed white bricks when used inside the building may
become dirty and discolored. Observation shows that placards in red
lead become gradually decolored in cities, even when protected against
the sun and rain, but not in the country air (35). The pernicious
influence of the smoke on color effects is probably due to the fact
that the colors become mechanically covered over by a coat of tarry
soot and dirt. This tarry mass may effectually obliterate all color
effects. It tends to adhere so firmly that it can only be removed, if
at all, with great difficulty and with the aid of special solvents,
and in the process of removal the colored paints often tend to scale
off with the dirt. The defiling effect of the actual dirt is the most
objectionable influence of smoke on stained glass. But smoke may also
cause the disintegration of paint films, owing to the corrosive agents
which smoke often contains. It is thus evident that smoke largely
restricts exterior coloration to a play of light and shade. In fact, it
tends to restrict paint effects to the darker shades.
Smoke also causes decay of interior paintings and tends to restrict the
furniture and furnishings to the more somber hues. In smoky atmospheres
the interiors of buildings are usually more or less dark, hence special
efforts must be made to keep the paintings free from dust and soot
films. But constant mechanical or chemical cleaning or washing lessen
the brilliancy of the color effects. A smooth, varnish-like or glazed
coating on mural decorations is favorable for purposes of cleaning, but
inimical to the best artistic effects. The matt enables the colored
designs to show off to the best advantage, but matt is absorbent and
attracts smoke and dirt products and resists successful cleaning.
In the case of paint on plaster the corrosive products in smoke
(particularly sulphuric acid) penetrate through the paint so that it
tends to scale off; while in the case of fresco the porous surface of
the carbonate of lime provides opportunity for the tenacious lodgment
of dirt and for the destructive action of the acids. The carbonate is
transformed into gypsum. It is so expanded that it loses its binding
power, while the painting-ground is also often destroyed (30). It
should be remarked incidentally that housewives in smoky cities are
much inclined to keep doors and windows shut in order to exclude soot
and dirt. While this may be aesthetically commendable, it is none the
less hygienically objectionable. Moreover, the great amount of extra
labor required to keep houses clean in smoky cities consumes the vital
reserve of many women and robs them of the leisure moments which are
theirs by right and which are essential for bodily rest and mental
recreation and improvement.
Not only is smoke inimical to the highest aesthetic utilization of
artificial coloration--particularly exterior coloration--but it
obliterates the most richly colored panorama of nature, namely, the
iridescent clouds of the sky. The situation in cities is bad enough
without the smoke, for in large cities the tall buildings prevent many
people from ever getting a glimpse of the beautiful cloudscapes of the
sunset or the splendor of the sunrise. But when you add the smoke palls
to the buildings you often effectually close all visual approach to the
richly illumined and picturesquely silhouetted clouds of the day and
the resplendent stars of the night. That this frequent obscuration of
the sky limits the aesthetic resources of any community has been shown
by the writer in the article to which reference has already been made
(9).
Clouds are capable of calling out the strongest emotions of the
soul--fear, depression, gloom, awe, reverence, joy, cheer and hope.
Children take great delight in watching cloudscapes and in discovering
objects in the constantly changing forms. Over one hundred different
kinds of objects were recorded in the replies which were tabulated
in this investigation. Richly illumined, iridescent and constantly
changing cloudscapes afford a most fertile field for the exercise of
imaginative creativeness. The masters who have charmed the race by
their imaginative descriptions often have derived their most exquisite
conceptions from the flying cloudscapes rather than from beautiful
flowers, mountains, parks or buildings. No work of art can elevate
the feelings to such lofty adoration of the marvels of nature as the
colored glories of the sunset and sunrise (Biglow). The scenes of the
Scandinavian gods and goddesses were staged in cloudland. The clouds
have impressed themselves upon the cosmogony, mythology, religion,
morals, beliefs and superstitions of primitive races as well as of
modern children. The modern child’s emotional reactions are vestiges
of ancestral attitudes towards clouds, while the modern painter and
poet still find inspiration in cloudland. City smoke not only cheats
us of our birthright, by depriving us of an important means for
developing the powers of observation and imagination as well as of a
source of aesthetic culture (because it covers the heavens with an
opaque blanket); but it also displaces the cathedrals of nature with
an uninteresting, nasty, black, opaque pall of soot which stimulates
tendencies toward discontent and frequently arouses morbid emotions.
Mankind has always taken a delight in color. Under primitive conditions
man bedecks his body with colored habiliments for purely decorative
rather than protective purposes. Deprived of the enjoyment of the
natural terrestrial color effects by high buildings, man resorts to
the artificial coloration of his buildings. But the smoke palls tend
to subvert his every effort to satisfy the demands of his color sense.
The abatement of smoke will do much to restore hue and chroma to their
rightful places in the aesthetic development of manufacturing cities.
Smoke defaces, disfigures or destroys buildings and restricts the
styles of architecture. The sulphuric acid particularly corrodes or
disintegrates practically all kinds of building materials (slate and
granite possibly excepted). Marble tends first to turn green and then
black; limestone deteriorates very rapidly, turning to gypsum owing
to its great affinity for sulphur. The absorption of sulphur causes
the stone to expand, thus rendering it soluble and powdery so that
particles are constantly washed or blown away. The very best stone
obtainable was used in the new additions to the House of Parliament
in London, and every care suggested by modern science was taken to
preserve the materials, yet the buildings were much eroded after a
few years. One of the worst aspects of the smoke nuisance is the
insidiously destructive influence of smoke on ancient buildings,
relics or monuments.
Smoke thus not only shortens the life of building materials, but it
destroys the force of expression of the architecture so that buildings
are reduced to a shabby mass of begrimed masonry. The sharp outstanding
moldings, designs, friezes, cornices, ornaments and carvings--the
essentially artistic in architectural construction--are not only
rapidly eroded but they are obliterated by the dense deposit of tarry
soot, or rendered invisible because of the diminished illumination
caused by the murky palls of smoke that hang over our cities. In the
city of London 650 tons of soot have been deposited per square mile
of ground surface, and soot deposits 3/4 inch thick have been scraped
from cornice projections. The beauty of the architectural views
consists in the distinctness of the outlines. Soot deposits conceal
the artistic effects not only on stone and brick but also on wood. The
difficulty cannot be entirely overcome by cleaning, because cleaning
tends to remove the sharp edges and outlines. Moreover, preservatives
for water proofing often leave an unpleasant color and frequently
are not effective unless 18 or 20 coats are applied (for example of
baryta-water).
The ornamentation of city buildings is thus seriously restricted,
while the preservation of historical landmarks is jeopardized by smoke
pollution. Smoke and architectural embellishment are irreconcilable
enemies.