Estimating
=74. Methods of Estimating.=--Building costs may be divided into
two main divisions, cost of material and cost of labor. There is but
one so-called safe way to figure or estimate the cost of any particular
piece of carpentry work. This consists in "taking off" the material
quantities in detail and to this adding the labor cost of placing the
same. This is the method in common use by contractors in making a final
estimate. Where a rough or working estimate is required, such as an
architect's estimate of the probable cost of a building planned by him,
two methods may be used. One consists in figuring the cubical contents
in feet and multiplying a predetermined, or unit price per cubic
foot for that type of house. Ordinarily, the main frame is figured,
counting from the basement floor to the top of the attic walls that
are, or may be finished--outside measurements. Porches and open spaces
are not figured. A second method consists in estimating the number of
squares (100 sq. ft.) of side wall, of partitions, of floors, etc.,
and multiplying a predetermined price per square for a similar type of
building. This latter method is more accurate than the cubic-foot unit
method.
=75. Table for Estimating by Cubic-Foot Unit.=--The following
table of unit prices will give a rough working estimate for various
types of building differentiated after the custom of insurance
adjusters. The prices are for 1915 and to be of any value must be
compared with known costs of similar structures in the community in
which they are to be used. Any evident variations in unit costs so
discovered should be noted and corrections made.
CUBIC-FOOT UNIT ESTIMATE
COUNTRY PROPERTY PER CUBIC FOOT
Frame dwelling, small box house, no cornice 5c
Frame dwelling, shingle roof, small cornice, no sash
weights, plain 6¼- 7½c
Brick dwelling, same class 8¼-10c
Frame dwelling, shingle roof, good cornice, sash weights,
blinds (good house) 8¼-10c
Brick dwelling, same class 11¼-12½c
Frame barn, shingle roof, not painted, plain finish 2¼- 3¼c
Frame barn, shingle roof, painted, good foundation 3 - 4¼c
Frame store, shingle roof, painted, plain finish 6¼- 8¼c
Brick store, shingle roof, painted, good cornice,
well finished 8¼-11¼c
Frame church or school house, ordinary 6¼- 8¼c
Brick church or school house, ordinary 10 -12½c
If slate or metal roof, add %c per cubic foot.
CITY PROPERTY
Frame dwelling, shingle roof, pine floors and finish, no
bath or furnace, plain finish (good house) ?½- 8¼c
Brick dwelling, same class 10 -11¼c
Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood floors in hall and
parlor, bath, furnace, fair plumbing 10 -11¼c
Brick dwelling same class 10 -12½c
Frame dwelling, shingle roof, hardwood in first floor,
good plumbing, furnace, artistic design, some interior
ornamentation, well painted 12½-15c
Brick dwelling, good plumbing, bath, furnace, pine finish,
well painted 13¼-18c
=76. Grading Rules.=--There is no uniformity as to grades of
lumber. Fifteen or more associations have rules for inspection. and
classification of lumber and these rules vary with the association and
from year to year in the same association. The following rules taken
from a catalogue of a middle west lumber concern will be found helpful:
Yellow Pine Dimension, Studding, Joists and Timbers
_No. 1 Common._--The best grade and the one recommended for use on
first class jobs.
_No. 2 Common._--Dimension up to 20 feet long only can be obtained
in this grade. Timbers are not manufactured in No. 2. This stock will
show defects not found in No. 1 grade, and some pieces are not entirely
straight. It is a sound, serviceable grade, but not recommended for
first class work.
Yellow Pine Boards, Sheathing, Shiplap, and Fencing
_No. 1 Common._--This grade is not clear, but is strictly sound
and uniform in thickness and width. It is used on the best classes of
work, for barn boards, and wherever exposed to wear and weather.
_No. 2 Common._--This grade is sound but contains more sound knots
than No. 1 and is somewhat coarser. It is mostly used on first class
jobs for sub or rough floors, and for sheathing under siding. It can be
used for outside work, but is not recommended for this purpose except
upon cheap buildings. No. 8 Common. A fairly good lower grade which
will work up nicely but with some waste due to cutting out defects.
Runs uneven in quality. Makes a fair subfloor or sheathing.
Yellow Pine Flooring, Ceiling, Partition, and Drop Siding
_Clear Grade._--The best grade manufactured. Practically free from
defects and the grade used upon first class jobs. Is strong, sound, and
will lay without waste due to cutting out of imperfections. Should be
used when a natural finish is desired. No. 1 Common. This grade will
contain small, sound knots, sap stains, pitch or pitch pockets. It
is sound and durable, and a good grade for ordinary work or wherever
covered with paint.
_No. 2 Common._ Coarser than No. 1 grade; will lay up with little
waste. Is sound, and flooring of this grade is often used for sheathing
or sub flooring where a warm, tight job is desired. Can also be used on
cheap painted jobs.
Fir Boards, Timbers, Drop Siding, Ceiling and Flooring
_Select No. 1 Barn Boards._--This grade is especially selected and
is better than No. 1.
_No. 1 Timbers._--Good sound straight stock, to be used for sills
and posts subjected to moisture.
_Clear Ceiling._--Free from defects. Good for cornice work and
porch ceilings.
_Edge Grain Flooring, Clear Grade._--Especially suited to porch
floors as it wears well and resists effects of moisture.
_Clear Drop Siding._--Contains no sap, shakes or other defects.
Shingles, Lap Siding, Y. P. and Cypress Finish, White Pine
Boards
_5 to 2 Clears._--The heaviest grade five shingles laid one on top
of the other will measure 2" at the butts.
_6 to 2 Extra Star A Star._--A lighter grade, but clear and 16",
as are the 5 to 2" grade.
_Bevel or Lap Siding._--Carried in stock in red cedar, redwood,
cypress, and white pine. "Clear" is free from all defects.
_Cypress "C" Grade._--Has small sound knots and other slight
defects such as can be covered with paint. All siding is bundled 10
pieces to the bunch in random lengths. Not furnished in specified
lengths.
_Yellow Pine and Cypress Finish._--This stock in "clear" grade is
practically free from defects. The yellow pine is suitable for interior
finish. Cypress is suitable for inside finish or for cornice work on
first class jobs. "C" cypress finish contains some knots and other
slight defects. Is suitable for outside finish on ordinary jobs.
_White Pine Boards._ As a rule, carried in stock only in No. 1
grade. Nothing but sound, red-knotted boards should be included. No
shakes. Excellent for exposure to weather.
=77. Estimating Lumber Quantities.=--Lumber is measured in terms
of the board foot as a unit, 12" by 12" by 1" or its equivalent,
indicated by the abbreviation B. M. (board measure).
_Example:_
Determine the B. M. in a girder 6" by 8" by 16'.
_Solution:_
Rule--Thickness in inches times width in inches, divided by 12" times
the length in feet gives a number equal to the number of board feet.
(6" × 8") / 12 × 16' = 64' B.M.
Stock less than 1" thick is figured as 1" thick. In commercial practice
lumbermen make use of tables in determining quantities. Appendix III.
In estimating quantities, suitable allowance must be made for waste.
This waste is incurred (1) thru loss when boards or planks are cut to
required lengths. Standard lengths are 10', 12', 14', etc., and these
will not always cut to advantage. (2) Waste is incurred in machining
the stock, as dressing, edging, tonguing and grooving. Necessary
allowances will be indicated herein.
_Heavy Timbers._ Girders, posts, etc., are determined by count.
_Joists._ To determine the number of joists required for a room
or a building, count the actual number required beginning at a wall
(¾ times number of feet in length or width of room when set 16" on
centers), and to this add one joist to be placed against the second
wall.
Cataloged or listed sizes are for lumber fresh from the saw.
Shrinkage due to seasoning and surfacing one side and one edge so
that the stock may have uniform thickness and width will give actual
sizes as follows: 2" × 4" when sized on one side and one edge,
will give 1⅝" x 3⅝"; 2" × 6", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_,
1⅝" × 5⅝"; 2" × 8", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_ gives 1⅝" ×
7½"; 2" × 10", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_ gives 1⅝" x 9½";
2" x 12", _S_-1-_S_ and 1_E_ gives 1⅝ x 11½. When
_S_-2-_S_ and 2_E_ or sized on 4 sides, stock will
measure ⅛" less than indicated above.
_Studs for Walls and Partitions._--Count one for each lineal
foot of wall or partition, where specified 16" on centers. The extra
studs are to be used in doubling corners, at doors and windows, and in
gables. Barns and sheds will not require these extra studs.
_Bridging._--Allow 25 lineal feet of 2" by 4" for each square of
flooring.
_Rafters._--On a plain roof, count actual number and add one, as
in counting for joists.
_Sheathing._--Calculate the exact surface to be covered, deduct
openings; then, for unmatched sheathing or barn boards or fencing, as
it is also called, add 1/12 for 12" boards, 1/16 for 10" boards and ⅛
where 8" boards are used. Four inch and 6" are seldom laid solid, being
used mainly for roof sheathing for shingle roofs, and laid 2" apart.
These additions are due to the fact that thru seasoning and dressing,
a 12" board becomes 11½", a 10" becomes 9⅝", an 8" becomes 7¾", a 6"
becomes 5¾" and a 4" becomes 3¾". The additions specified allow for
waste in cutting.
_Shiplap._ Calculate the exact surface to be covered, deduct
openings; then add for floors 17%, for sidewalls 20%, for roofs 25%.
Sheathing laid with 2" spaces should have proportionate deductions
made, that is, on 1" × 6", figure as if laid solid, then deduct ¼; for
1" × 4" deduct ⅓. Sheathing when matched, such as is used sometimes
for sub-floors and side walls and roof sheathing under slate roofs
and better known as flooring, will be estimated by figuring the exact
surface to be covered, deducting the openings, then adding for 6"
stock, which is the kind most always used, 15% for floors, 17% for
sidewalls, and 20% for roofs.
If shiplap or matched sheathing is laid diagonally add 5% for waste due
to lack of ability to reverse cut.
_Siding._--For bevel siding, calculate the exact surface, deduct
openings; then add for 6" siding when laid 4½" to the weather, 33%; for
the 4" siding add 50%.
_Drop Siding._--Drop siding, ceiling and wainscoting are figured
just like matched flooring, which is described below.
_Flooring._--For square edge, calculate the exact surface to be
covered, add for 6" flooring 11% for waste in matching, etc.; for 4"
flooring add 20%. It is becoming common practice to specify flooring by
actual face measurement after being machined. The following figures are
for actual surface measurements.
For matched flooring, calculate the exact surface to be covered, then
add 20% for 5¼" flooring, for 3¼" flooring add 25%, for 2¼" add 33%,
for 1½ add 40%.
Flooring less than 1" thick, like all other lumber, is estimated as 1"
thick.
_Shingles._--A bunch of shingles contains the equivalent of 250
shingles of 4" average width. With an exposure of 4½" to the weather
a 4" average shingle will cover 18 square inches, making 800 shingles
to the square. Waste in doubling the first course and in laying will
necessitate an addition of 8% on a plain roof and 12% on hips or on
gabled walls. Cost estimates are based upon the M. or 1000.
SHINGLES PER SQUARE
Plain roof, 4 " exposure, 990; roof cut up, 1010
Plain roof, 4½" exposure, 880; roof cut up, 900
Plain roof, 5 " exposure, 790; roof cut up, 810
_Lath._ Lath for interior plaster work are usually ⅜" by 1⅜" by
4', put up in bundles of 50 each and are sold by the 1000. 1000 lath
will cover 70 yards of surface and will require 8 lbs. of 3d fine
lath nails. Lathing is usually considered a part of the plasterer's
contract. There is no uniformity of practice as to the deduction for
openings.
_Building Papers._ The cheapest is "rosin sized," and is not
waterproof. This is used mainly under floors and upon side walls under
bevel siding. It is sold by the pound in rolls each 36" wide containing
500 square feet.
Dry felt is used where better protection from cold is desired. In the
cheaper grades, the material is made of wood fiber and rosin. In the
better grades wool is used. Tar felt, used where moisture is to be
resisted, is dry felt saturated with tar. These materials are sold by
the pound: 12, 15, and 20 lbs. to the 100 square feet, in rolls of
various widths. A catalog should be consulted for weights and covering
capacity.
=78. Estimating Millwork Quantities.=--The number of doors and
windows will be determined by an actual count.
Mouldings, casings, baseboard when moulded, window stools, etc., are
sold by the 100 feet lineal measure, random lengths. Extra charge is
made for specified lengths where the quantities are determined by scale
measurements of the plan and elevations. Window frames of stock sizes,
door frames, inside jambs, stair parts, buffets, etc., will be found
priced in millmen's catalogs, and assist greatly in determining prices
for ordinary work. This text cannot give space to list such data, which
is so readily obtained from commercial catalogs.
=79. Example of Form for Bill of Materials.=--
BILL
=========================================================================
Ticket | | | | | | Price
or |No. of|No. of|Size |Length|Description|--------++----------------
Catalog| Feet |Pieces| | | | Rate || Extensions
Number | | | | | | ||
-------+------+------+-----+------+-----------+----+---++---+----++------
| 270 | 30 |2 × 4| 14 |Y. P., SIS | | || | ||
| | | | | and IE | 22 | || 5 | 94 ||
| | 2 | M | |5-2" red | | || | ||
| | | | | cedar | | || | ||
| | | | | shingles | 3 | 55|| 7 | 10 ||
| 300 | 1 × 6| | |# 2 Y. P.--| | || | ||
| | | | | flooring | 20 | || 6 | 00 || 19 40
-------+------+------+-----+------+-----------+----+---++---+----++------
=80. Estimating Labor Costs.=[A]--In estimating labor costs
the following data is to be made use of. The estimator will have to
determine the hours per day and the scale of wages per hour paid in his
locality, and make whatever changes in the data is necessary. He should
also compare the quantity of work done by men he may observe with that
given herewith. The time data herewith is based upon the work of one
mechanic who has mastered his trade fairly well. With an efficient
foreman and a selected group of workmen these time allowances can be
reduced in many instances as much as one-half. Experience alone will
determine the possibilities of such reductions with safety.
[Footnote A: For a more complete treatise of labor costs, the student
is referred to Gillette's Handbook of Cost Data, Section X, the source,
in the main, of the basis of this data.]
COST OF PLACING FRAME AND COVERING
By One Man
HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT.
Sills and plates 6" × 8", no gains or mortises 20
Sills and plates 6" × 8", gains no mortises 40
Sills and plates 6" × 8", gains and mortises 60
Joists and box sills 20
Studding 2" × 4" 32
Studding 2" × 6" 23
Rafters 2" × 4", plain gable roof 40
Rafters 2" × 4", hip roof add 5% to 30% for each hip or valley.
Rafters 2" × 6", plain gable roof 27
Rafters 2" × 6", hip roof add 5% to 30% for each hip or valley.
Sheathing, square edged, horizontal, walls 16
Sheathing, square edged, diagonal, walls 19
Sheathing, 6" matched, walls 24
Sheathing, 6" matched, walls diagonal 32
Sheathing for floors, sub-floors, square edged 10
Sheathing for floors, sub-floors, square edged diagonal 12
Roof Sheathing, plain gable roof 13
Roof Sheathing, hip roof 20
COST OF PLACING FRAME AND COVERING (Continued)
HRS. PER 1000 LIN. FT.
Cornices 400 to 800
Water table, 3 member 220
Corner boards 73
Belt 195
HRS. PER M.
Shingling, plain roof, new work 3½
Shingling, hips and valleys, add 5% for each hip or valley.
Shingling, old work, add 20% for labor in removing old shingles.
Shingling side walls, plain 5½
Shingling side walls, fancy 8
HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT.
Siding, bevel, 6" 35
Siding, bevel, 4" 42
Siding, shiplap 27
Siding, drop, when window and door casings and corner boards are
placed over siding 120
Siding, drop, when jointed between casings and corner boards 32
Surfaced barn boards 11½
Ceiling, store 53
Wainscoting, cut, put up, finished with cap and ¼ round, in a
dwelling 46
COST OF PLACING FLOORS
By One Man
HRS. PER 1000 B.M. FT.
Floors, pine 35
Floors, yellow pine, 3¼" face, laid on sheathing, including paper
between, smoothing rough joints, business block 40
Floors, yellow pine, 3¾" face, laid direct on joist, no smoothing 26⅔
Floors, yellow pine, 3¼" face, smoothed and sanded 45
Floors, maple, 2¼" face, laid not smoothed 40
Floors, maple, 2¼" face, laid and smoothed 80
Floors, maple, 1½" face, laid and well smoothed 107
Floors, oak, fine floor, glued, smoothed, scraped, sand papered 320
COST OF BRIDGING AND FURRING
HRS. PER 1000 LIN. FT.
Bridging 65
Placing plaster grounds 20
COST OF PLACING BASEBOARDS
b HRS. PER 100 LIN. FT.
Baseboard, three member, hardwood, average number miters 10
Baseboard, two member, scribed to floor 16
Baseboard, plain, ¼ round at floor 8
Moulding, bed, flat, 3" 2½
COST OF PLACING DOORS, WINDOWS, BLINDS
HRS. ON EACH
Window, to put together when K. D. (knock-down) 1½
Window, making frame 3
Window, setting frame ¾
Window, setting frame in brickwork 1
Window, fitting and hanging sash per pair 1
Window, hanging blinds per pair, before frames are set ¾
Window, hanging blinds per pair, after frames are set 2
Window, casing inside 2
Window, ordinary pine in frame building, including setting of frame 5
Window, same but hardwood 6½
Window, ordinary pine in brick building, including setting of frame 6½
Window, same but hardwood 9
Window, attic and cellar 1¾
Door, making frame 2½
Door, making frame with transom 3½
Door, common hardwood, set jambs, case, hang and finish, including
transom 10
Door, common 1⅜" pine complete 4½
Door, common 1¾" pine complete 5½
Door, casing opening one side ¾
Door, casing opening both sides 1½
Door, fitting, hanging and trimming 1½
Door, fitting, hanging and trimming outside door, pine 2½
Door, fitting, hanging and trimming outside door, oak 4
Sliding doors, pine, (framing not included) to finish complete
with lining, jambs, casing and hardware, per pair 32
Sliding doors, same, but hardwood 48
Sliding doors for barn 12' × 18' 24
Transom, fixed 1
Transom, hung 1½
ESTIMATING
COST OF STAIR WORK
HRS. ON EACH
Box stair, cellar or attic 25
One flight plain stair, 7-room house, hand rail, balusters 40
One flight fine stair, 9-room house, handrail, paneled 100
PORCHES IN GENERAL
Hours per lineal foot 5
Balustrade hours per 1000 lineal feet 500
Lattice for porches, hours per 1000 square feet 16 to 200
LATH
Lath, hours per 1000 7
MISCELLANEOUS LABOR ITEMS
Paneling, pine, hours per 100 sq. ft. 50
Paneling, hardwood, hours per 100 sq. ft. 83
Drawers, dovetailed, hours, each 2½
Drawers, 15" × 18", including racks and fittings 2
Shelves, in storeroom, dadoed into compartments 18" square, hours
per 100 sq. ft. 62½
Shelves, pantry, no dado, hours per 100 sq. ft. shelf 37½
Closet hooks on strip of wood, 12" apart, hours per 100 lineal feet 15
Sideboard, oak, 8' × 8', hours 100
=81. Estimating Quantities of Nails.=--The following table will
enable one to estimate the quantity of nails required for the various
kinds of common carpentry. The table of length and number of nails
to the pound, Appendix III, may be made use of in determining nail
estimates for other kinds of work not here specified.
QUANTITIES OF NAILS
MATERIALS POUNDS SIZE KIND
Joists and sills per 1000 B.M. ft. 25 20d common.
Studding per 1000 B.M. ft. 15 10d common.
Rafters per 1000 B.M. ft. 15 10d common.
Sheathing, drop
siding, shiplap per 1000 B.M. ft. 20 8d common.
Cornice per 1000 lin. ft. 18 8d common.
Shingling per 1000 4 4d common.
Bevel siding per 1000 B.M. ft. 18 6d common.
Ceiling, wainscoting per 1000 B.M. ft. 20 6d common.
Floors, pine per 1000 B.M. ft. 30 8d common.
Floors, hardwood per 1000 B.M. ft. 30 6d common.
Baseboard per 1000 B.M. ft. 12 8d finish.
Window trim, one side ¾ 8d finish.
Door trim, one side ¾ 8d finish.
Lath per 1000 8 3d common, fine.
Lattice for porches per 1000 sq. ft. 20 3d common.
Balustrade per 1000 lin. ft. 18 6d casing.
=82. Example of Form for Carpentry Costs.=--The following form,
used by a practical carpenter, and published in the Correspondence
Department of _The American Carpenter and Builder_, should suggest
means whereby the data just given may be made more readily available
for estimating purposes.
It must be remembered in interpreting all such data that costs will
vary greatly with conditions. A carpenter, for illustration, who gives
his time and attention to general carpentry cannot lay shingles with
the speed a specialist in shingling can. Again, a carpenter cannot make
window and door frames by hand with the same speed that these can be
made by machinery in a mill. The prices given herewith are for work
done by a general carpentry mechanic. The estimator should test out
these figures to see how they compare with actual working conditions in
his community. The following table is made for "country" conditions,
the men working at 30c per hour, 9 hours a day.
MATERIALS IN PLACE AT 30c PER HOUR
===========================================================================
| Ft. per | Hrs. per | Cost of Labor | Nails
Various Materials | 9-hrs. | 1000 +-------+---------+----+----
| 2 Men | ft. | M Ft.| L or Sq.|Lbs.|Size
------------------------+----------+-----------+-------+---------+----+----
Joists and sills | 900 | 20 | $6.00 | | 25 | 20d
Studding placed | 600 | 30 | 9.00 | | 15 | 10d
Rafters | 450 | 40 | 12.00 | | 15 | 10d
Sheathing vertical | 750 | 24 | 7.20 | | 20 | 8d
Sheathing, diagonal | 562 | 32 | 9.60 | | 20 | 8d
Bevel siding | 514 | 35 | 10.50 | | 18 | 6d
Cornices | 45 | 400 | | .12 -L | 18 | 8d
Shingling new roofs | 4000 | 4½ | 1.35 | | 4 | 4d
Lathing for plaster | 2572 | 7 | 2.10 | | 8 | 3d
Lattice for porches | 1125 | 16 | 4.80 | | 20 | 3d
Balustrade for porches | 36 | 500 | | .15 -L | 18 | 6d
Base boards 8" pine | 216 | 83 | 24.90 | .02½ -L | 12 | 8d
Baseboards, 8" hardwood | 108 | 166 | 49.80 | .05 -L | |
Floors laid, pine | 514 | 35 | 10.50 | | 30 | 8d
Floors laid, hardwood. | 100 | 180 | 54.00 | .05½ -L | 30 | 6d
Floors cleaned, hardwood| 100 | 180 | 54.00 | .05½ -L | |
Wainscoting, pine | 54 | | | .10 -L | 20 | 6d
Paneling, pine | 36 | | | .15 -Sq| |
Paneling, hardwood | 22 | | | .25 -Sq| |
Porches and verandas | | | |1.50 -L | 18 | 8d
------------------------+----------+-----------+-------+---------+----+----
M = 1000 Ft. L = Lineal Sq = Square Feet.
Shingles are for new roofs; where hips and valleys are required add 5%
additional for each one; where old shingles and nails must be removed,
add again (20% to total) for this work.
The above rate is based on figures of 30c per hour. For other rates the
following will apply in addition: At 35c per hour add 17%; at 40c add
34%; at 45c add 51%; and at 50c per hour add
_Example:_
(_A_) Take 1,000 feet of hardwood floor to be cleaned at 50c per
hour = $54.00 + $36.72 = $90.72
Looking again we find it would take 180 hours at 50c per hour = $90.00
(_B_) Take 1,000 feet of joists to be placed at 50c per hour =
$6.00 + 14.08 = $10.08.
Looking for the hours we find it would take 20 at 50c, or $10.00.
=83. Total Building Costs by Percentages.=--Having carefully
estimated the costs of one or two of the large items in a building,
such as lumber or millwork or labor, the total cost of a building may
be approximated with a fair degree of accuracy by a general contractor
by means of the following table of percentages. Foundations or any
other parts of a building which may be unusual should be excluded
and figured separately in detail. In any event, before a building
is finally completed the contractor will have to settle with each
sub-contractor upon the basis of detailed cost estimates. Where time
is available, the contractor as a rule secures bids from the various
sub-contractors, such as the plumber, the lather, the mason, etc.,
combining these and adding his commission of 10% for oversight, and an
additional 10% for incidentals or contingencies.
COSTS BY PERCENTAGES
Frame Brick
Items Building Dwelling
Excavation, brick and cut stone 16% 36%
Plastering and materials, including lathing 8 6
Millwork including glass and glazing 21 20
Lumber 19 12
Carpentry labor 18 10
Hardware 3½ 3
Tinwork and galvanized iron 2½ 4½
Plumbing and gas fitting and materials 7 3
Painting and materials 5 5½
Heating (not included)
--------------
Total 100% 100%
_Example:_
A lumber bill for a given frame house is found to "figure" $500,
determine the approximate cost of the various sub-contracts, and
for the house as a whole.
_Solution:_
$500 = 19% of the total cost.
Total cost = $2632 (exclusive of heating).
Excavation, brick and cement work = 16% of $2632 = $421.12
Plastering = 8% of $2632 = 210.56
Millwork and glazing = 21% of $2632 = 552.72
Carpentry labor = 18% of $2632 = 473.76
Hardware = 3½% of $2632 = 92.12
Tinwork = 2½% of $2632 = 65.80
Plumbing = 7% of $2632 = 184.24
Painting = 5% of $2632 = 131.60
Lumber = 500.00
--------
$2631.92
To this must be added heating, electric wiring, electric and gas
fixtures, window shades, cement walks, sewerage, grading, decoration of
walls, architect's fee and contractor's commission.
For furnace heat, add 6 to 7% ; for steam, add 8 to 10% ; for hot
water, add 10 to 12% additional.
For electric wiring, add 1¼%. For fixtures, electric and gas, add 2 to
3%.
To this total add 10% for incidentals and contingencies; add 10% for
contractor's charge. Above this amount add 6% for architect's fee, to
get the cost to the owner.
Such a method of estimating should not be mistaken for anything but
fairly safe approximation where normal conditions exist.
APPENDIX I
[Illustration: Fig. 152.]
Natural Trigonometric Functions. Consider the angle _DAE_, Fig.
152. From any point on the line AD drop a line perpendicular to the
side _AE_ forming the right triangle ABC. Let _a_ represent
the value or length of the side _BC_; let _b_ represent the
value of the side _AC_; let _c_ represent the value of the
side _AB_. The ratio of the side _a_ to the side _c_
is called the sine of the angle _A_. More concisely stated,
_a/c_ = sin _A_. The sine of an angle is the ratio of its
opposite side to its hypotenuse, or opposite side over hypotenuse =
sine of angle _A_ = sin _A_. In a similar manner:
_b_ adjacent side
--- = --------------- = cosine of angle _A_ = cos _A_.
_c_ hypotenuse
_a_ opposite side
--- = --------------- = tangent of angle _A_ = tan _A_.
_b_ adjacent side
_b_ adjacent side
--- = ---------------- = cotangent of angle _A_ = cot _A_.
_a_ opposite side
_c_ hypotenuse
--- = ---------------- = secant of angle _A_ = sec _A_.
_b_ adjacent side
_c_ hypotenuse
--- = --------------- = cosecant of angle _A_ = csc _A_.
_a_ opposite side
These ratios are known as natural functions of the angle because their
values change with every change in the value of the angle.
The lengthening of the sides of the angle should not be mistaken for
a change in the value of the angle. Draw to scale very carefully any
angle and drop lines from any two points, as at _B_ and _B′_,
Fig. 152, which shall be perpendicular to the base line. Measure the
sides of the triangles so formed and express their ratios as functions
of the angle _A_. Comparing like functions of large and small
triangle it will be seen that once an angle is known in degrees, its
sine, cosine, etc., are determined irrespective of the length of sides.
And, vice versa, if we know the functional values or ratios of certain
sides of the right triangle formed about an angle, we have determined
the value of the angle in degrees. The Table of Natural Trigonometric
Functions, Appendix II, is nothing more than a compilation of these
various ratios carefully figured out and placed in the form of a table
to assist in the easy solution of problems having to do with the
finding of certain parts of a triangle when other parts are given.
With a protractor, measure the angle A of the triangle whose sides were
just measured, and compare the ratios of the sides or the functional
values with those given in the Table, Appendix III, for the same angle.
The larger the scale of the drawing, the greater the accuracy. By
making use of the hundredths scale of the framing square together with
a finely pointed pair of dividers, variation in values should not be
great.
=Solutions of Right Triangles.=--By the solution of right
triangles is meant the finding of unknown sides or angles when values
of other sides and angles are known.
_Example 1._--Given _A_ = 30 degrees, _c_ = 24;
Find _B, a, b_.
_Solution_--_B_ = 90-30 = 60 degrees. (The sum of the angles
of a triangle equals 180 degrees. _C_ = 90 degrees.)
(1) _a_/_c_ = sin _A_; whence, _a_ = _c_ sin _A_.
(_a_ = _c_ times sine _A_.)
(2) _b_/_c_ = cos _A_; whence _b_ = _c_ cos _A_.
From the Tables, Appendix II, sin of _A_, or 30 degrees, = .5.
Substituting numerical values in (1), _a_ = 12.
Again, from Tables, cos _A_, or 30 degrees, = .866. Substituting
numerical values in (2), _b_ = 20.784.
Arith. check _c²_ = _a²_ + _b²_; 24² = 12² + 20.78²; 576 = 144 + 431.8;
576 = 576.
Graphic check.=--The graphic check which, it will be seen, might
have been made use of as a graphic solution, consists in setting one
square upon another with the angle of direction and the length of
one side determined by the data given. That is, in this problem the
protractor is set at 30 degrees and a length of 24 units is taken on
the inclined square. The lengths of a and b are then carefully measured
by taking a reading of the full inches and reading, the remaining
fraction to hundredths by means of a sharp pair of dividers and the
hundredths scale of the square.
Very many carpenters make use of graphic solutions such as this in
determining rafter lengths. A little consideration, however, will show
that it is a rather risky method of procedure unless the scale is large
and the work scaled small. Graphs serve as easy checks against grave
errors upon all kinds of work.
_Example 2._--Given _A_ and _a_. To find _B_, _c_, and _b_.
_Solution_--_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_a_/_c_ = sin _A_; _c_ = _a_/sin _A_
_b_/_c_ = cos _A_; _b_ = _c_ cos _A_.
Substitute the numerical values and check as in _Example 1_.
_Example 3._--Given _A_ and _b_. To find _B_, _a_, and _c_.
_Solution_--_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_a_/_c_ = sin _A_; _a_ = _c_ × sin _A_.
_b_/_c_ = cos _A_; _c_ = _b_ / cos _A_
Substitute the numerical values and check as in Example i.
_Example 4._--Given _a_ and _c_. To find _A_, _B_, and _b_.
_Solution_--sin _A_ = _a_ / _c_ (That is, look in the tables, Appendix II, for the angle
which has a sine equal to the result obtained by dividing the numerical
value of the side _a_ by the value of the side _c_.)
_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_b_/_c_ = cos _A_; _b_ = _c_ cos _A_.
Substitute numerical values and check as in Example i.
_Example 5._--Given _a_ and _b_. To find _A_, _B_. and _c_.
_Solution_--tan _A_ = _a_ / _b_
_B_ = 90 degrees _A_.
_a_/_c_ = sin _A_; _c_ = _a_ / sin _A_
Substitute numerical values and check as in Example 1.
APPENDIX II
Directions. An examination of the table of natural functions will
indicate in the column at the left, angles of degrees to and including
45 degrees, reading down. The column to the extreme right will be found
to contain degrees from 45-90 inclusive, reading up.
This compact arrangement of table is made possible thru the fact that
sines and cosines, tangents and cotangents are reciprocals one of the
other. That is, as the sine (column 2, reading down) increases in
value, the cosine of the complementary angle (columns 6 and 2, reading
up) decreases.
_Example 1._--Find the value of the sine of 40 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 1 and 2, reading down, sin 40 degrees = .6428.
_Example 2._--Find the value of sin 50 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 6 and 5, reading up, sin 50 degrees = .7660.
_Example 3._--Find the value of cos 40 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 1 and 5, reading down, cos 40 degrees = .7660
which is as might have been expected. Since 40 degrees is the
complement of 50 degrees, the cos 40 degrees should be the same in
value as the sin 50 degrees.
_Example 4._--Find the value of cos 87 degrees.
_Solution_--Columns 6 and 2 reading up, cos 87 degrees = .0523
_Example 5._--Tangent and cotangent values. Proceed as with sines
using columns 1 and 3, reading down, for tangent values between 0-45
degrees inclusive, columns 6 and 4, reading up, for values between
45-90 degrees.
For cotangent values between 0-45 degrees use columns 1 and 4 reading
down, and columns 6 and 3 reading up for cotangent values between
45-90 degrees inclusive.
TABLE OF NATURAL SINES, TANGENTS, COSINES, AND COTANGENTS
============================================================
Degrees | Sine | Tangent | Cotangent| Cosine |
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
0 | 0 | 0 | ∞ | 1 | 90
1 | .0175 | .0175 | 57.2900 | .9998 | 89
2 | .0349 | .0349 | 28.6363 | .9994 | 88
3 | .0523 | .0524 | 19.0811 | .9986 | 87
4 | .0698 | .0699 | 14.3007 | .9976 | 86
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
5 | .0872 | .0875 | 11.4301 | .9962 | 85
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
6 | .1045 | .1051 | 9.5144 | .9945 | 84
7 | .1219 | .1228 | 8.1443 | .9925 | 83
8 | .1392 | .1405 | 7.1154 | .9903 | 82
9 | .1564 | .1584 | 6.3138 | .9877 | 81
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
10 | .1736 | .1763 | 5.6713 | .9848 | 80
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
11 | .1908 | .1944 | 5.1446 | .9816 | 79
12 | .2079 | .2126 | 4.7046 | .9781 | 78
13 | .2250 | .2309 | 4.3315 | .9744 | 77
14 | .2419 | .2493 | 4.0108 | .9703 | 76
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
15 | .2588 | .2679 | 3.7321 | .9659 | 75
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
16 | .2756 | .2867 | 3.4874 | .9613 | 74
17 | .2924 | .3057 | 3.2709 | .9563 | 73
18 | .3090 | .3249 | 3.0777 | .9511 | 72
19 | .3256 | .3443 | 2.9042 | .9455 | 71
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
20 | .3420 | .3640 | 2.7475 | .9397 | 70
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
21 | .3584 | .3839 | 2.6051 | .9336 | 69
22 | .3746 | .4040 | 2.4751 | .9272 | 68
23 | .3907 | .4245 | 2.3559 | .9205 | 67
24 | .4067 | .4452 | 2.2460 | .9135 | 66
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
25 | .4226 | .4663 | 2.1445 | .9063 | 65
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
26 | .4384 | .4877 | 2.0503 | .8988 | 64
27 | .4540 | .5095 | 1.9626 | .8910 | 63
28 | .4695 | .5317 | 1.8807 | .8829 | 62
29 | .4848 | .5543 | 1.8040 | .8746 | 61
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
30 | .5000 | .5774 | 1.7321 | .8660 | 60
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
31 | .5150 | .6009 | 1.6643 | .8572 | 59
32 | .5299 | .6249 | 1.6003 | .8480 | 58
33 | .5446 | .6494 | 1.5399 | .8387 | 57
34 | .5592 | .6745 | 1.4826 | .8290 | 56
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
35 | .5736 | .7002 | 1.4281 | .8192 | 55
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
36 | .5878 | .7265 | 1.3764 | .8090 | 54
37 | .6018 | .7536 | 1.3270 | .7986 | 53
38 | .6157 | .7813 | 1.2799 | .7880 | 52
39 | .6293 | .8098 | 1.2349 | .7771 | 51
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
40 | .6428 | .8391 | 1.1918 | .7660 | 50
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
41 | .6561 | .8693 | 1.1504 | .7547 | 49
42 | .6691 | .9004 | 1.1106 | .7431 | 48
43 | .6820 | .9325 | 1.0724 | .7314 | 47
44 | .6947 | .9657 | 1.0355 | .7193 | 46
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
45 | .7071 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | .7071 | 45
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
| Cosine |Cotangent| Tangent | Sine |Degrees
----------+---------+---------+----------+----------+-------
TO FIND THE VALUE OF AN ANGLE, THE VALUE OF A FUNCTION BEING KNOWN
_Example 6._--sin = .5150, find the angle.
_Solution_--Looking in columns 2 and 5 (sine values from
0-90 degrees) Ans. 31 degrees (Columns 2 and 1).
_Example 7._--cot = 1.3764, find the angle.
_Solution_--Looking in columns 3 and 4, Ans. = 36 degrees.
=Interpolation.=--Frequently one must find a functional value for
fractional degrees, or degrees and minutes. Also, it becomes necessary
to find the value of an angle with greater accuracy than even degrees,
as given in the table herewith. This process of finding more accurate
values is known as interpolation.
TO FIND THE VALUE OF A FUNCTION WHEN THE ANGLE IS IN FRACTIONAL DEGREES
_Example 8._--Find the value of tan 50 degrees 20 min.
_Solution._--tan 50 degrees = 1.1918
tan 51 degrees = 1.2349
difference for an interval of 1 degree = .0431
20 min. = 20/60 = 1/3 of 1 degree; ⅓ of .0431 = .0144
tan 50 degrees 20 min. = 1.1918 + .0144 = 1.2062.
The value of a fractional degree would be similarly treated for the
sine, these functions increasing as the value of the angle increases.
The cosine and cotangent, however, decrease in value as the angle
increases. For this reason the fractional value of the cosine and
cotangent must be subtracted from, instead of added to, the value of
the function of the next lower number of degrees.
_Example 9._ Find the value of cos 26 deg. 30 min.
_Solution_--cos 26 deg. = .8988
cos 27 deg. = .8910
difference for interval of 1 deg. = .0078
30 min. = ½ of 1 deg.; ½ of .0078 = .0039
cos. 26 deg. 30 min. = .8988 - .0039 = .8949.
TO FIND THE VALUE OF AN ANGLE WHEN THE FUNCTIONAL VALUE CANNOT BE FOUND
IN EXACT FORM IN THE TABLE
_Example 10._--Find the angle whose tan is .5
_Solution_--From the table, .4877 = tan 26 deg.
.5095 = tan 27 deg.
difference for interval of 1 deg. = .0218
.5000 = tan angle X.
.4877 = tan 26 deg.
difference for interval between tan angle X and tan 26 deg. = .0123
123/218 of 1 deg. or 60 min. = 34 min.
Therefore, angle whose tangent = .5 = 26 deg. 34'.
Rule: (1) Search the body of the table for the functional values next
above and next below that given. (2) Find the difference between these
functional values. This difference is for an interval of 1 degree or
60 minutes. (3) Find the difference between the given functional value
and that of the lower angle of the two used above. (4) Express this
last difference as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is
the first difference found, or the difference for the interval of 1
degree. This gives the fractional part of 1 degree or 60 minutes which
the second difference is. (5) Express this difference in minutes and
add if the function be a sine or tangent, and substract if a cosine
or cotangent to the number of degrees representing the angle whose
function was the lower of the two functions found given in the table.
APPENDIX III
USEFUL TABLES
FRACTIONAL EQUIVALENTS FOR DECIMAL VALUES
================================================================
.0156 | 1/64 || .2656 | 17/64 || .5156 | 33/64 || .7656 | 49/64
.0312 | 1/32 || .5312 | 9/32 || .2812 | 17/32 || .7812 | 25/32
.0468 | 3/64 || .2968 | 19/64 || .5468 | 35/64 || .7968 | 51/64
.0625 | 1/64 || .3125 | 5/16 || .5625 | 9/16 || .8125 | 13/16
.0781 | 5/64 || .3281 | 21/64 || .5781 | 37/64 || .8281 | 53/64
.0937 | 3/32 || .3437 | 11/32 || .5937 | 19/32 || .8437 | 27/32
.1093 | 7/64 || .3593 | 23/64 || .6093 | 39/64 || .8593 | 55/64
.125 | 1/8 || .375 | 3/8 || .625 | 5/8 || .875 | 7/8
.1406 | 9/64 || .3906 | 25/64 || .6406 | 41/64 || .8906 | 57/64
.1562 | 5/32 || .4062 | 13/32 || .6562 | 21/32 || .9062 | 29/32
.1718 | 11/64 || .4218 | 27/64 || .6718 | 43/64 || .9218 | 59/64
.1875 | 3/16 || .4375 | 7/16 || .6875 | 11/16 || .9375 | 15/16
.2031 | 13/64 || .4531 | 29/64 || .7031 | 45/64 || .9531 | 61/64
.2187 | 7/32 || .4687 | 15/32 || .7187 | 23/32 || .9687 | 31/32
.2343 | 15/64 || .4843 | 31/64 || .7343 | 47/64 || .9843 | 63/64
.250 | 1/4 || .500 | 1/2 || .750 | 3/4 || 1.000 | 1
================================================================
Where rafter lengths are determined by multiplying unit lengths by
the run, the answer will almost invariably result in a decimal. Such
decimal values may be readily translated into fractional forms by means
of the accompanying table.
Example: A roof of ⅓ pitch has a common rafter run of 14';
find the length of common rafter.
Answer: 14 × 14.42" = 201.88" or 16.82'. By the table, .82 = 53/64.
A carpenter, however, would not care for such accuracy; the
nearest 1/16" or even ⅛" would be sufficient.
WOOD AND MACHINE SCREW SIZES
The difference between consecutive sizes is .01316".
===================================================================
No. of | Size of || No. of | Size of || No. of | Size of
Screw | Number in || Screw | Number in || Screw | Number in
Gage | Decimals || Gage | Decimals || Gage | Decimals
--------+------------++--------+------------++--------+------------
000 | .03152 || 16 | .26840 || 34 | .50528
00 | .04486 || 17 | .28156 || 35 | .51844
0 | .05784 || 18 | .29472 || 36 | .53160
1 | .07100 || 19 | .30788 || 37 | .54476
2 | .08416 || 20 | .32104 || 38 | .55792
3 | .09732 || 21 | .33420 || 39 | .57108
4 | .11048 || 22 | .34736 || 40 | .58424
5 | .12364 || 23 | .36052 || 41 | .59740
6 | .13680 || 24 | .37368 || 42 | .61056
7 | .14996 || 25 | .38864 || 43 | .62372
8 | .16312 || 26 | .40000 || 44 | .63688
9 | .17628 || 27 | .41316 || 45 | .65004
10 | .18944 || 28 | .42632 || 46 | .66320
11 | .20260 || 29 | .43948 || 47 | .67636
12 | .21576 || 30 | .45264 || 48 | .68952
13 | .22892 || 31 | .46580 || 49 | .70268
14 | .24208 || 32 | .47896 || 50 | .71584
15 | .25524 || 33 | .49212 || |
--------+------------++--------+------------++--------+------------
Frequently the carpenter wishes to know the diameter of hole necessary
to receive the shank of a screw of a certain gage. Should a screw gage
be accessible, he may readily determine this. Should no gage be at
hand, he may determine the size of hole by consulting the accompanying
table of Wood and Machine Screw Sizes.
Example: What size bit must be selected to bore a hole for a
No. 10 screw. By the table, a No. 10 screw is .18944" in diameter.
By the table of Fractional Equivalents for Decimal Values it will
be seen that a 3/16" bit must be used. The test for gage of screw is
always made over the shank just below the head.
LENGTH AND NUMBER OF WIRE NAILS TO THE POUND
================================================================
Size |LENGTH|COMMON|CASING|FINISH|CLINCH|FENCE | FINE | GAL.
| INS. | | | | | | | SHINGLE
-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+---------
¾ | ¾ | | | | | | |
⅞ | ⅞ | | | | | | |
2d | 1 | 900 | | | | | 1440 |
3d | 1¼ | 615 | | | | | 810 | 568
4d | 1½ | 322 | 473 | 584 | | | 250 |
5d | 1¾ | 254 | | | | | |
6d | 2 | 200 | 180 | 300 | 157 | 114 | |
7d | 2¼ | 154 | | | | | |
8d | 2½ | 106 | 112 | 190 | 99 | 74 | |
9d | 2¾ | 85 | | | | | |
10d | 3 | 74 | 90 | 134 | 69 | 42 | |
12d | 3¼ | 57 | | | | | |
16d | 3½ | 46 | .| | | | |
20d | 4 | 29 | | | | | |
30d | 4½ | 23 | | | | | |
40d | 5 | 17 | | | | | |
50d | 5½ | 14 | | | | | |
60d | 6 | 11 | | | | | |
-----+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------
Nails are sold in quantity by the keg, 100 lbs. of nails, exclusive
of the keg. Twenty, 30, 40, 50 and 60d are "base." Other sizes have
certain fixed additions per keg to this base price. For example, the
price list adopted by manufacturers in 1896 allows an addition per keg
of $.70 for 2d common, $.45 for 3d common, etc.
Wire nails are also bought and sold by weight, the size of wire
according to the standard wire gage and the length in inches being
taken into consideration in specifying the size and in fixing the price
per pound.
Common wire nails are thick and have large flat heads. They are used
in rough work where strength is desired. Finishing nails are used for
fine work such as inside woodwork and cabinet work. Casing nails are
somewhat thicker and stronger than finishing nails; they have smaller
heads.
WIRE BRADS
====================================================================
Size, inches | ½ | ½ | ⅝ | ¾ | ¾ | ¾ | ⅞ | ⅞ | 1
Wire Gage, nos | 20 | 18 | 19 | 19 | 18 | 16 | 18 | 17 | 18
Approx no brads to lb. |7500|7200|4267|3556|2758|2600|2364|1781|2069
-----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
Size, inches | 1 | 1 | 1¼ | 1¼ | 1½ | 1½ | 1½ | 1¾ | 1¾
Wire Gage, nos | 17 | 16 | 17 | 16 | 16 | 15 | 14 | 15 | 14
Approx no brads to lb. |1558|1143|1246| 913| 761| 584| 500| 500| 406
-----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
Size, inches | 2 | 2 | 2½ | 2½ | 3 | 3 | 3 | |
Wire Gage, nos | 14 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 14 | 12 | 11 | |
Approx no brads to lb. | 350| 268| 214| 164| 150| 137| 105| |
-----------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----
BOARD MEASURE TABLE
==================================================================================
|
Size | Length, in Feet, of Joist, Scantling and Timber
in +----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----
Inches| 12 | 14 | 16 | 18 | 20 | 22 | 24 | 26 | 28 | 30 | 32 | 34 | 36 | 38 | 40
-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----
2 × 4| 8| 9| 11| 12| 13| 15| 16| 17| 19| 20| 21| 23| 24| 25| 27
2 × 6| 12| 14| 16| 18| 20| 22| 24| 26| 28| 30| 32| 34| 36| 38| 40
2 × 8| 16| 19| 21| 24| 27| 29| 32| 35| 37| 40| 43| 45| 48| 51| 53
2 × 10| 20| 23| 27| 30| 33| 37| 40| 43| 47| 50| 53| 57| 60| 63| 67
2 × 12| 24| 28| 32| 36| 40| 44| 48| 52| 56| 60| 64| 68| 72| 76| 80
2 × 14| 28| 33| 37| 42| 47| 51| 56| 61| 65| 70| 75| 79| 84| 89| 93
3 × 6| 18| 21| 24| 27| 30| 33| 36| 39| 42| 45| 48| 51| 54| 57| 60
3 × 8| 24| 28| 32| 36| 40| 44| 48| 52| 56| 60| 64| 68| 72| 76| 80
3 × 10| 30| 35| 40| 45| 50| 55| 60| 65| 70| 75| 80| 85| 90| 95| 100
3 × 12| 36| 42| 48| 54| 60| 66| 72| 78| 84| 90| 96| 102| 108| 114| 120
3 × 14| 42| 49| 56| 63| 70| 77| 84| 91| 98| 105| 112| 119| 126| 133| 140
4 × 4| 16| 19| 21| 24| 27| 29| 32| 35| 37| 40| 43| 45| 48| 51| 53
4 × 6| 24| 28| 32| 36| 40| 44| 48| 52| 56| 60| 64| 68| 72| 76| 80
6 × 6| 36| 42| 48| 54| 60| 66| 72| 78| 84| 90| 96| 102| 108| 114| 120
6 × 8| 48| 56| 64| 72| 80| 88| 96| 104| 112| 120| 128| 136| 144| 152| 160
8 × 8| 64| 75| 85| 96| 107| 117| 128| 139| 149| 160| 171| 181| 192| 203| 213
8 × 10| 80| 93| 107| 120| 133| 147| 160| 173| 187| 200| 213| 227| 240| 253| 267
10 × 10| 100| 117| 133| 150| 167| 183| 200| 217| 233| 250| 267| 283| 300| 317| 333
10 × 12| 120| 140| 160| 180| 200| 220| 240| 260| 280| 300| 320| 340| 360| 380| 400
12 × 12| 144| 168| 192| 216| 240| 264| 288| 312| 336| 360| 384| 408| 432| 456| 480
12 × 14| 163| 196| 224| 252| 280| 308| 336| 364| 392| 420| 448| 476| 504| 532| 560
14 × 14| 196| 229| 261| 294| 327| 359| 392| 425| 457| 490| 523| 555| 588| 621| 653
-------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
YELLOW PINE POSTS
Load in Tons
Length
in ft. Size in inches
4 × 4 5 × 5 6 × 6 7 × 7 8 × 8 9 × 9
8 4 5 6 7 8 9
10 3 4 5 6 7 8
12 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 1 2 3 4 5 6
16 1 2 3 4 5
18 1 2 3 4
HARD PINE BEAMS AND GIRDERS
Load in Tons
Length
in ft. Size in inches
2 × 6 3 × 6 4 × 6 6 × 6 8 × 8
6 1 1½ 2 3 5½
8 ¾ 1 1½ 2½ 5
10 ¾ 1¼ 2 4½
12 ½ 1 1½ 3
14 ½ 1 2½
16 ½ 2
18 1
STEEL I BEAMS
Load in Tons
Length Size in inches
in ft.
6 8 12
10 7 14 18
12 6 12 16
14 5 10 14
16 4 8 12
18 2 6 10
20 4 8
22 2 6
24 4
BRICK PIERS
Load in Tons
Height Size in inches
in ft.
6 × 6 6 × 8 8 × 8 8 × 12 12 × 12 12 × 16 16 × 16
6 2 3 4 5 6 7 9
8 1½ 2½ 3½ 4¾ 5½ 6 8
10 1 2 3 5 5½ 6 7
STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBERS
WORKING UNIT STRESSES USED IN DRY LOCATIONS
Bending Compression
Stress in Horizontal Parallel to Perpen-
extreme shear grain "Short dicular
Species of fibre stress Columns" to grain
Timber Lbs. sq.in. Lbs. sq.in. Lbs. sq.in. Lbs. sq.in.
*Fir, Douglas
Dense grade 1,600 100 1,200 350
Sound grade 1,300 85 900 300
Hemlock, eastern 1,000 70 700 300
Hemlock, western 1,300 75 900 300
Oak 1,400 125 900 400
Pine, eastern white 900 80 700 250
Pine, Norway 1,100 85 800 300
*Pine, southern yellow
Dense grade 1,600 125 1,209 350
Sound grade 1,300 85 900 300
Spruce 900 70 600 200
Tamarack 1,200 95 900 350
* NOTE: The safe working stresses given in this table are for
timbers with defects limited according to the sections on defects
in the rules of the Southern Pine Association for Select Structural
Material. "Dense" southern yellow pine and "dense" Douglas fir
should also conform to the other requirements of this rule. "Sound"
southern yellow pine and "sound" Douglas fir require no additional
qualifications, whereas the other species should, in addition to
being graded for defects, have all pieces of exceptionally low
density for the species excluded.
This table gives working unit stresses for structural timbers
used in dry locations, and is compiled in the main from material
furnished by the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis.
TABLE OF BRICK WALL CONTENTS IN NUMBER OF BRICKS
Seven Bricks to Each Sq. Ft. of Wall Surface
No. of
sq ft. Thickness
of wall
4" 8" 12" 16" 20" 24"
1 7 15 23 30 38 45
2 15 30 45 60 75 90
3 23 45 68 90 113 135
4 30 60 90 120 150 180
5 38 75 113 150 188 225
6 45 90 135 180 225 270
7 53 105 158 210 263 315
8 60 120 180 240 300 360
9 68 135 203 270 338 405
10 75 150 225 300 375 450
20 150 300 450 600 750 900
30 225 450 675 900 1,125 1,350
40 300 600 900 1,200 1,500 1,800
50 375 750 1,125 1,500 1,875 2,250
60 450 900 1,350 1,800 2,250 2,700
70 525 1,050 1,575 2,100 2,625 3,150
80 600 1,200 1,800 2,400 3,000 3,600
90 675 1,350 2,025 2,700 3,375 4,050
100 750 1,500 2,250 3,000 3,750 4,500
_Example_--Determine the number of bricks in a wall 12" × 18' × 60'.
_Solution_--The wall contains a surface area of 1,080 sq. ft. By
the table 100 sq. ft. contains 2,250 bricks, then 1,000 sq. ft. will
contain 22,500 bricks. 80 sq. ft. will contain, by the table, 1,800
bricks, making a total of 24,300 bricks.
APPENDIX IV
(Short Cuts to Roof Framing)
Griffith's Framing Tables For the Square and Octagonal Roof
=Directions for Using Table for the Steel Square.=--Fig. 70-a.
Example.--Given a square hipped roof, that is, a roof with
square corners, having a span of 25 ft. and a pitch of ½.
1. _To Lay Out Miter Cut of Plate._--Take 12" on tongue of framing
square and 12" on blade; scribe along blade. (Cf. small table, Fig.
70-a.)
2. _Length of Ridge._--Length of long plate diminished by length
of short plate, increased by thickness of ridge piece plus diagonal
thickness of hip.
3. _To Lay Out Common Rafter._--
a. Plumb cut. (Cf. column 5, beginning at left, Fig. 70-a.) Take
12" on tongue of square and 12" on blade (column 2), scribe
along blade.
b. Length of common rafter. (Cf. column 11) 12½ (run of common
rafter) x 16.97" (length of common rafter per foot of run) = 17'
8.12" = 17' 8⅛ (.12" = ⅛", columns 3 and 4).
c. Seat cut. (Cf. column 8) Take 12" on tongue and 12" on blade;
scribe along tongue.
d. Tail for common rafter.
(1) Length determined as was that of common rafter, the horizontal
projection or length of look- out becoming multiplier. 173
(2) End cut use same numbers as for plumb cut but invert position of
square.
e. Reduction for ridge. Measure straight back from plumb cut a
distance equal to 3/ the thickness of ridge piece.
4. _To Lay Out Hip or Valley Rafter.-_-
a. Plumb cut. (Cf. column 6) Take 17" on the tongue and 12" on the
blade; scribe along the blade.
b. Side cut. (Cf. column 16) Take 17" on the tongue and 20.78" or
20-13/16" (columns 3 and 4) on the blade; scribe along the blade.
This also gives the miter cut at the end of the tail of the hip for
fascia, and also the miter cut at the bird's mouth joint of
valley rafter, where it must be cut out to fit the angle of the
plate.
c. Length of hip or valley rafter. (Cf. column 12) 12½ (run of
common rafter) x 20.78" (length of hip or valley rafter per foot
of run of common rafter) = 21' 7.75" = 21' 7¾" (.75 = ¾, columns
3 and 4.)
d. Seat cut. (Cf. column 9) Take 17" on tongue and 12" on the
blade, scribe along the tongue.
e. Tail for hip or valley rafter.
(1) Length determined as was that of hip or valley rafter, the
horizontal projection of tail or length of the lookout of common
rafter becoming the multiplier.
(2) End cut use same numbers as for plumb cut of hip or valley but
invert square.
f. Reduction for ridge. Measure straight back from plumb cut ½
diagonal thickness of ridge.
g. Backing of hip. (Cf. column 21) Take 12" (rise of common rafter)
on the tongue and 20-13/16" on the blade scribe along the tongue
for angle of backing.
h. Drop of hip when no backing is given. (Cf. column 23) Reduce at
seat cut 9/16", measured at right angles to seat cut.
5. _To Lay Out Jacks._--
a. Plumb cut. Same as that for the common rafter!
b. Side cut. (Cf. column 14) Take 12" on the tongue and 16.97" or
17" on blade (.97" = 1", columns 3 and 4), scribe on the blade.
Scribing along the tongue will give the face cut of roof boards, also
of plancher.
c. Length. Jacks set 24" centers, beginning with shortest jack =2'
10" (column 19). Second shortest jack = length of shortest
increased 2' 10", etc.
Beginning with longest jack = length of common rafter diminished by
2' 10", etc.
d. Tail for jack. Same as for common rafter.
6. _Note._--
All rafter lengths are measured down the middle of the top edges
theoretically. On the square cornered roof, measurements of hip
or valley rafters may be made from the long point without further
reduction in length providing a 2" thick ridge is used. Jacks
need no further reduction in length on a square cornered building
provided the hips or valleys are of the same thickness as the jacks
and the measurements are made from the long points of the jacks.
Otherwise suitable reductions must be made for rafter and ridge
thicknesses.
=Directions for Using Table for Protractor.=--Fig. 70-b.
Example.--Given to frame an octagonal silo with a span of 21'
and a roof pitch of 11" to the foot.
1. _To Lay Out Miter Cut of Plate._--(Cf. small table Fig. 70-b.)
Eight sided polygon, plate miter = 67½ degrees. Set a T-bevel by means
of a protractor[B] to this angle.
[Footnote B: Starrett's "Framing Tool" is strongly recommended for
framing in degrees, Cf. Figs. 81 and 82.]
2. _To Find Length of a Side for Plate._--(Cf. small table, Fig.
70-b.) 21' (2 x run) x .414 (cotangent of octagon) = 8.69' = 8%' (.69 =
%, columns 3 and 4.)
3. _To Lay Out Common Rafter._--
a. Plumb cut.--(Cf. column 5) = 47 deg. 30 min. Set
T-bevel by means of protractor to same.
b. Length.--(Cf. column 11). Take 10½ (run) × 16.28"
(length of common rafter per foot of run) = 14' 2.94" =
14' 3". (.94 = 1, columns 3 and 4.)
c. Seat cut.--(Cf. column 8) 42 deg. 30 min. Set T-bevel
by means of protractor.
d. Tail.--
(1) Length Determined as is length of common
rafter (Cf. column 11), horizontal projection of
tail or length of lookout becoming the multiplier.
(2) End cut. Use same number of degrees as for
plumb cut.
4. _To Lay Out Hip or Valley Rafter._--
a. Plumb cut.--(Cf. column 7) = 49 deg. 50 min.
b. Side cut.--(Cf. column 17) = 17 deg. 40 min. This
also gives miter cut at end of hip tail for fascia, and
also the miter cut of the bird's mouth joint of valley
rafter, where it must be cut out to fit the angle of
the plate.
c. Length of hip or valley rafter.--(Cf. column 13) 10½
(run of common rafter) × 17.03" (length of octagon
hip or valley per foot of run of common rafter) = 14'
10.82" = 14' 10⅞" (.82 = ⅞, columns 3 and 4).
d. Seat cut.--(Cf. column 10) = 40 deg. 10 min. Use
protractor and T-bevel.
e. Tail for hip or valley rafter.--
(1) Length. Determined as for hip or valley, horizontal
projection of tail or length of lookout of
common rafter becoming multiplier.
(2) End cut. Use same number of degrees as for
plumb cut of hip or valley.
f. Backing of hip.--(Cf. column 22) = 74 deg. 50 min.
g. Drop of hip when no backing is used.--(Cf. column 24)
= 5/16".
5. To Lay Out Jacks.--
a. Plumb cut.--Same as for common rafter.
b. Side cut.--(Cf. column 15) = 17 deg.
c. Length.--(Cf. column 20) = 12/5 that for square roof
of same pitch. When set 16" centers = 12/5 × 21¾" =
52¼", common difference. Proceed accordingly.
d. Tail for jack.--Same as for common rafter.
APPENDIX V
MISCELLANEOUS ESTIMATING
Excavations. Excavations are estimated in terms of the cubic yard, 27
cubic feet. The price per yard will vary according to the nature of the
soil.
Where ground is not level, the plot should be divided into squares,
each square being figured as to its cubical contents and the various
amounts combined.
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER CUBIC YARD
Spading or picking labor, ¾ hour at ...............
Throwing out labor, ¾ hour at .....................
Wheeling 50 feet, ⅜ hour at .......................
--------
Cost per yard $
=Concrete.=--Concrete is estimated in terms of the cubic yard. The
price will vary somewhat according to the mixture and the amount of
form work required. Mixtures are designated as "rich"--1 part cement,
2 parts sand, 4 parts crushed rock, by volume; "medium"--1:2½:5;
"ordinary"--1:3:6, and "lean,"--1:4:8. The rich mixture is used for
cellar floors on high grade work. Cisterns and tanks make use of a
special mixture of 1:2:3, the stone or gravel being passed thru a %"
screen. Cement topping for cellar floors is a mortar composed of 1 part
cement and 2 parts sharp sand. Sometimes a 1:1 mixture is used. Cellar
floors and sidewalks are often priced by the foot surface measure,
standard specifications for depth and construction being understood.
TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITIES FOR CONCRETE
(Proportion of materials in one cubic foot of concrete.)
MIXTURE
Rich (1:2:4) Medium (1:2½:5) Ordinary (1:3:6)
Cement 0.058 bbl. 0.048 bbl. 0.041 bbl.
Sand 0.0163 cu. yd. 0.0170 cu. yd. 0.0174 cu. yd.
Stone or gravel: 0.0326 cu. yd. 0.0341 cu. yd. 0.0348 cu. yd.
_Example_ Estimate quantities of various materials needed for a
wall 10" × 7' × 48', using a 1:2½:5 mixture.
_Solution_--(10 × 7 × 48) / 12 = 280 cu. ft.
Cement = 280 × 0.048 bbl. = 13.44 bbl.
Sand = 280 × 0. 017 cu. yd. = 4.76 cu. yd.
Stone = 280 × 0.0341 cu. yd. = 9.548 cu. yd.
Knowing the cost of cement per bbl. and of sand and stone per cu. yd.,
the cost of materials for the wall may be easily determined.
TABLE FOR ESTIMATING QUANTITIES FOR CEMENT MORTAR
(Proportion of materials in one cubic foot of cement mortar)
MIXTURE
1:1½ 1:2 1:2½
Cement 0.1481 bbl. 0.1239 bbl. 0.1052 bbl.
Sand 0.0311 cu. yd. 0.0344 cu. yd. 0.0370 cu. yd.
_Example_ Estimate quantities of material for 1:2 cement mortar
for topping of cellar floor 1" × 24' × 40'.
_Solution_--(24 × 40) = 80 cu. ft.
Cement = 80 × 0.1239 bbl. = 9.912 bbl.
Sand = 80 × 0.0344 cu. yd. = 2. 752 cu. yd.
ANALYSIS OF LABOR COST FACTORS PER CUBIC YARD
1 mason, 2 hours @ .......................
2 laborers, 2 hours each @ ...............
-------
Total $
Where forms are required add
1 carpenter, 2¼ hours @ ...................
Cellar floor construction costs approximately the same as wall work
having forms. The expense of form work in ordinary basement wall
construction is offset by labor and additional cement cost of topping
of cellar floor.
=Brickwork.=--The unit of measurement in brickwork is the 1000
bricks, ordinarily.
To determine the number of bricks in a wall, multiply each square foot
of surface by 7 (sometimes 7½ is used) which is the average number of
bricks per foot of wall when 4" thick. Add 5% for breakage. Deduct
for openings over 2' square. For walls thicker than 4", make suitable
allowance.
A mason can lay 800 to 1000 common and 300 to 400 face bricks in a day.
Bricks may be laid in lime mortar or in cement mortar.
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER 1000 BRICKS, LIME MORTAR 1:3
Brick, 1000 @ ............................
Lime, 3 bu. @ ............................
Sand, ½ cu. yd. @ ........................
Mason, 10 hrs. @ .........................
Tender, 10 hrs. @ ........................
-------
Total $
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER 1000 BRICKS, CEMENT MORTAR 1:3
Brick, 1000 @ ............................
Portland cement, 1¼ bbl. @................
Sand ½ cu. yd. @ .........................
Mason, 10 hrs. @ .........................
Tender, 10 hrs. @ ........................
-------
Total $
=Chimneys.=--One foot of chimney height will contain five courses
of ordinary bricks.
CHIMNEYS
No. Size of Size of No. Bricks
Flues Flue Chimney per Ft.
1 8" × 8" 16" × 16" 30
2 8" × 8" 16" × 28" 50
3 8" × 8" 16" × 40" 70
1 12" × 12" 20" × 20" 40
=Slate Roof.=--Exposure of each slate will equal the length of
a slate diminished by 3" (the usual amount of lap) divided by 2,
multiplied by the width of the slate.
To determine the number of slates required, divide the area to be
covered by the exposure of each slate as determined just above.
_Example_--Determine the number of 6" × 12" slates required to
cover a surface 16' × 20'.
_Solution_--( (12" - 3") / 2) × 6" = 27 sq. in.
(16 × 20 × 144") / 27" = 1707 slates.
TABLE OF SLATES PER SQUARE OF 100 FEET
Size Length of Expos. No. Req. Nails Req.
6" × 12" 4½" 533 3.8 lbs.
7" × 14" 5½" 377 2.66
8" × 16" 6½" 277 2
9" × 18" 7½" 214 1.5
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE. (100 SQ. FT.)
Slate, @ .............................
Slater, 8 hrs., @ ....................
Roofing Paper, @ .....................
Placing paper, 20 min ................
Nails, 2 lbs. (8" × 16" slate) @ .....
--------
Total $
Metal work extra.
=Plastering.=--Plastering is estimated by the square yard. In
estimating the number of square yards, deduct ½ the area of openings.
The extra labor involved in working around grounds is thus allowed for.
Strips of plastering less than 1 foot wide are estimated as a foot
in width. Closet areas are increased by J/ to make allowance for the
extra labor involved in working small surfaces. Special plastering of
cornice, etc., will be charged extra: Lathing is usually a part of the
plasterer's contract, tho done by a different set of workmen. The unit
is either the square yard or the 1000 laths.
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS FOR LATHING A SQUARE (100 SQ. FT.)
Lath, 1500 @ .........................
Nails, 10 lbs. 3d fine @ .............
Lather, 8 hrs. @ .....................
--------
Total ............................$
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE FOR 2-COAT LIME PLASTER
Lime, 10 bu. @ .......................
Hair, 6 lbs. @ .......................
Sand, 1 yd. @ ........................
2 plasterers, 12 hrs. each @ .........
1 helper, 12 hrs. @ ..................
--------
Total ............................$
ANALYSIS OF COST FACTORS PER SQUARE FOR 3-COAT LIME PLASTER
Lime, 13 bu. @ .......................
Hair, 8 lbs. @ .......................
Sand, 1½ yds. @ ......................
Plaster of Paris, 1 bbl. @ ...........
2 plasterers, 16 hrs. each @ .........
1 helper, 16 hrs .....................
-------
Total ............................$
=Painting.=--Painting is estimated by the square yard, no
deductions being made for openings such as doors and windows. Railings,
grills, etc., are figured as if solid.
A gallon of paint will cover approximately 250 to 300 sq. ft. of old
work and 350 ft. of new work. A painter should cover 150 sq. ft, 1st.
coat, per hour, and 90 sq. ft., 2nd coat.
Cost factors may be easily determined from the above statements, and
costs easily estimated for ordinary work.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF REFERENCES
Chicago Millwork Supply Co.: _Price Book and
Specifications for Lumber and Millwork_, Chicago.
Gillette: _Handbook of Cost Data_, Myron C. Clark Co.,
New York.
Gordon-Van Tine Co.: _Price Book and Specifications for
Lumber and Millwork_, Davenport, Iowa.
Griffith: _Essentials of Woodworking_, Manual Arts
Press, Peoria, Ill.
Hodgson: _Modern Carpentry_, Frederick J. Drake Co.,
Chicago.
Hodgson: _Practical Uses of the Steel Square_,
Frederick J. Drake Co-., Chicago.
Kidder: _Architects' and Builders' Pocket Book_, John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
Kidder: _Building, Construction and Superintendence_,
Wm. T. Comstock, New York.
Radford: _Cyclopedia of Building Construction_, Radford
Architectural Co., Chicago.
Radford: _Details of Building Construction_, Radford
Architectural Co., Chicago.
The National Hardwood Lumber Association: _Rules for
Measurement and Inspection of Hardwood Lumber_, McCormick Bldg.,
Chicago.
INDEX
(NUMBERS REFER TO PAGES)
A
American Bond 20
Anchor, Brick Wall 139
Angle Post 118
Apron 109
Architrave 109
Ashlar 20
B
Backing Hip Rafter for Square
Cornered Building 63
Octagon and Other Hips 80
Balloon Frame 27
Base Block 109
Blocks, Placing 128
Mould 109
Mould, Placing 129
Batter Boards 15
Bed Moulding 98
Belt Course 110
Bibliography of Reading References 183
Blind Stop 109, 138
Board Measure Table 169
Bonds, Masonry 20
Brick Walls 20
Contents Table 172
Bridging 32
Building Paper 95, 98
C
Casing 109, 138
Casings, Placing 128
Chalk Line 103
Common Rafter 74
Concrete Mixtures 19
Corner Boards 109
Board, Splicing 102
Posts 38, 39, 109
Cornice 98
Costs, by Percentages 156
Example of Form 154
Counter Flashing 107
Cove 118
Crown Moulding 98
D
Deck 94
Door, Fitting 130
Frame 137
Hanging 129
Hinging 131
Jambs, Setting 125
Parts Named 129
Sill 109
Trim, Placing 127
Drain Tile 24
Drip Cap 109, 138
"Duck" 127
E
End Cut of Common Rafter 55
of Hip and Valley Rafter 62
of Octagonal and Other Hips and Valleys 79
English Bond 20
Estimating 142
Brick Work 180
Estimating Cement Mortar 179
Concrete 178
Cubic-foot Unit 142
Excavations 178
Labor Costs, Carpentry 150
Lathing 182
Lumber Quantities 146
Millwork Quantities 149
Painting 182
Plastering 181, 182
Quantities of Nails 153
Slate Roof 181
Excavations 18
Exterior Wall Coverings 95
F
Fascia 98
Finish Floor 109
Finishing Exterior Walls 108
Flashing 105
Flemish Bond 20
Floors, Laying and Scraping 135
Footings 18
Forms for Concrete 23
Foundations 18
Laying out 13
Foundation Materials 19
Frames, Basement 25
Framing Common Rafter 49
Joists 31
Roof about Chimney 94
Square with Rafter Table 53
Table for Common and Jack Rafters 52
Frieze 98
Full Frame 27
Furring 109
G
Girders 29, 31
Grade Line 16
Grading Rules, Lumber 143
Griffith's Roof Framing Tables 72
Griffith's Tables, Directions for 173
Grounds 115
H
Half-frame 27
Headers 20, 35, 109
Headroom 119
Hip and Valley Rafter End Cut 62
and Valley Rafter Lengths 61
and Valley Rafter Plumb Cut 60
and Valley Rafter Seat Cut 62
and Valley Rafters for Octagon
and other Polygons 74
and Valley Rafter Side Cut 60
Rafter, Unit Lengths 59
I
Interior Finish 115, 125
Walls 117
Interpolation 164
J
Jamb 109, 138
Jack Rafter for Octagonal and
Other Polygonal Roofs 81
for Square Cornered Building 65
K
King-Post 78
L
Lap Siding 111
Lathing 115
Length and Number of Wire Nails
to the Pound 168
Length of Common Rafter 50, 54
of Hip and Valley Rafters 61
of Jacks for Square Cornered Building 66
Length of Octagon and Other Polygonal Jacks 82
of Rafter by Scaling 53
of Side of Polygon 73
Leveling Door Sill 110
Foundation 16
Rod 14
with Straight-edge 17
Lintels 141
Locks, Fitting 132
Lookout 98
Lookouts, Framing 99
M
Main Frame 27
Masonry Construction, Woodwork for 138
Miter Cuts of Plate 69
N
Natural Trigonometric Functions 158
Nosing 118
O
Octagonal and Other Jacks 81
Roofs 73
Octagon Bay, Framing 85
Openings in Framework 42, 94
P
Parting Strip 109, 138
Partition 38
Wall Detail 116
Patterns for Joists and Studding 38
Pier 123
Pitch 46
Pitch Board 120
Placing Joists 32, 41
Plancher 98
Plank Frame 27
Plates 41, 98
Platform, Stair 118
Plumb Cut of Hip and Valley Rafter 60
of Octagonal Hip and Valley Rafters 74
Porches 122
Porch Steps 117
Protractor, Framing with 82
Pulleys 138
Pulley Stile 109, 138
R
Raked Moulding 100
Reduction for King-post 79
for Ridge 57
Ribbon Boards 39
Ridge, Length of 56
Piece 57
Rise 46
Rise of Stair 119
Riser 118, 121
Roof Boards, Cutting of 95, 96, 98
Frame 45
Frame, Any Polygon 69
Framing 45
Framing Terms 46
Rough Floors 42, 109
Rubble Work 20
Run 45
Run of Stair 119
S
Sash Cord 127
Scaffolding 96
Scribing Against Irregular Surface 114
Seat Cut of Common Rafter 55
of Hip and Valley Rafter 62
of Octagonal and Other Hips and Valleys 79
Setting Basement Frames 25
Setting Partitions 41
Studs 40
Window Frames 110
Sheathing or Sheeting 95, 98
Shed Roof Framing 89
Shingling 102
Hips and Valleys 105
Shingle Tins 106
Shoe Mould 109
Placing 129
Side Cut, Hip and Valley Rafters 60
Octagonal and Other Hips and Valleys 75
of Jack Rafter 65
of Octagonal and Other Polygonal Jacks 81
Siding 111
Circular Tower 113
Hook 113
Stick 111
Sills 29, 31, 109, 138
Six-eight-ten Method 15
Sole Piece 109
Solution of Right Triangles 159
Spacing Joists 32
Stair Building 117
Types 118
Stirrups 36
Stock Bill Form 149
Stone Work 20
Stool 109
Stop Bead 109, 138
Story Pole 42
Straightening Studding 117
Strength of Materials 170
Stretchers 20
Stringer 118
T
Table for Hip and Valley Rafters 60
of Common and Jack Rafters 52
Table of Fractional Equivalents
for Decimal Values 166
of Natural Functions 163
of Octagonal Hip and Valley Rafters 75
Tail, Rafter 56
Tangents 69
Threshold 109
Toe Hold 104
Transit 13
Translating Framing Problems from Protractor
to Framing Square and Vice Versa 84
Tread 118, 121
Trimmers 35
U
Uneven Pitch of Roof 90
Useful Tables 166
V
Valley Rafters 65
Rafter Unit Lengths 58
Value of a Function, The Angle Being Given
in Fractional Degrees 164
of Angle, The Value of a Function Being
Known 164
Veneer, Brick 138
W
Wall Board 121
Walls 38
Water Proofing 24
Table 109
Weight Pocket 109, 138
Well Hole 36
Winders, Stair 118
Window Detail, for Brick Wall 140
Frames 137
Sash, Fitting 126
Window Sill 109
Stool 109
Trim, Placing 127
Wire Brads, Table for 169
Wood and Machine Screw, Sizes, Table of 167
Wooden Bricks 26
Wood's Key to the Steel Square 70
Y
Y-level 14
Yoke 109
* * * * *
Transcriber Note
A link to the Index was added to the Contents table.