THE PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS OF BOLIVIA--THEIR CUSTOMS
AND RELIGION--THE CHOLO--PICTURESQUE TYPES
[Illustration: INDIAN WATER CARRIER OF LA PAZ.]
The population of Bolivia is composed of three separate social
classes, the Bolivians of European ancestry, the Indians, and the
_mestizos_, or _cholos_, of mixed European and Indian origin.
The white race, chiefly of Spanish blood, inherits many qualities
of the parent nation, though modified by centuries of isolation
from Spain. When the fabulous wealth of Potosí attracted thousands
of Spaniards to Alto Peru during the first century of colonial
rule, many of the noblest families of Europe were represented in
the rapidly increasing populations of Potosí, Oruro, and other rich
mining centres; and so important were the interests of his Catholic
majesty in this part of the royal domain that the most distinguished
grandees of the realm were sent to take charge of colonial affairs,
to supervise the coinage in the colonial mint, and to guard against
any evasion of the royal prerogatives. The quarrel which began early
between the Vicuñas and the Vascongados, and which developed into a
struggle between Criollos and Spaniards, was sustained, on the part of
the patriotic Criollos, by men in whose veins flowed the best blood
of Spain. Their love for their native land was stronger than their
allegiance to a government which was unjust and oppressive, and they
fought for and obtained their independence. Their descendants are the
people who control the politics and society of Bolivia to-day. They
are in the minority so far as population is concerned, a condition
which exists in all Spanish-American countries. A similar state of
affairs governed the population of the United States before the great
tide of immigration brought millions of Europeans to its shores, and
the native Indians were thus reduced to the minority. But, unlike
the North American Indians who were driven westward by the advancing
multitude, until crowded almost out of sight in a small corner of their
former vast territory, the Indians of Bolivia still remain undisturbed
in the haunts of their ancestors, whether of the Andean plateau, the
plains of Mojos, or the river banks of Guarany. They have always been
too useful to the white man of these regions to be allowed to vanish
out of sight, and too submissive to constitute the powerful menace to
civilization which the Iroquois and the Apache proved to the earlier
inhabitants of North America. With the exception of a few scattered
tribes, the Indians of Bolivia are more or less civilized, and they
form an important factor of the communities, not only as servants,
but as contributors to the development of the native industries, in
a primitive way, but usefully and creditably. A foreign traveller
in Bolivia cannot fail to be impressed by the fact that the white
man here thoroughly understands his primitive protégé, and that the
Indians, as a whole, receive at the hands of the governing race as
much consideration as the ignorant poor of any land receive from those
who, by inherited or acquired power, hold over their less competent
fellowmen the rights of authority. The laws of Bolivia provide for
the welfare of the Indians in a liberal manner, and the best means of
promoting their mental and moral development is at present occupying
the attention of the leading legislators of the country. The question
as to what should be the political responsibility of a primitive
people, untrained in independent thought and action, is not easily
disposed of, and the blunders which have been committed by the most
enlightened of nations in this respect prove how important is the
problem presented. In Bolivia the Indian has evolved slowly but surely
under the influence of civilization, and he shows an awakened spirit
of independence as compared with his ancestors, who merely reflected
the will of their chief. Under Spanish rule, the Indian, though
nominally recognized as possessing certain individual rights, was in
reality seldom free to exercise them; but since the inauguration of the
republic the law governing his rights has not been so completely a dead
letter in effect. He is still a child in mental and moral growth, but
he is progressing under the benign influence of peace and security.
[Illustration: PICTURESQUE TYPE OF THE COCHABAMBA INDIAN.]
[Illustration: TEMBETAS, INDIANS OF SANTA CRUZ.]
[Illustration: INDIANS OF POTOSÍ. HEADGEAR OF PIZARRO’S TIME.]
[Illustration: THE STIRRUP-CUP.]
The Indians of Bolivia are usually classified according to their
geographical distribution. The Andean tribes are divided into the
Peruvian branch--which includes Aymará and Quichua--and the North
Andean, composed of many nations, among others the Yuracarés,
Mosetenes, Tacanas, Araonas, Cavineños, Chunchos, Guayaros, Lecos,
and Apolistas, that inhabit the eastern _serranias_ of the
northern Andes and the plains of the Territorio de Colonias, the
department of La Paz, and El Beni. The Pampean tribes are divided
into the Mojeña and the Chiquitana branches, and inhabit the great
plains of eastern Bolivia in the provinces of Mojos and Chiquitos,
which extend from the foothills of the Andes to the Brazilian border.
The third division is called the Guaranic, and is sub-divided into
the Guaraya and Chiriguana branches apparently closely related to the
Guarany tribes of Paraguay; they occupy the territory included in
the northern, central, and southern Chaco. The above divisions are
made in accordance with the scientific studies and investigations of
D’Orbigny who devoted many years to the subject. The Aymará Indians,
as is generally known, occupy the territory surrounding Lake Titicaca,
including the southern part of the department of La Paz and all the
department of Oruro; the provinces are named after the various tribes,
Omasuyos, Pacajes, Sicasicas, Larecajas, Carangas, and Yungas. To the
north and northwest their territory adjoins that of the Quichuas of
Cuzco, their southern and southeastern neighbors are the Quichuas,
or Charcas, of Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, and Potosí; to the east and
northeast are the Tacanas, Apolistas, and Mosetenes, all popularly
called Chunchos; while to the southwest the Aymará territory borders
that of the Chinchas of Tarapacá. The Aymará Indian of the present day
is a strong, muscular native of the highlands, of medium height, of
bronze complexion, varying from the color of the North American redskin
to the darker brown of more tropical types, possessing well-defined
features which remind one of the Japanese race by the slant of the
eyes and the high cheekbones. They are a reticent people and are
generally industrious and sober, excepting on the occasion of a grand
_fiesta_, when they display characteristics hardly recognizable
in the Indian of everyday conditions. They are extremely religious,
and devoted to the services of the Church; at any hour of the day an
Indian may be found kneeling before the altar of the virgin or of one
of the saints in the churches of the various towns. It is the beautiful
custom of the country to keep the doors of the churches always open,
and many an Indian leaves his little drove of llamas as he enters a
town and goes to say his prayers and to feast his eyes on the images
and pictures of the sacred place. Indian women with their babies swung
on their backs, kneel on the floor of the church and forget all their
troubles in contemplation of the holy symbols. Children they seem in
all but physical growth, after centuries of contact with civilization.
Limited opportunity may be responsible to some extent, but natural
conditions govern all primitive people, and they are neither benefited
nor made happy by being crowded into a path of progress opened for them
by the too eager white man, who demands that they assimilate at once
the civilization which his own race has achieved only after thousands
of years of progressive culture. Indian colleges and Indian missions
may aid in a limited way to develop a primitive race, but important
results are not achieved within a few short generations. Experiments
in the Indian school established by the United States government at
Carlisle, Pennsylvania, prove this to be true of the North American
Indian, as it is of his primitive brother in South America. Whether the
Aymará race has passed its zenith in culture and is now at a period
corresponding to “second childhood,” or whether it is still in the dawn
of development, the actual condition is that of a dependent people, as
regards intellectual and moral responsibility.
[Illustration: QUICHUA INDIAN OF THE VALLEY BETWEEN
COCHABAMBA AND SUCRE.]
[Illustration: A GENIAL BEGGAR OF COCHABAMBA.]
The foreigner, upon arriving in Bolivia, is immediately interested
in the picturesque spectacle presented by the Indian of the Titicaca
plateau. His _poncho_ and cap are woven of the most gorgeous
colors, and the brighter their reds, greens, and yellows, the better
the wearer is pleased. The Aymarás make their own dyes, which are
entirely of vegetable composition, and it is remarkable to what an
extent they have developed their knowledge of the many herbs which are
useful for this purpose. The art of weaving all kinds of blankets and
_ponchos_ is known to both the Aymará and Quichua tribes, who
blend the colors in a great many combinations, and yet use no other
loom than that which they make by driving four stakes in the ground,
or by means of an apparatus of clumsy and primitive manufacture, which
was introduced by the Spaniards at the time of the conquest. They spin
the wool of the llama, the alpaca, and the vicuña, and some of the
_ponchos_ which they make are of exquisite workmanship, woven of
vicuña and silk. In the province of Pacajes especially the Indians make
excellent cloth, and here they weave the _bayeta_, a black and
white mixture of which they make their own clothes, the men wearing
over this sombre color the picturesque _poncho_, while the women
appear in darker wraps, adorned with brightly woven borders.
[Illustration: INDIANS IN FIESTA AT TRINIDAD, THE BENI.]
The Quichua Indians of Bolivia, sometimes called the Charcas, are
easily distinguished from the Aymarás in general appearance and
character. Their features are less rugged and they are gentler in
disposition. They are more submissive than the Aymarás, and have a
sunnier temperament, the reflection of milder skies. In Potosí they
dress to-day as they did in the days of Pizarro, and the men still wear
the casques introduced by the conquerors in the sixteenth century. The
women wear high-heeled wooden shoes, or sandals, which they fasten by
straps drawn between the toes and buckled with large silver buckles
made in the design of the coat of arms of Charles V. Their ornaments,
called _topos_, are of silver, some of them in the design of
the double-headed eagle, while others are great disks, hammered and
cut out in many curious figures. The spoon is a favorite form for a
_topo_, which serves the double purpose of ornament and shawl pin,
and may also be used in taking food. It is customary to have the bowl
of the spoon carved in some design.
The _fiestas_ of the Aymarás and the Quichuas vary little, to
all appearance, both being marked by religious observances of more or
less recognizable solemnity, and both invariably terminate in a grand
revel. There are special feasts in different localities which are not
held in any other, such as the anniversary of the _alacitas_,
when miniature figures of every description are sold at the place of
celebration. It is remarkable to what perfection the art of making
these objects has been developed, some of the tiny dishes, furniture,
and other articles being of infinitesimal size, yet without a flaw.
A tray, containing bottle, tumbler, and wineglass, all of wood, made
entirely by hand, may be passed through a finger ring, and an entire
set of furniture may be put into a liqueur glass. The Indians of Sucre
and Potosí are very expert in miniature work. The tiny dolls, which
are much appreciated by travellers who visit Sucre, are no larger than
a mosquito, yet when examined under a magnifying glass they are seen
to be perfectly made and dressed in the latest fashion. The miniature
souvenirs most sought after by visitors to Potosí are the tiny silver
tea and coffee sets, which are marvels of workmanship.
[Illustration: CHOLA OF POTOSÍ, IN COSTUME OF FIESTA.]
[Illustration: CHOROTIS, INDIANS OF THE CHACO.]
The primitive races of Bolivia show a particular aptitude for certain
industries. Not only are the Aymarás and the Quichuas skilled in
weaving and in making pottery, but the Mojos and the Chiquitos have
shown themselves competent workmen in various primitive manufactures.
They weave cotton cloth, sheets, towels, hammocks, and other articles,
which are so durable that they last an incredible length of time. While
these simple children of Nature have not been stimulated to remarkable
progress, they have established in the country many native industries
of importance and value.
[Illustration: CHOLA OF THE BOLIVIAN PLATEAU.]
[Illustration: THE MODE OF CARRYING THE BABY.]
Of the total Indian population of Bolivia, which is estimated at nine
hundred thousand, about eight hundred and fifty thousand are subject
to the laws of the country, the remaining fifty thousand, who inhabit
the remote forests of the extreme north and a part of the Chaco, being
uncivilized. According to statistics collected by the Oficina Nacional
de Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica, the gradual
disappearance of the primitive races has been noted for a considerable
length of time. Since 1878 the Indians have died at an increasing rate
from plague and alcoholism, the number of births by no means covering
the mortality. At present they are about the same in number as they
were half a century ago, while the white race and the _mestizos_
have notably increased. It appears to be universally the case that a
primitive people gradually vanishes when surrounded by conditions of
advanced civilization. The Indian is not adaptive, and seems to be ill
fitted for rapid progress. In Bolivia, as in other countries, all
attempts to induce him to throw aside the antiquated implements of toil
used by his ancestors have proved futile, and it would be ludicrous, if
it were not pathetic, to see the laborious methods of tilling the soil
which the Indian follows. Neither by threats nor by promises can he be
led to make his task easier by using modern tools.
[Illustration: A CHOLA BELLE OF POTOSÍ, IN VELVET, LACE, AND
JEWELS.]
[Illustration: THE AYMARÁ INDIANS OF THE TITICACA PLATEAU.]
On the northern frontier and in the southern Chaco the uncivilized
tribes have been visited from time to time by the Catholic
missionaries, and in all the frontier provinces missions have been
established for the civilization and Christian teaching of these
tribes. Many faithful teachers have spent the greater part of their
lives in these remote forests, and have accomplished a great deal in
the work of civilizing the Indians. The missionary work of Bishop
Armentia was devoted chiefly to the civilization of the North Andean
tribes of the Madre de Dios region, the territory of the Indians
popularly called Chunchos, though known under the names of Tacanas,
Guarayos, Araonas, Cavinas, Mosetenes, and others. The mission of
Covendo, in the country of the Mosetenes, has been the centre of
widespread efforts in behalf of the natives, and other settlements
of similar character have been established in various localities.
Dr. Armentia says the chief of the Araona tribes are not elected,
but chosen according to the number of their sons and relatives, the
Indian without family being made the slave of his chief. It seems
base ingratitude that the Indian who has been forced to deny himself
a wife because of the polygamous proclivities of his chief should
have insult added to injury by being made the humblest servant of
his lucky rival on that very account. It is the irony of fate. The
Araonas are excellent hunters, and their method of catching the tapir
especially is unique. This animal suffers greatly from the attacks of
_garrapatas_, or ticks, and its mode of getting rid of the pest is
by attracting the _chuvi_, a bird of the eagle species, which is
very fond of the _garrapata_ as a food. The tapir makes a hissing
sound very like the whistling note of the _chuvi_, and when the
latter whistles, the tapir responds and runs in the direction from
which the sound proceeds, eager to have the _chuvi_ rid it of the
_garrapatas_; the Indian has learned to imitate the _chuvi_
and thus he secures his game.
[Illustration: GUARAYO INDIANS.]
The Indians of the Chaco, the Chiriguanos, Tobas, Chorotis, Tapietes,
and others, differ greatly in character and customs from the North
Andean tribes. The Chiriguanos, who have lived for centuries in the
vicinity of civilized communities, cannot be counted as entirely
uncivilized Indians. The Tobas, though uncivilized, are more or less
influenced in their customs by contact with civilized people, as they
are frequently employed on the estates of Tarija and in Argentina. The
Chorotis and Tapietes are savages. Colonel Trigo, in his recent report
on the subject, says all the savage tribes of the Chaco have similar
customs and modes of life, with very slight differences. Good relations
between tribes are maintained with astute diplomacy. Any offence
against the rights of the tribe is punished by war. The law of force is
supreme. Terror maintains mutual respect. Vengeance is a sacred dogma.
The government is paternal. These Indians are fond of adornment, and
paint and tattoo themselves with vegetable dyes. The Chorotis insert
round blocks of wood in the lobes of the ears, increasing the size
gradually until these ornaments are several inches in diameter. The
Tapietes perforate the lower lip and adorn it by inserting a large
round block. Marriages are made by the savages without other formality
than proof of mutual love, which is shown by digging the fingernails
into each others’ faces, a ceremony highly esteemed. Wives mourn for
their husbands by cutting off their hair and by weeping at a certain
hour every day until it grows out again. A widow will not marry again
until her hair has grown long.
In addition to the white race and the Indians, Bolivia has a third
element in its population, the _mestizo_, or _cholo_, a mixed
race derived from the union of Spaniard and Indian. The _cholos_
constitute a people quite distinct from the other two, though related
to both. The origin of this mixed race is explained by the conditions
which governed the Spanish-American, in common with the North American,
colonies in the early history of their settlement. In North America,
women from the mother country were sent out to the colonies to become
the wives of the settlers, but the Spanish government did not take this
means of peopling its American possessions; and many of the colonists
married native Indian women, in frequent instances forming happy
alliances, especially with the Aymarás and Quichuas, who were advanced
in primitive culture.
[Illustration: A BRIDAL COUPLE OF THE COUNTRY DISTRICT, NEAR
POTOSÍ.]
The _cholos_ of the better class are good citizens, excellent
soldiers, and possess the quick intellect of the Spaniard, in
combination with the mechanical ability of the Indian. They are
capable of receiving the highest industrial training, and their
handiwork compares favorably with the best European productions,
whenever they have an opportunity to develop their skill. They are
light-hearted and careless, very fond of gayety, and never so happy
as when celebrating one of their numerous _fiestas_. The women,
called _cholas_, are extremely vain and greatly devoted to the
charms of dress, their costumes being at times the _ne plus ultra_
of adornment. A _chola_ belle of La Paz wears at least a dozen
starched white petticoats, embroidered halfway to the waist, and
over these a red, green, blue, or yellow velvet skirt which reaches
to the calf of the leg, the petticoats showing their beruffled edges
beneath. Two bright-colored shawls are worn, coquettishly pinned, one
on the right shoulder and the other on the left; a Panamá hat rather
mars the effectiveness of the costume; but a particularly attractive
feature is the dressing of the feet, which are encased in pink,
blue, or yellow stockings and high shoes, with French heels, the tops
of which are perforated in exquisite patterns to show the pretty
stockings underneath. The _chola_ of each city has distinguishing
characteristics and dress, though all costumes are a modified copy of
the one just described. A _chola_ is sometimes a very fascinating
bit of femininity, and many of them are both pretty and quick-witted.
The men are successful tradesmen, and, altogether, the _cholo_
race constitutes an important part of the business community. They have
not the Spaniard’s traditional aversion to trade, and, in consequence,
they supply what would otherwise be a serious deficiency in industrial
and manufacturing enterprise.
The people of Bolivia are kind and hospitable to foreigners, and have
a pleasant welcome for all who visit their country. It is necessary
to spend some time in their midst, in order to become acquainted with
their manners and customs and to know their many admirable qualities.
[Illustration: ALL SOULS’ DAY IN THE CEMETERY.]
[Illustration: MAPA GENERAL
DE LA REPUBLICA DE
BOLIVIA
_FORMADO PARA EXPLORADORES_
_VIAJEROS, ESTUDIANTES etc._
_por_
Luis Garcia Mesa
_Ing. Geog. del Muasterro de Colonias y Agricultura_
ESCALA 1: 5,000,000
1907]
Transcriber’s Notes:
1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
corrected silently.
2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
original.
3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have
been retained as in the original.
4. Where appropriate, the original spelling has been retained.
5. Italics are shown as _xxx_.