RICH SILVER, TIN, AND COPPER MINES OF WESTERN
BOLIVIA--MINING LAWS
[Illustration: IN THE HEART OF THE COROCORO COPPER REGION.]
Though the fame of Bolivia as a mining country has been gained chiefly
by the enormous production of the Potosí and Huanchaca silver mines,
these colossal treasures do not by any means represent all the mineral
wealth stored in its mountains and carried down its streams. Almost
every known metal exists in some section of the country, and silver,
tin, and copper are found in several districts that have become
celebrated, and rank among the richest in the world. Colquechaca
silver, Oruro tin, and Corocoro copper are known in all the great
markets and represent the best quality of these valuable metals to
be found. The geologic formation of a country so noted for valuable
ores is interesting for the relation it bears to these deposits. Of
the mountain systems, which are its chief feature, says an eminent
authority, the Coast Range is essentially volcanic, tertiary formations
are met with on the high plateau between the Coast Range and the
Cordillera Real, and the latter, on the eastern side, presents a
vast extent of Silurian slates and shales, usually tilted at high
angles and frequently bent and distorted. Fossils are scarce, though
the ancient ripple and rain marks are extremely clear and abundant.
Trilobites are met with in the valleys to the southeast of La Paz.
The carboniferous system appears to exist along the extreme east of
the Andes and indications of petroleum are met with at various points
in the foothills. Along the southern part of the plateau there is an
extensive formation of trachytic porphyry which appears to have been
ejected and to have spread over the older rocks. The ravine in which
the city of La Paz is situated cuts through and exposes a horizontal
layer, some twenty feet thick, of volcanic ashes with fragments of
pumice stone, evidently deposited under water although it is now
buried some six hundred feet below the surface of the plains; further
south this layer crops out at various points and is visible for some
seventy miles. Probably it was ejected from the Sajama and neighboring
volcanoes at the time when the great lake, of which Titicaca and Poopo
are the surviving features, occupied the entire plateau. Eruptions of
porphyritic and other igneous rocks are seen at many points along the
eastern side of the tableland, breaking through and distorting the
older shales and slates and forming a distinctive feature of all the
silver and tin mining centres.
The _serrania_ in which the silver mines of Colquechaca are
located is in the heart of one of the richest mineral regions of
the globe. Colquechaca is the provincial capital of Chayanta in the
department of Potosí, and is situated midway between the railroad town
of Challapata and the city of Sucre. It has been a mining centre for
hundreds of years, though under Spanish rule the mines were worked only
in a superficial and primitive way; and when the War of Independence
put a stop to all mining industry, they were abandoned, as were nearly
all the great mines of the country. About twenty-five years ago the
exploitation of the Colquechaca minerals was established on a practical
and permanent basis, and since that time the mines have yielded nearly
a hundred million bolivianos. The Colquechaca silver ores yield in some
instances two thousand seven hundred ounces to the ton, these mines
being renowned throughout the world for the high-grade _rosicler_,
which is found in abundance. The Compañía Colquechaca Aullagas
de Bolivia is the principal owner of the mines of this district,
controlling six _socavones_, in which several miles of railway
are operated, equipped with freight cars for hauling the metal out of
the mine. A traction engine and a Cornish pump have been established,
and the company has four steam engines and two foundries in connection
with the mines. The ores are treated in the _ingenios_ of Rosario
and Palca. Since the closure of the Indian mints to the free coinage
of silver in 1893, and the consequent heavy fall in the price of the
metal, Colquechaca has been worked for other metals as well as silver,
the production of this mineral being necessarily reduced. The same
circumstances have prevailed in nearly all the silver-mining districts,
though the metal is still produced in considerable quantities in Cinti,
Porco, Portugalete, Andacaba, and other well-known silver mines. It is
probable that with the completion of the railway system, the improved
facilities for transportation will revive this industry throughout the
whole country with wonderful results.
At present, Bolivia is gaining worldwide fame by the enormous quantity
and excellent quality of tin which the country produces. This metal
has not as yet been found anywhere in the Coast Range of the Andes,
but it abounds in the Royal Range. Mr. John Minchin, an authority on
everything connected with Bolivian mines, says that ores running as
high as forty or fifty per cent of fine tin are not uncommon, and under
favorable circumstances as low as three per cent may be worked to a
small profit, but the average contents in fine tin of ores worked by
the larger enterprises may be estimated at from eight to ten per cent.
Ores worked more especially for silver also frequently contain from two
to five per cent of tin oxide, which in such cases is cheaply extracted
from the tailings resulting from amalgamation or lixiviation. Water
power is scarce on the plateau, and, in consequence, steam power is
employed in the mining establishments, native fuels being chiefly used,
as coal costs eight pounds sterling per ton at the railway stations.
Of late years several anthracite producer gas engines from the Deutz
works, in Germany, have been introduced, with very satisfactory results
as regards economy, the working cost being about twopence per horse
power, as compared with threepence for native fuel and fourpence to
fivepence for steam coal. “In spite of all the care at present possible
in the concentration of tin ores,” says Mr. Minchin, “there is commonly
a loss of from twenty to twenty-five per cent, though it is hoped that
this may be reduced later on with improved methods of treatment.”
[Illustration: COLQUECHACA, CELEBRATED FOR ITS MINES.]
The total tin production of Bolivia for the year 1905, reduced to
bar tin, was eighteen thousand tons. The development of this branch
of mining industry is still in its infancy in this country, new
tin deposits being found constantly, while the few mines that were
discovered by the Spaniards and the natives long ago are practically
new in exploitation, never having been worked to any extent formerly,
as this metal, unlike gold and silver, was not regarded as valuable
in the earlier days. The history of tin mining is of comparatively
recent origin, the first tin mines exploited in Europe having been
those of England and Germany, discovered in the thirteenth century.
An interesting monograph published by the Oficina Nacional de
Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geográfica of La Paz gives
information to prove that the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the province
of Larecaja, and of other tin-bearing regions of Bolivia, discovered
tin and worked it, but without being aware of its full value as a
metal. Archæological investigations show that tin, amalgamated with
copper, was used by the Aymará and Quichua Indians for making war
weapons and other objects, though the bronzes of this composition
indicate only a slight knowledge of its metallurgical possibilities.
These bronze _huacas_ are found with much more frequency in
ruins of Quichua construction than in those known to be of Aymará
origin. This is the more remarkable because the greatest abundance
of tin is found in the territory occupied by the Aymarás. Tin mines
were exploited during the Spanish colonial period, but only on a very
limited scale. In an old document published in 1640, the author, a
curate of Potosí, calls attention to rich mines of tin in the provinces
of Chayanta, Larecaja, Oruro, and elsewhere, which he says “were worked
by the Indians in the time of the Incas, and which have since been
exploited by the Spaniards.”
[Illustration: MINING TOWN OF INQUISIVI.]
The tin mining region of Bolivia is divided into four districts: La
Paz in the north, Oruro in the centre, Chorolque in the south, and
Potosí in the east. In the department of La Paz, the beautiful snow
range which extends from Illimani to Sorata, and which is known to
all travellers who cross Titicaca, because of the enchanting prospect
it offers as seen from the lake, marks a region rich in minerals,
especially in tin, silver, iron, and bismuth. Huayna Potosí, with its
twin peaks, Kaka-aca and Locka, is one of the richest _cerros_
of this district, and it has been exploited at various periods for
silver, bismuth, and tin, which are found here in abundance. With the
investment of large capital, this mountain might prove an enormous
producer of tin, as it is rich in good ore. A few miles distant from
Huayna Potosí the peak of Milluni may easily be distinguished among
the towering summits. It is the site of valuable tin mines and yields
rich iron ore. The width of the silver veins in this mine varies from
two to thirteen feet, and enormous quantities of almost pure metal
are taken out of them, with very little expense. The greater part of
the work has been done on the surface, in the outcroppings, by means
of open cuts, so that the interior of the Cerro is hardly known. One
socavón only has been opened within the mine to a depth of about two
hundred and fifty feet, with two broad and well built galleries. The
mines of Huayna Potosí and Milluni are exploited by a French company,
having headquarters in Paris, and an office in La Paz. Milluni being so
close to La Paz, and the roads in good condition, cargoes can be taken
in carts direct from that city or from the port of Chililaya on Lake
Titicaca, and the rate of shipment from Milluni to Mollendo is less
than that charged for ores going from Oruro to Antofagasta. In both
mines lumber for construction purposes is cheaper than in La Paz, as
it comes chiefly from Songo in the Yungas, only a few miles distant,
though for Oregon pine the same price is paid as in La Paz, about
fifteen cents, gold, a square foot. Both Huayna Potosí and Milluni
are worked for tin at an altitude of sixteen thousand feet above the
sea. Chacaltaya, a peak which belongs to the same group, is also under
exploitation, and with more favorable conditions may develop very rich
lodes, as it has not yet been thoroughly worked.
[Illustration: CARRYING FREIGHT TO THE MINES OF QUIMSACRUZ.]
[Illustration: FAMOUS ROSICLER SILVER MINES, COLQUECHACA.]
Probably the richest tin mines of the La Paz district are those of
Inquisivi, and especially Quimsacruz. Recently these mines have been
producing enormous quantities of the valuable metal, and, according to
the noted French geologist Dereims, the lofty range of Tres Cruces,
otherwise known as Quimsacruz, which rises to an altitude of about
twenty thousand feet above sea level, contains the richest minerals in
all Bolivia. This section of the Cordillera Real begins south of the
peak Illimani, on the opposite side of the natural cut in the great
range through which the La Paz River flows on its course northward;
and it extends entirely across the southern part of the province of
Inquisivi, where it borders the department of Oruro. In this noble
range tin mines are being worked with magnificent results, and
mineralogists of eminent authority pronounce this to be the richest
tin-mining district to be found anywhere, equal to Malacca, which is
generally supposed to have the finest tin mines in the world. Not
only tin, but silver and other metals abound here. The Colquiri mine
was worked by the Spaniards for chloride of silver, the deepest veins
having been exploited one hundred and seventy-five feet below the
surface, and at water level. One vein is recognizable for three miles
on the surface by débris scattered along the course. A tunnel of one
thousand feet in length still exists, cutting this lode above the level
of the water, and another vein as long as the one already mentioned.
Evidently tin as well as silver was extracted in those days, though
only in small quantities, owing to the indifference universally shown
by the Spaniards for tin mining. The mineral wealth of Inquisivi
has recently attracted new enterprises, and several important mines
have been discovered within the past year or two. The mines of Monte
Blanco are enormously productive, as are also those of Avicaya, owned
by Abelli and Company, and the Totoral and Chuncho mines, in the
Cerro of Challa Grande. These mines are situated near the base of
the Cerro, Chuncho being at the greatest altitude, near the centre,
Totoral further down the slope, and Avicaya four hundred feet below
Totoral. On the opposite side of the Cerro are rich veins of silver,
and it is noteworthy that all the tin mines of Quimsacruz are on the
south side of the range, the mineral veins on the eastern slopes being
silver, while on the north is found auriferous quartz. Tin mining in
the mountains of Tres Cruces offers a particularly promising prospect,
as is proved by the new discoveries of this valuable metal which are
constantly being made in this region.
[Illustration: IRON MOUNTAIN ON THE ROAD FROM LA PAZ TO THE
MINES.]
[Illustration: MOUNT KAKA-ACA.]
In the tin-mining district of Potosí are included the rich
_cerros_ of the province of Chayanta, in which are found the mines
of Uncía and Llallagua, both in the Cerro de Uncía. This mountain was
formerly noted for the rich quality of silver taken from its mines, but
at present it is worked chiefly for tin. The Compañía Minera Uncía,
which is under the direction of Mr. John B. Minchin, owns several
of the principal mines of the Cerro, which are exploited according
to the most modern methods and are producing a superior quality of
tin. The output of this company’s mines for the year 1905 amounted
to four hundred and eighty-five tons of two thousand two hundred and
forty pounds. Modern machinery is used in the treatment of the ores
by lixiviation and other processes. The Salvadora mines, of Uncía,
owned by Don S. Patiño, are also yielding a large quantity of rich
tin under the modern system of treatment which the ores receive in
the well-equipped establishments. Llallagua is the centre of some
of the most valuable tin mines in Bolivia. The name of one of the
leading statesmen of the country, General Sainz, is associated with the
exploitation of the chief of these mines, which owe their development
to the Empresa Llallagua, of which he was the organizer and chief
owner. Last year General Sainz negotiated with a Chilean-Bolivian
syndicate, which agreed to purchase this valuable property. The capital
stock of the new company is one hundred thousand pounds sterling,
divided into one hundred shares of one thousand pounds sterling each,
and the directors are leading financiers of Chile and Bolivia. The
mineral wealth of Llallagua is comprised in three mines now under
exploitation. La Blanca, San José, and Quinsachata, which cover a
territory of about one thousand acres. The mines are situated about
forty miles east of Challapata, and three miles from Uncía. A cart
road connects the mines of both Llallagua and Uncía with the railway,
the construction of this highway having been completed at the expense
of the mine owners, General Sainz and Mr. Minchin. The new railroad
now being built from Oruro to Potosí will pass through these mining
properties. The production of the Llallagua mines is estimated at five
tons daily of _barrilla de estaño_, or concentrate tin, of seventy
per cent tin, of the best quality. The establishments in which the ores
of these mines are treated are equipped with modern machinery, and a
trolley connects the mines with the _ingenio_ for concentration.
The minerals from this part of Bolivia are shipped by way of
Antofagasta, while those of Huayna Potosí, Milluni, and other mineral
districts in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca, are carried across the
lake to Puno and thence to Mollendo.
[Illustration: TRANSPORTATION OF COPPER FROM THE COROCORO
MINES.]
On the Titicaca plateau, about fifty miles southwest of La Paz, are
located the extensive copper mines of Corocoro, the richest in South
America. Like other famous mines of Bolivia the wealth of Corocoro was
discovered long ago by Indians, but it is only within recent years that
its treasures have been exploited with important results. The copper
lodes of Corocoro exist in a sandstone formation, the metal being
met with in solid fragments and in fine grains disseminated through
the matrix and requiring only grinding and concentration to obtain a
product containing some eighty-five per cent of copper _barrilla_,
in which form it is exported. A few of the huge pieces of metal found
at Corocoro have been placed on exhibition in the museum of La Paz, and
are considered among the largest ever found in this form, measuring
many feet in circumference. These masses are called _charquis_.
The abundance and rich quality of Corocoro copper entitles it to rank
second only to the famous mines of Lake Superior in the United States.
There are numerous companies engaged in exploiting the riches of the
Corocoro region, though probably the largest mining interests here
are held by a French company under the direction of Señores Berthin,
who control several mines. The output of the Corocoro mines amounts
in value to about two million bolivianos annually. In addition to
Corocoro, which represents the principal wealth of copper-producing
Bolivia, there are promising deposits in various sections of the
departments of Potosí, Chuquisaca, and Cochabamba. The Compañía
Cobrizos de Bolivia has important mines of both copper and silver
situated about six miles from Rio Grande near the Antofagasta and
Oruro Railway, southwest of Uyuni, and in the province of Frias, near
the city of Potosí, metals which some experts claim to be superior in
quality and equal in quantity to those of Corocoro have been found,
though the mines are not worked, because of the lack of capital for
their development. In the province of Porco, in the canton of Yura,
midway between Huanchaca and Potosí valuable mines of copper, as well
as of gold, have recently been discovered, and it is only a question of
a short time when large capital will be invested for their development.
The railway which is to join Uyuni with Potosí will pass through one
of the richest mineral regions of the globe, and within twenty-five
miles of the mines just referred to. A great opportunity is offered in
Yura for the exploitation of the mines, as there is abundance of water,
a prime necessity for the economical treatment of the ores. Several
of the older mines, worked originally for silver, contain in their
ores from ten per cent to twenty-five per cent of copper, but want of
capital and high freights have prevented their being worked in modern
times for copper. Copper pyrites and other copper ores also exist at
many points, but for similar reasons little attention has as yet been
given to them. In fact, ores containing anything less than twenty-five
per cent of copper would not pay to work and export under present
conditions, and, owing to the scarcity and cost of suitable fuel,
neither could such ores be advantageously reduced to bar copper in the
country. The construction of more railways is a vital necessity in
Bolivia, the Antofagasta line being taxed to the utmost to handle the
abundant traffic, with the result that freights are necessarily high,
rendering the importation of machinery, fuel, and general merchandise
extremely costly, as well as making the export of produce enormously
expensive.
Mine owners say that the native labor, although at times somewhat
limited, is not so unsatisfactory as might be supposed, the Indians
and _cholos_ working steadily and peaceably as a rule, though
they spend a great deal of time in their numerous _fiestas_, when
they always require an extra holiday for getting sober and ready for
work again. A great many mine owners are urging the modification and
improvement of the mining laws, which, though good in principle, are
frequently distorted in their application, owing to the interpretation
put upon them by badly informed petty authorities. The present
government is devoting careful attention to this as well as to other
problems which affect the development of the national industries.
The mining laws of Bolivia are liberal and offer few restrictions.
All metalliferous substances belong to the state. Anyone who enjoys
civil rights may obtain thirty _pertenencias_ of new mining
property, and as much as he wants of mining lands already worked.
The preferred right is given to the first who presents his petition
for the concession. A _pertenencia_ is a hectare, about two and
one-half acres, of undefined depth, which is measured in the direction
requested. The method of exploitation is optional. Concessions are
perpetual, providing that a _patente_ of four bolivianos per lode
per annum, and two bolivianos per annum for each _pertenencia_ in
placer mines is paid semi-annually. The failure to pay for a year is
sufficient cause for considering the concession abandoned. Machinery
destined for the exploitation of mines pays no fiscal duties. Inorganic
substances, with the exception of those of an earthy nature, are
acquired in conformity with the mining law, concessions being given
for sixty-four _pertenencias_ in new deposits, and more than that
territory in old fields. Ten bolivianos is the sum charged for the writ
of adjudication. The preliminary procedure relative to acquiring mines
is made in the presence of a special notary resident in the capital
of the district in which the desired property is found. The prefect
of the department is the authority through whom the concession of
_pertenencias_ is transmitted. All matters relative to priority of
petition, transgression of limits, and similar causes for complaint,
are brought before the ordinary justices. The owner who desires to
leave off working his mine must notify the authorities, in order not
to be held responsible for the payment of _patentes_. In case of
failure to pay these charges for a year, the mine is auctioned to the
highest bidder; and failing a purchaser, it remains in possession of
the state, to be given as a concession to the first petitioner.
[Illustration: THREE PRINCIPAL MINING ESTABLISHMENTS OF
COROCORO: CHILD, CARERAS, AND MALACATE.]
The mining laws which govern the Cerro de Potosí have frequently
required revision. They are, in some respects, distinct from those
governing the acquisition of new mines. A great deal of difficulty has
been encountered in the past because of the impossibility of marking
absolute limits to the mining properties of Potosí. Formerly, the owner
who could employ the largest body of workmen and extend his mines most
rapidly could swallow up the lesser properties. For instance, if while
working a vein the owner strikes through the wall which separates his
claim from a neighboring mine he becomes the possessor of the latter.
This law has necessitated the keeping of a guard at all points where
such an invasion might be feared, and it has frequently proved a
source of dissatisfaction. The government has considered various plans
for the solution of the problem, and the law has been amended in
notable features, but as the Cerro seems to be a great mass of metal it
presents unique features for legislation. In some respects the mining
laws of Bolivia necessarily differ from those of other countries, the
conditions being distinct, but the law-makers are thoroughly conversant
with the requirements of the mining districts and the question is
studied carefully from every standpoint. From long experience in
dealing with the problems that are peculiar to a mining country, the
Bolivian people have become informed on all that relates to mining laws
and their interpretation, and improvements are constantly being made to
advance the progress of this important industry.
[Illustration: MINING DISTRICT OF QUIMSACRUZ, NEAR ORURO.]
[Illustration: CITY OF ORURO.]