THE ROMANTIC SCHOOL.
A convenient classification of the great German composers of the
nineteenth century is to be found in "Famous Composers and their
Works," a classification which will be followed in these chapters.
It consists of three general groups: "The Romantic School," "The
Classical Romanticists," and "The New Movement." As has been already
stated, the basis of the Romantic School was simply a further
development of Beethoven's descriptive writing, which created a
powerful impression upon the so-called founders of the school, Spohr
and Weber; they in turn were followed by Schubert, Mendelssohn,
Schumann, and their disciples. The Classical Romanticists accepted
the substance of romanticism in music, but remained more or less true
to classical form. Raff stands at the head of this classification,
Brahms as its chief exponent. The New Movement dates from the
tumultuous upheavals in the musical world caused by the innovations
of Berlioz in France, Liszt and Wagner in Germany. The evolution of
these three movements will now be reviewed in logical sequence; but
it should be borne in mind that this evolution had already begun
during the later development of French and Italian opera as discussed
in the previous chapter.
I.
SPOHR (1784-1859). The fruits of Spohr's activity as a
composer present a rather peculiar mixture of progressive zeal and
conventional mannerism. He was not alive to the true greatness
of Beethoven's genius, neither can he be compared with Weber as
a dramatic writer. On the other hand, Spohr was instrumental in
awakening a keener interest for the supernatural, and he aimed to
illustrate certain definite ideas by means of musical expression.
This trait is especially conspicuous in his symphonies; and these
entitle him to be regarded as one of the founders of programmatic
orchestral music. Again, Spohr was one of the greatest violinists
of his day, and as the natural result, his writing for strings was
highly effective. Consequently his double string quartets, his
octets, nonets, etc., are especially valued in musical literature.
Spohr contributed to the evolution of orchestration proper but
little that was actually new. But here again the development of
violin technique stimulated at least a freer and more elaborate
manner of employing the strings. Prout suggests that his
orchestration resembles to some extent that of Mendelssohn, in that
the equilibrium is admirably adjusted; and the general color-scheme
is further enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass.
In minor details of instrumentation, Spohr made some interesting
experiments similar to those of Berlioz, such as the introduction of
a number of kettle-drums into the orchestra. Prout also refers to
the earthquake chorus in "Calvary" where six drums are played upon
by two performers, and rolls in seconds, thirds, and fifths for two
drums together are to be found. But as a whole, his reputation is due
chiefly to his great achievements as a violinist and to the incentive
he gave to romanticism in music.
II.
WEBER[37] (1786-1826). Spohr's efforts in behalf of
programmatic music are by no means to be undervalued; at the same
time it must be borne in mind that even his finest works are eclipsed
by those of Weber by virtue of the latter's marvellous imagination,
unerring judgment in the choice of appropriate means of expression,
and huge technique in orchestration. Weber began his career during
what might be called the transition period in modern art. It would be
here out of place to enlarge upon the general conditions attendant
upon the awakening of the so-called "storm and stress" agitation in
Germany. Weber's artistic development was, however, so inseparably
allied with this movement that at least a brief review thereof would
appear indispensable before proceeding to an examination of his
orchestral works.
[Footnote 37: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 36 to
47.]
Langhans sums up the mental and emotional conditions of this
transition period by saying that "in place of the general
subject-matter with which the lyric poetry of the preceding century
had been satisfied, the subjective feelings of the poet now came to
the front, and the essential nature of lyric poetry, a boundless
submersion into the innermost life of the soul, could under these
circumstances attain full prominence." Germany was at this time
greatly interested in the writings of Byron and of Jean Paul Richter.
Romantic poetry in turn began to influence both dramatic and lyric
music. Indications of departure from the elevated and reflective
style of the great classical composers were apparent. Time-honored
rules and traditions began to be neglected. Individualism asserted
itself. The general tendency of the epoch embodied a certain mystical
element--a return to the chivalrous atmosphere of mediæval romance.
And this tendency was in harmony with the very nature of Weber's
imaginative trend. In turn, this unfettered realm of imagination,
peopled with sylphs, nymphs, fairies, contained latent and most
propitious possibilities for progressive orchestration. Weber's
instrumentation was founded upon that of Beethoven, but it was none
the less distinctive and original. It was above all dramatic. His
true greatness lay in the power of orchestral portrayal in the more
vivid scenes of his operas, and in his operatic overtures. His two
symphonies are comparatively weak. Though deficient in artistic
education, Weber's romantic disposition and rare appreciation for
instrumental effects enabled him to become one of the greatest
modern orchestral writers, and his scoring is a model for all later
composers. He stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with
him a new period began. Moreover, he was the creator of modern German
romantic opera. As Kapellmeister at Dresden he was instrumental in
counteracting the influence of Italian music which was still in vogue
at the Court, and he helped to mould the tastes of the public in
favor of native dramatic and orchestral music. "Der Freischütz" is
the representative of ideal national opera. Here the orchestration is
admirably adapted to depict and intensify the scenes and situations.
It abounds in striking contrasts that are ever consistent with the
demands of what has been called the "local" coloring. Episodes
requiring sombre and mysterious tonal tints are again offset by
the purest of lyrics and by powerful dramatic climaxes. "Oberon,"
on the other hand, abounds in more peaceful melodic and harmonic
fancies, poetic revery, and dainty scoring. Though the effectiveness
of "Euryanthe" is marred by reason of its insipid libretto, it is
nevertheless the most important of Weber's operas, considered from
a musical standpoint. Its continuous music and the interweaving
of recitative and melody directly point the way to Wagner. Weber
displayed superb power in the development of his overtures. In the
second volume of his "Music and Musicians," Wagner declared that
Weber might be said to have originated a novel form of overture or
"dramatic fantasy," of which Wagner considered the "Oberon" overture
to be the best example.
In turning to the details of Weber's instrumentation it is found that
no new instruments were introduced. Beauty and novelty were attained
rather by inherent regard for suitable application of tonal color and
by the discovery of new combinations. Although Weber, like Spohr, did
not venerate Beethoven as he should have done, it was not possible
for him to improve upon the great master's string writing. Of course
certain novel effects are to be found, such as the subdivision of
the violins _soli_ into numerous parts, the viola accompaniment to
Annette's ballad,[38] and the use of the same instrument as bass to
"Leise, leise"[39] in "Der Freischütz."
[Footnote 38: Ex. 47.]
[Footnote 39: Ex. 43.]
But perhaps no other composer contributed more to the independence of
the wood-wind.[40] Weber was exceedingly modern in the use of small
combinations. In order to obtain a rare and fairy-like effect in
"Oberon," the first flute and first clarinet give out the melody; the
second flute plays arpeggios as does likewise the second clarinet,
though in contrary motion; a solo horn is employed as bass. The
opening bars of Annette's song in "Der Freischütz" may be cited as
containing a good example for the oboe as does also the accompaniment
to Kilian's song for the bassoon. But it was quite particularly the
clarinet for which Weber showed especial predilection. Beautiful
phrases for the clarinet are to be found in the Allegro of the
overture to "Der Freischütz"[41] as well as in the overture to
"Oberon"; and the characteristics of the instrument in its entire
range are effectively displayed in the introduction to Adolar's
aria in the second act of "Euryanthe." Moreover, he was the first
to discover the tragic possibilities of the chalumeau range,[42] as
exemplified by the held notes in the lowest part of the instrument
accompanying the entries of Zamiel in "Der Freischütz."
[Footnote 40: Ex. 39, 41.]
[Footnote 41: Ex. 37.]
[Footnote 42: Ex. 40, 44, 46.]
Next to the clarinet, the horns[43] received especial consideration
from Weber, and acquired greater freedom and individuality, being
brought into requisition not alone for mellow _cantilene_ and
sustained harmonies, but also as the exponents of jubilant outbursts
or of gloomy whisperings. Many admirable illustrations will
readily be recalled, such as the passages for horns _soli_ in the
introduction of the "Freischütz" overture,[44] the trio for horns
in the Romance in "Preciosa," and the horn accompaniment to the
Mermaid's Song in "Oberon." With Weber, the use of four horns and
three trombones became the rule, whereas with Beethoven it had been
the exception.
[Footnote 43: Ex. 42, 45.]
[Footnote 44: Ex. 36.]
All things considered, it is evident that modern opera and modern
orchestration are immensely indebted to Weber, and his influence has
made itself more or less felt upon the writings of all subsequent
dramatic and orchestral composers.
III.
Two contemporaries of Weber who followed in his footsteps as
composers of romantic opera were Konradin Kreutzer (1780) and
Marschner (1795). Kreutzer's "Nachtlager von Granada" has become
widely known, but of the two men, Marschner is by far the more
important. He is popularly known as the heir of Weber, and has
been called the connecting link between Weber and Wagner. Himself
stimulated and influenced by his friend, Weber, he in turn helped to
mould the earlier works of Wagner. His masterpiece, "Hans Heiling,"
abounds in natural melodic expression, truthful interpretation and
dramatic energy. Neither Kreutzer nor Marschner can be cited as
having contributed anything substantially new to instrumentation,
but they at least helped to strengthen the foundations of modern
orchestration as initiated by Weber.
IV.
The two greatest representatives of the early Romantic School were
Weber and SCHUBERT (1797-1828), indeed, the latter is to
be regarded as the ideal exponent of the romantic poets. He was the
first to raise the Lied from comparative obscurity to such prominence
as to bring the lyric element on a par with that of the dramatic and
epic. His nature was contemplative rather than dramatic. Nevertheless
some of his greatest masterpieces, such as the "Erlkönig," embody not
only dramatic but epic characterization as well. He was above all the
master of exquisite melody, and both his songs and his instrumental
works are further conspicuous for their daring harmonies, animated
and varied rhythm. He opened up a new pathway in the field of
accompaniment which acquired not only greater importance in
intensifying emotional expression, but came also to be the faithful
ally of the vocal part as interpreter of the poem. The use of little
motives in the accompaniment to his songs might be looked upon as an
anticipation in the miniature of Wagner's thematic treatment of his
"Leit-motiven."
Schubert's mode of life was in some respects similar to that of
Beethoven in that he lived apart from the public. Spurred on by
the example of Beethoven, he added to his series of youthful
symphonies two masterpieces which are next in importance to those
of his illustrious model. Both the C major and the unfinished B
minor symphonies display rare skill in the handling of orchestral
instruments, whether in solo passages or in combination. An intimate
acquaintance with their respective characteristics was afforded him
during his early training, and every bar reveals the hand of a master
who without hesitation knew what effects he desired and how to obtain
them. Although his orchestral works lack that depth of conception
that only Beethoven possessed, Schubert nevertheless supplied the
deficiency by means of beautiful melody, tender expression, forceful
harmonic progressions, and, as just intimated, a perfect command
of orchestral resources. Schubert enlarged the scope of practical
instrumentation by discovering two exceedingly valuable and effective
modes of expression that were entirely new so far as manner of
treatment is concerned. No composer before him had elicited from the
trombones such impressive utterance as is to be found, for instance,
in the first movement of the symphony in C where the trombones
_pianissimo_ intone the melody. The first innovation consisted,
therefore, of employing the trombones freely as solo instruments, or
again as independent factors in three-part harmony, _pianissimo_, or
in unison, _forte_. The second innovation was the felicitous manner
in which he contrasted solo instruments of the wood-wind group, or
what Prout calls "a kind of dialogue between them." As an admirable
illustration well-known to all, he calls attention to the charming
dialogue between the flute, oboe, and clarinet in the two Ballet airs
and in the Entr'-act in B flat of the music to "Rosamunde." Many
other interesting details of instrumentation could be cited such as
the effective use of the trumpet in the slow movement of the symphony
in G; his chamber music, also, furnishes admirable examples of string
writing. Among the most prominent are the trio in E flat, the quartet
in D minor, and the quintet in C.
Only in recent years has the influence of Schubert's orchestral
works made itself prominently felt, for until the middle of the
last century most of them had remained in manuscript. Moreover as
recently as fifty odd years ago one of his symphonies was considered
excessively difficult by the principal orchestra of Vienna. Grove
says that "though the whole work was announced, such had been the
difficulties at rehearsal that only the first two movements were
given, and they were carried off by an interpolation of an air from
'Lucia' between them."
V.
MENDELSSOHN[45] (1809-1847). Concurrent with the advent of
Mendelssohn and Schumann, the fascination that Rossini had exercised
in Germany lost its hold, and the public learned to appreciate
more and more the sterling qualities of its own native music. But
not only did the efforts of the German composers of the nineteenth
century begin to win due recognition, but also there was rekindled a
veneration for the creations of the great classicists. This was in
a large manner due to Mendelssohn's untiring efforts. Possessed of
broad culture, wealth, and attractive personality, he combined the
spirit of romanticism with the structural forms of classicism; this
conservatism helped to balance the restless tendencies that were at
that time dominating music and poetry. His compositions are imbued
with beauty and sweetness of melody, with varied harmonies, buoyant
orchestration; his choral writing is the most fluent since Bach's
and surpasses in this respect that of Händel. Melody is emphasized;
tragic depth is lacking. He excelled as a writer of "representative"
music, but even here his refined sense for euphony never deserted
him. He was successful in all forms excepting opera. "St. Paul" and
"Elijah" are the most important oratorios since those of Haydn;
his violin concerto comes next to Beethoven's as a favorite; his
symphonies are characteristic, romantic, and abound in "local"
coloring. His style may be divided into two distinct classes: the
lyric, as typified in the "Songs without Words," and the fantastic
and imaginative as exposed in the Scherzo of the "Midsummer Night's
Dream."
[Footnote 45: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 58 to
66.]
Mendelssohn's contributions to the details of instrumentation were
both original and varied. Already in "Midsummer Night's Dream," of
which the Overture was written when he was but seventeen years old,
are to be found marvellous effects that are indeed fairy-like in
their daintiness.[46] In fact it might be justly claimed that this
is Mendelssohn's best orchestral work, taking into consideration its
polished form, transparent and perfectly balanced instrumentation.
Noteworthy for their novelty are the rapid staccato passages for
the wood-wind in the Scherzo.[47] In none other of his works has
the flute been treated in a more charming manner.[48] Familiar to
all is the romantic and extended employment of the horns in the
Notturno,[49] as well as the ludicrous utterances of the opheicleide
in the Overture.
[Footnote 46: Ex. 58, 62.]
[Footnote 47: Ex. 59.]
[Footnote 48: Ex. 60, 66.]
[Footnote 49: Ex. 65.]
As a composer of oratorio, Mendelssohn's choruses, recitatives and
German chorale melodies plainly show the influence of Bach's "Passion
Music." This is particularly noticeable in "St. Paul." Mendelssohn's
mightiest creation is undoubtedly "Elijah." It satisfies every demand
by reason of its expressive recitative, its dramatic and descriptive
choruses, its beauty of lyric episodes and the appropriateness of
its structural form. The orchestral score of "Elijah" is one of
Mendelssohn's best. Among minor details, the violas are brought
into prominence as in the accompaniment to "Lord God of Abraham"
where they are given the highest part. A well-known phrase is the
'cello accompaniment in thirds to the baritone solo. The brass is
again reënforced by an opheicleide. The opening of the chorus, "O
be gracious, ye immortals," in "St. Paul" is accompanied by divided
violas and 'cellos, and parts for the serpent are to be found in the
same work.
Both the subject-matter and the orchestration of Mendelssohn's
symphonies show exceptional originality, and the "Scotch," No. 2
in A minor, as well as the "Italian," No. 3 in A major, are worthy
companions to the "Midsummer Night's Dream." His symphonies are full
of freshness and vigor. Though classic purity of form is strictly
adhered to, Beethoven's polyphony and Weber's picturesque portrayal
are skilfully combined. Like Beethoven, he embodied in his symphonies
certain dramatic characteristics. Rapid passages for the wood-wind,
similar to those in the "Midsummer Night's Dream," are again to be
met with in the Scherzo of the "Scotch" symphony. Mendelssohn was
conservative in employing the brass; of all the early romanticists
he remained the most faithful to traditional usage of the third
group, although trombones were now incorporated as habitual members
thereof. Among other novel combinations, divided violas, reënforced
by clarinets, intone the second subject in the first movement of
the "Lobgesang" symphony. In connection with Mendelssohn it is
interesting to recall the fact that as late as 1829 the pianoforte
was still sometimes employed as a means for conducting, since in
that year he directed his C minor symphony in that way in London.
Mendelssohn's overtures are more pronounced in their modern romantic
tendencies than his symphonies. They are distinctly programmatic,
even though in structure they are moulded on classic forms. From
them dates the development of the modern romantic concert overture.
Mendelssohn's merits and defects have led to much violent discussion,
but the suavity of his melody, the purity of his form and the
delicacy of his orchestration have been excelled by none.
VI.
The most prominent associates and disciples of Mendelssohn were F.
Hiller, Rietz, the Englishman, Bennett, and the Dane, Gade.
Ferdinand Hiller (1811) was a celebrated and prolific composer,
being in his day considered the most notable musician in West
Germany. It was his rare privilege to be personally acquainted with
no less than seven of the greatest composers the world has ever
produced--Cherubini, Beethoven, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Berlioz, Chopin
and Liszt. He was, moreover, a fine pianist and conductor, and was
particularly happy as an interpreter of Beethoven. His compositions
are pleasing and well-rounded in form; but they were modelled
after those of Mendelssohn and are now comparatively forgotten in
consequence of their lack of individuality.
Julius Rietz (1812) was closely associated with Mendelssohn whom he
eventually succeeded as conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts. He is
primarily to be remembered for having edited Beethoven's symphonies
as well as the entire works of Mendelssohn.
Sterndale Bennett (1816) was one of England's greatest composers,
the most gifted, in fact, after Purcell. He was a friend both of
Mendelssohn and of Schumann, and their enthusiasm encouraged and
stimulated him to further develop his own talents. Although the
influence more particularly of Mendelssohn is plainly to be found
in his works, he retained his individuality and displayed numerous
traits that are undeniably original. His most important works are
an oratorio "The Woman of Samaria"; a cantata "The May Queen"; a
symphony in G minor; four overtures, and four pianoforte concertos.
He has been called the founder of a new "English School."
Since the substance of Gade's music is nominally Scandinavian in
character, it will again be referred to later on in connection with
the Northern countries.
VII.
SCHUMANN (1810-1856). In spite of the depth of thought and
feeling, the brilliancy of ideas, and the programmatic tendencies
that signalize Schumann's monumental productions, he unfortunately
holds the unique position of being one of the few great masters who
did not excel in orchestration. Nevertheless, such is the importance
of his orchestral works that they have won for themselves an exalted
and permanent place in musical literature. Schumann's relation to
the Romantic Movement may be tersely stated as in one of Dickinson's
condensed reviews: "The romantic ideal attains self-consciousness in
Schumann. Weber and Schubert never called themselves romanticists
and were not wholly aware of the tendencies of their work. Schumann,
a critical thinker and self-analyst, not only moulded and colored
his music in accord with certain definite poetic conceptions imbibed
from the romantic writers, but also became the literary champion of
romanticism in music, and aimed directly at fixed radical principles
in the critical and creative thought of his time. He, therefore, not
only marks the beginning of a new era in musical art, but is also
the type of the modern liberally cultured and reflective musician."
With Schumann, the subject-matter and treatment of design are of all
importance. His compositions contain the quintessence of the poetic
and romantic. Every little melody is a miniature poem in tones,
tinged by a certain melancholy and even gloomy coloring. He was, like
Mendelssohn, an ardent disciple of Bach, but his harmonies are freer
and bolder than Mendelssohn's, and his pianoforte compositions show
the influence more especially of Chopin. The chief characteristics
of these works are _cantabile_ expression, intricacy, and the
predominance of harmony and rhythm over melody. A multitude of ideas
are frequently crowded into the space of a few bars. As a song writer
Schumann rivalled and perhaps even excelled Schubert. The songs of
these two peers, together with those of Franz (1815), represent
the highest ideal of the German Lied, for the exquisite taste and
sentiment of Franz appeal strongly to the cultivated musician.
Although Schubert's influence upon Schumann's songs is plainly to
be seen, Schumann enhanced the functions of the accompaniment and
frequently assigned but a secondary rôle to the vocal part. Novelty
of form and style characterize his works for soli, chorus and
orchestra; portions of "Scenes from Faust," "Paradise and the Peri,"
"Manfred," represent his highest attainment and contain also some
effective scoring. The instrumentation of his chamber music betrays
more regard for sonority than for classic counterpoint. Of surpassing
beauty are the quartets in A and in A minor, and the greatest of all,
the quintet in E flat.
Schumann's four symphonies rank next in importance to those of
Beethoven and Schubert, and in depth of sentiment and emotional
power he proved himself a worthy successor to Beethoven. His
symphonies are stamped with distinctive individuality, traditional
form being subjected to certain modifications that were in keeping
with the progressive tendencies of his nature. Thus the D minor
symphony is intended to be played entire without a pause, and
subject-matter from one movement reasserts itself in another. It
would be a waste of time to analyze Schumann's instrumentation
too closely. He followed but could not equal that of Mendelssohn.
Artistic feeling for orchestral effects and occasional good scoring
are to be found, but much of the latter is thick and heavy. He was
apt to follow Rossini's more or less trivial methods of employing
the third enlarged orchestral group. Even Schubert was not entirely
exempt from this mannerism. Such incongruities as the employment of
a bassoon as a bass to trombones could also be cited. Of material
advantage, however, was his introduction into German orchestras of
valve-horns and valve-trumpets. But in a word, it is the substantial
worth of the music itself, not the instrumentation, that has made
Schumann's orchestral works immortal.
VIII.
Among the prominent associates and disciples of Schumann should be
mentioned Volkmann, Reinecke, Bargiel, and Jensen.
The compositions of Volkmann (1815) show affinity to Schumann's.
His pianoforte works bear fanciful titles, and his symphonies and
quartets are massive and musicianly. But like most satellites, he
was not possessed of sufficient spontaneity to acquire wide-spread
or enduring recognition. The compositions of Carl Reinecke (1824),
who held the honorable position of director of the Gewandhaus
Concerts from 1860 until 1895, show the influence more especially
of Schumann, although that of Mendelssohn as well as of Wagner and
Brahms is also apparent. He owes his reputation as a composer largely
to his smaller works, in which the tastes of a refined pianist are
much in evidence. Few could be compared with him as an interpreter
of Mozart, and his activity not alone as a composer of merit but
also as a prominent pianist and distinguished conductor has won him
universal fame. Bargiel (1828) was one of the foremost disciples of
Schumann whose principles he zealously disseminated, both in his
capacity as a fine teacher and as composer. His symphonies, chamber
music and quite especially his psalms for chorus and orchestra show
considerable originality and fine musicianship. Likewise Jensen
(1837) took Schumann unreservedly as his model in spite of being in
sympathetic accord with Gade. His songs and pianoforte pieces in the
lyric _genre_ are imbued with true feeling and rare sensuous charm.
IX.
In a general sense, all modern composers belong to the Romantic
School, but for the sake of consistency in this general
classification, Lachner, Jadassohn and Moszkowski should be mentioned
as direct followers of both Mendelssohn and Schumann.
Franz Lachner (1803) was prominently connected with the musical
life of Munich prior to the rise of Wagner worship in 1865. In
spite of his untiring activity as a conductor, he was one of the
most prolific and at the same time most popular composers of South
Germany. His style betrays the mind of a learned man. The harmonies
are modern, but his works are none the less imbued with a certain
tinge of classicism. Lachner wrote several operas and oratorios,
eight symphonies, and much chamber and church music; but of greatest
importance are the suites for grand orchestra of which he wrote
eight. They are magnificent specimens of contrapuntal knowledge. Some
condemn his writings as being "Kapellmeistermusik" and as containing
nothing truly original or great. Riemann's views are radically
different:--"Lachner is at his best in his orchestral suites, which,
as a kind of modern continuation of Bach-Händel orchestral movements,
occupy a distinctive place in musical literature. Sovereign command
of contrapuntal devices combined with nobility of invention will
secure for them in the future greater appreciation than is accorded
them at the present day."
Jadassohn (1831) holds an important position in the history of
instrumentation, not so much, perhaps, as a result of his own
composition as for the excellence of his teaching and of his
theoretical works, which include the valuable "Lehrbuch der
Instrumentation." A prominent feature of many of his works is the
facility with which canonic writing is applied. Among the best-known
and most popular of his orchestral compositions is the Serenade, opus
35.
Moszkowski (1854) is one of the younger composers whose writings are
imbued with the spirit of Mendelssohn and Schumann rather than with
the local coloring of Poland as might have been expected since his
father was a native of that country. The most popular of his works
are the "Spanische Tänze" for pianoforte, whereas the most important
in orchestral form is the symphonic poem "Jeanne d'Arc." The style is
dignified and musicianly, but lacks the true greatness of originality.
The list of faithful adherents to the pure romanticism of the early
school is herewith properly concluded. Only an imaginary line,
however, separates Spohr and Weber from Raff and Brahms; so the
following chapter is nothing more than a continuation of the present
discussion.
(Summary on page 175.)