oscillations must not vary to any considerable extent, say not more
than ten to twelve seconds; on the other hand the lower or shorter
the time the better a man should be able to stand the violent swaying
of a captive balloon, since it is this motion above all others that
produces the most intense nausea and emesis. Following the above to
its logical conclusion, we in practice reject men who show too high
a nystagmus time, and recommend for observers, and especially for
balloonists, those showing sluggish reactions.”
Failure to conform to either the pointing or falling reactions
required are good and sufficient reasons to reject applicants for
cadet pilots.
It is probable that to the layman much of the foregoing will be found
technical and scientific, but to the investigator into the physical
and psychical phenomena induced by flying, it should be of direct
interest. In the medical service of the R.A.F., Canada, the value
of these tests in their standardized form was first proved by their
application to men who were actually unfit to fly, and the case
sheets of many such are on file in that department.
Their adoption only followed after the analysis and continual
checking of results obtained by tests not only upon those who desired
to take to the air, but also those who, having flown, were reported
by their instructors to be unfit to continue, and which showed that
they were demonstrably correct, and not merely deduced from _a
priori_ assumption.
[Illustration: REACTION AFTER TURNING TO THE LEFT.
REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.]
[Illustration: REACTION AFTER TURNING.
REVOLVING CHAIR TESTS.]
Investigations into “oxygen want,” as evidenced by drowsiness,
shortness of breath, fainting, etc., at considerable altitudes,
have led the authorities to supply pilots with oxygen tanks for
use in high altitudes, since it is not the density of atmosphere
but the dearth of oxygen which causes these distressing symptoms.
An apparatus has recently been perfected by means of which, by
diluting the respired air with nitrogen, it is now possible to
determine accurately the altitude beyond which a pilot may fly in
safety, and so it is hoped to prevent many casualties, and assist
in the “classification” of airmen with reference to their flying
capabilities.
Vision, which when abnormal causes headaches, dizziness, etc., should
be normally stereoscopic, and the accommodation perfect in at least
one eye; but while accurate color vision is considered desirable,
it is not essential providing the primary colors are correctly
recognized.
Amongst other tests adopted by the brigade are those giving the
vital lung capacity, the expiratory force, also complemental and
supplemental air, the former being the measurement of the excess
capacity of the lungs over a normal intake of air, the latter that
quantity of air remaining in the lungs after a normal expiration.
Excess of any nature is frowned on. Excessive tea or coffee drinking,
or any semblance of nicotine poisoning at once asserts itself. The
strain of instruction also produces definite phenomena, and pilots
retained for this duty are limited to three and a half hours’ flying
daily. These phenomena are watched for, and treated sanely and
sympathetically, till the individual with all his personal variations
becomes as it were a human barometer, which infallibly records the
actions and reactions of the flying man’s life.
Owing to the fact that the pioneer attempt at systematic winter
training, without regard to temperature, was undertaken during
1917-18 in Canada and successfully concluded during the severest
weather of many years, certain new problems required solution. When
it is realized that machines flew at ground temperatures as low as
-35 degrees Fah., the occurrence of frostbite and any effect of the
intense cold on the mental faculties, to the extent of producing
drowsiness and even stupor, was extremely infrequent. The flying
clothing provided, the Hawker boots, the gauntlets and chamois face
masks, which were adopted after all ointments, oils, etc., generally
in use in altitude flying, froze _in situ_, most effectually
prevented the expected difficulties, so completely indeed that during
the whole winter season no serious casualties could be traced to the
effect of the low temperatures encountered.
Such in brief outline are some of the major investigations peculiar
to the duties of the medical staff of the brigade. To these are of
course added others better known, such as blood pressure, etc. Couple
them with psycho-mental problems, and they give some suggestion
of the history compiled for every would-be pilot and observer, an
intimate history unapproached in detail and interest by any other
tabulation of personal phenomena.
In conclusion, it is desired that special acknowledgment be made
of the exceptional service rendered by medical officers on the
aerodromes, and by the staff of medical orderlies distributed through
the brigade.
The hours of the former were long and arduous, the duties of the
latter, for which they were trained by the senior medical officer
and his staff, were manifold and pressing. That they were admirably
performed is of common knowledge, but that their swiftness in succour
and skill in first aid saved many a life, is known only to those who
have been privileged to see them at work.
[Illustration: AERIAL AMBULANCE.]
[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--MONTHLY STRENGTH IN CANADA AND PERCENTAGE
INCAPACITATED BY ILLNESS]
WINTER FLYING.
Prior to the operations of the Corps, it was generally assumed that
the obstacles to intensive training in a snow-covered country were
almost insuperable, but in the light of last winter’s experience
it is difficult to imagine the limit to which the aeroplane may
not safely be used in the latitudes of the far north. Its apparent
fragility, the exposure of the pilot, the fact that a large
percentage of accidents occurred in making landings, and the mental
picture of a machine floundering through snowdrifts in an attempt to
rise, all seemed to reduce the matter to an impossibility. To-day
it has been demonstrated by the work of the 44th Wing of this unit
that, with such provision as has already been proved suitable, the
aeroplane will rise from a snow surface more easily than from bare
ground at temperatures far below zero, land in spots inaccessible in
summer time, and that the pilot may be maintained in physical comfort
and security and practically immune to the weather.
The process was one of return to aboriginal principles, in that
there was adopted a method used by the North American Indian, since
first he traversed the frozen waste. Experiments soon evidenced that
undercarriage wheels were out of the question in snow more than
six inches deep, and by the elimination of things that rotated and
the adoption of things that slid, the aeroplane fell, so to speak,
into line with the winter customs of the country. The progressive
experiments out of which were evolved the skids finally adopted,
called for the united suggestions of the unit, the Repair Park and
the Canadian Aeroplanes Limited, but passing over the investigations
into proper length, width, anchorage, bow curve, and kindred points,
the result was an effective and curiously attractive combination of
ancient and modern. As seen in the illustration on page 130, this
gives the machine a semi-naval appearance--prophetic perhaps of the
early union between the air forces of land and sea in the R.A.F.
Once in regular use, the efficiency of these shoes became very
noticeable. The slight bump observable in the best of landings
smoothed itself out into a gently cushioned settling in which the
actual first contact with the snow was imperceptible. Similarly,
in taking off, the sensation was as in a toboggan darting
without friction down a steep slope. Breakage in propellers and
undercarriages became reduced to a minimum, and frequent landings
soon ironed out the white expanse of the aerodrome to an unusually
good surface.
The protection of the pilot was of prime importance to continuous
training, and since flying was carried on at temperatures much below
zero, particular attention was given to guarding against frostbite.
Whale oil, vaseline, etc., smeared on the skin gave only partial
results, and it was not till long flying boots coming to the thigh
were provided, and chamois masks covering the face, with holes for
eyes and mouth were also issued, that comfort was finally attained.
Thus the pilot could remain in the air for a much longer period,
and perform instructional work with ease. The unit lacked the
electrically-heated clothing issued on the Western Front, but it did
not suffer in consequence. There were variations, of course, in the
powers of resistance to cold, it being found that some pilots could
endure low temperatures much better than others--and this called for
the particular attention of the medical officer on the aerodrome.
[Illustration: LEASIDE IN WINTER.]
[Illustration: AERODROME, CAMP MOHAWK.]
[Illustration: A WINTER CRASH.]
[Illustration: FIG. 1 FIG. 2
EXPERIMENTAL ADOPTED
R.A.F. CAN.--WINTER FLYING SKIDS]
As to the engines themselves, but little trouble was experienced.
What did materialize was met by precautions somewhat similar to those
taken in motor car work under parallel conditions. All petrol, oil
and water were carefully drawn off every evening, the two latter
being heated when replaced. Radiators were three-quarter covered by
beaver board lined with felt, this plan working quite satisfactorily.
Inspection of rigging was particularly close, lest the extreme cold
should have set up undue stress in tension members, but the JN4
seemed born for the duty, and so far as records go, no accident took
place which is in any way attributable to mechanical failure brought
about by low temperature.
It was decided also to make certain slight changes in tail
construction should flying be carried on for another winter. This
consisted only of enclosing the tail skid in a flexible cover at the
point where it left the fuselage--to prevent snow from accumulating
inside the latter.
Further protective measures were very simple, such as wrapping water
connections with felt and fabric, and removing the oil gauge from
rear to front seat to shorten the piping, and leading it between the
cylinders to secure maximum warmth. For the rest, the hangars were
banked with earth some two feet high, and maintained at a temperature
not below fifteen degrees of frost.
That the programme was successful may be seen from the fact that
though the winter was of unusual severity, both as to cold and
snowfall, flying was carried out for twenty-six days in January,
twenty-one in February, and twenty-five in March. For these months,
the records give an average day temperature of twenty-six degrees,
twenty-two degrees, and seventeen degrees above zero, respectively,
with a minimum of thirty-five degrees below. During this period, some
instructors kept up an average flying time per day of two hours and
twenty-five minutes for the whole three months.
On this record it was decided that the training of all squadrons
should be carried out in Canada for the following winter. This has
proved unnecessary. The campaign is over. But who will now scout the
prediction that the far North has no barriers which the explorer may
not surmount with ease and swiftness, and no secrets which shall not
soon be revealed to his enfranchized gaze.
[Illustration: RECORDS AND RECRUITING OFFICERS AND STAFF.]
[Illustration: RECRUITS’ DEPOT--JESSE KETCHUM BARRACKS, TORONTO.]
RECRUITS’ DEPOT.
This unit, formed on February 5th, 1917, was first stationed in
the Givens Street School, Toronto, which building was also partly
occupied by the 228th Canadian Regiment. Recruiting, however, was
active, and the R.F.C. began to show such strong signs of the marked
popularity it was to attain later, that extra accommodation was soon
required, and Crawford Street School taken over.
During the summer, it was seen that even this accommodation was
insufficient. The Depot, therefore, moved out to Leaside, and under
canvas.
The strength, at this time about 400, was largely increased by the
arrival of four American squadrons to be trained by the R.F.C. These
were attached to Recruits’ Depot for rations and accommodation. It
is satisfactory to remember that this first contact between the two
corps was productive of an admirable comradeship which has existed
ever since. It is noted also that canteen profits greatly increased,
and a large percentage of these was handed to each American squadron
on its departure.
The quartermaster’s branch of the Recruits’ Depot being still at
Givens Street, it was realized that much extra clerical and other
work would be saved could the whole depot be centralized. Steps were
therefore taken by headquarters to acquire convenient barracks in
town.
Early in September, the Recruits’ Depot band was formed--largely
helped by surplus canteen funds. It has been a source of much pride
and also of a certain amount of amusement to the men of the depot.
All parties for Texas or the United States were “played” down to the
railway station, and the band and “Bruno” (the camp dog--a handsome
St. Bernard) invariably accompanied the bi-weekly route marches.
In October the need of permanent accommodation in town became urgent.
It was eventually found (owing to the great generosity of the Board
of Education, Toronto), at the Jesse Ketchum School--a large and
commodious building, which was completed as fast as possible, and
loaned absolutely free of cost, including the larger part of the park
attached to the building, which it was permitted to use as a parade
and sports’ ground. This consideration was only typical of the way in
which Toronto public authorities have invariably dealt with the Royal
Flying Corps.
The Depot moved into town on the 17th November, 1917, and was in good
workable shape by the middle of December.
To these barracks, cadets, for the first time, were sent for
preliminary training, and three or four hundred were thus added to
normal strength, which stood at about 700. The ordinary accommodation
proving insufficient for this number, double bunks were placed in all
the sleeping rooms, where high ceilings and good lighting made the
provision entirely feasible.
The band at this time was a first class organization, and in great
demand for dances and hockey matches--half the profits made being
allotted to the Longwood Convalescent Home. Concerts were held in the
canteen three times a week. As to exercise, an ice hockey rink was
made, a football ground rolled out, and three billiard tables put in
the canteen, the electric lighting of the rink being given free of
cost by the City Parks Commissioner. There was, therefore, no lack of
amusement or exercise throughout an unusually severe winter.
The routine of procedure has been briefly as follows: Upon arrival
at the Depot, all recruits reported to the non-commissioned officer
in charge of the receiving room, and were allotted sleeping
accommodation. Medical parade for final approval was held each
morning at nine o’clock, and an hour later recruits received
their regimental numbers as “finally approved.” Came a parade at
quartermaster stores for issue of kit. Transfer clothing statements
and clothing ledger being signed, all reported back immediately to
the receiving room for the numbering of all articles of kit now
in their possession. Civilian clothes were packed and sent to any
address the owner might wish, and recruits were turned over to the
barrack orderly sergeant who “carried on.”
On discharge, the procedure is practically reversed, and all men
report to the postings department, for the checking of documents.
These being correct, sleeping quarters are allotted in space
set aside for this purpose. The same day, kits are laid out for
inspection, and inventories taken under the supervision of an
officer. These, being signed also by each man concerned, are sent
to the Quartermaster’s office, and checked against the original
clothing statements. Deficiency slips--should such result--(showing
articles deficient, if any, and their value) go then to the postings
department, to be checked against pay and mess book. This information
is sent to the officer in charge Records, on receipt of whose signal
that discharge may be proceeded with, an order is issued to the
contractor for civilian clothing to provide authorized civilian
outfit. The man’s kit is turned into the Quartermaster’s store No.
4, where another inventory of articles is made and forwarded to the
Quartermaster’s office, to be again checked against the original
clothing statement. Forms showing actual shortages of kit are
submitted to the Paymaster and a copy of Can. 638 (Particulars on
Discharge) to the Pay Department.
Since the inception of the brigade approximately 16,000 men have
passed through this unit. The process of demobilization will require
the above procedure of discharge to be applied to a strength of not
less than 12,000.
[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--PAY ALLOWANCE AND CADET SUSTENANCE
TOTAL FEB. 1917 TO OCT. 1918--$10,666,196.00]
RECORDS AND RECRUITING.
MECHANICS
The first duty of the R.F.C. comprised the securing of a continuous
inflow of recruits, both mechanics and cadets, and while it was
anticipated that difficulties would be encountered, local conditions
as set forth below were such as to make the task unexpectedly
arduous. The state of affairs in Canada, so far as concerns
mechanics, was briefly as follows:--
(1) Recruiting for the C.E.F. was practically at a standstill.
The country had been “worked out.”
(2) The R.F.C. was practically unknown in Canada.
(3) High wages were being paid to skilled workers.
(4) There was no organized recruiting system in use, each
Canadian unit doing its own.
(5) A very large percentage of skilled mechanics were essential
for the maintenance of aeroplanes and engines, and these were in
great demand at very high wages on munitions.
(6) The fact that, in a large number of cases, men had to be
transported for over 1,000 miles in order to be even interviewed,
or medically examined, made recruiting both expensive and
difficult.
The brightest point was the lively interest and very hearty
coöperation of every officer of the Department of Militia and
Defence, and of every officer of the Canadian Forces throughout
the Dominion. This coöperation has been maintained throughout our
work. Without it no success could have been attained. The spirit of
good fellowship and help has been of inestimable value to all our
recruiting officers, and later the same spirit, was encountered among
the officials administering the Military Service Act, to whose work
the operations of another force--engaged in recruiting men otherwise
than through the Military Service Act organization, must have been
a considerable trial. Instead of objections, the Corps encountered
nothing but assistance.
[Illustration: R.A.F. CAN.--ESTIMATED VALUE OF RATIONS DRAWN FROM
C.A.S.C.
GRAND TOTAL $1,406,809.00]
At the end of January, 1917, recruiting offices were opened in
Toronto and Hamilton, with a trade test party in each place. The
latter was shortly withdrawn as being unproductive, and merged into
a central test station at Toronto. Simultaneously, and owing to
great distances to be travelled and to difficulties encountered in
obtaining suitable accommodation and facilities for trade testing at
other centres, it was decided to establish merely recruiting offices
at outside stations; and offices were opened at Montreal, Winnipeg
and Vancouver, each in charge of an experienced officer trained by
ourselves, assisted by a staff of non-commissioned officers and
men from England. Oral tests were conducted here, the practical
examination being given after arrival in Toronto.
The question of publicity presented a problem, to solve which the
following methods were employed:
(1) Display advertisements in newspapers (large dailies).
(2) Written items of news and interesting articles.
(3) Classified advertisements for trades in the various want
advertising columns.
(4) Large posters of striking design used on bill-boards. These
posters were designed by an advertising company.
This work was supplemented by addresses and recruiting meetings.
The cost of (4) was too high to be maintained, and the results of (1)
and (2) were so discouraging in the first month that another scheme
was evolved. As a result of a conference with the National Board,
some 10,000 skilled workers who had volunteered for national service
were circularized with attractive literature. From this form of
publicity only 860 enlistments were obtained, extending over a period
of nearly six months.
On investigation, it was found that the first method of publicity
had been so long used by local Canadian Forces that the effect
lacked novelty, whereas information conveyed in articles dealing
with aviation always brought results. Since display advertisements,
however, were a sure means of reaching the public, they were
continued, inasmuch as they served to stimulate the interest of the
newspaper, and thereby helped in the placing of news items.
The entry of the United States into the war made it possible to
endeavour to recruit British subjects across the line. Quarters were
secured in New York, and officers visited many of the larger towns,
such as Chicago, Boston, Kansas City, St. Louis, Minneapolis, etc.,
where the British Recruiting Mission had offices, and gave every
possible assistance. Occasional visits were paid to these points,
except in the case of New York, where an officer was permanently
stationed, and from New York came the bulk of the men enlisted in
the United States. Altogether about 627 British subjects were thus
enrolled.
Owing to the distances between centres and the scattered population,
practically all applications for enlistment were dealt with
by correspondence, whether from headquarters or out-stations.
Transportation had then to be given to bring the applicant probably
at least 300 miles for a Medical Board, after which, if successful
in passing the oral tests, etc., he was transported to Toronto. This
journey, in the case of a man enlisting in Vancouver, occupied four
days and covered 2,500 miles. Sleeping accommodation was provided,
also meals en route. None of these difficulties were encountered in
England.
The Medical Boards placed at our disposal by the Department of
Militia and Defence were accustomed to pass for military service,
that is category “A.” For the purposes of the R.F.C., as it then was,
men of lower category than “A” were quite suitable, as no pack had to
be carried and there was little or no route marching. The composition
of the brigade is, therefore, very largely of men not fit for active
service, and who have been rejected time and time again by the C.E.F.
At the outset, Boards absolutely refused to pass for us applicants
of a lower medical category than “A,” this because the Board was
held responsible for any man returned as unfit on arrival in England
and _charged_ with the cost of his transportation, etc. Further, the
British practice of classifying men into “A,” “B,” “C,” “D,” and “E”
categories was not known. Each assistant director of medical service
required to be acquainted with our methods and standards, causing, in
consequence, considerable delay.