INSPECTION.
The Aeroplane Inspection Department took the responsibility of
determining whether every aeroplane and every engine bought by
the Royal Air Force, Canada, complied with the rigid requirements
laid down as necessary before acceptance. That the duties of this
organization were, in point of fact, admirably carried out, is
evident in the splendid results secured by the brigade in flying duty.
The A.I.D. was, under another name, in actual existence in Canada
before the arrival of the Corps in January, 1917, being then engaged
in supervising the manufacture of machines made in Canada for the
Admiralty by a branch of the Curtiss Aeroplane Company situated in
Toronto. The work at that time was under the Director of Inspection
for the Imperial Ministry of Munitions.
The coming of the Royal Flying Corps to Canada, and the consequent
demand for the supply of large numbers of engines and machines, made
it advisable that the unit should reap the fullest possible advantage
by the expansion of inspection work into an organization, the first
duty of which would be vouching for the quality of aeronautical
supplies purchased. In order that the work of this Department might
be kept absolutely up to date, constant touch was maintained with the
Ministry of Munitions in Great Britain, and information regarding
every new development was invariably transmitted to Canada without
delay. Thus it has been possible that the factories in Canada
producing aeroplane material were kept modernized by the best known
methods of inspection.
It will be evident that the term inspection was something more than a
name. All raw material of every description entering any factory for
the manufacture of aeronautical supplies subject to the Aeroplane
Inspection Department, is held until a release note is given by the
latter, the release note only being issued, in the case of sheet
metal, for instance, when a sample has been taken from every sixth
sheet and analysed with satisfactory results. In the case of steel
tubing, of which a great deal is used, every tenth tube is dealt with
likewise, the same minute method being impartially applied to all
material received.
As manufacture progresses with the material which has been passed,
the manufactured parts themselves are subject to a second inspection,
and are not allowed to be sent on to the assembling department
unless up to requirements. A common sight in such factories is the
supervisor’s metal cage, and it is on record that through one cage
passed no less than 150,000 metal parts in one week.
Lastly comes inspection of final assembly; this formerly applied
to every machine, but rigging and adjusting before leaving the
factory was ultimately reduced to every sixth, results being
found acceptable. Here the same rigid method was carried out,
and examination release sheets were filled in. If results were
satisfactory, these were signed by the Aeroplane Inspection
Department, and a copy passed on to the Aircraft Equipment Branch
of the R.F.C., the latter refusing each and all deliveries not thus
vouched for. So satisfactorily had the system worked out, that at
the request of the brigade the Aeroplane Inspection Department
installed their representatives to pass upon the work of the Engine
and Aeroplane Repair Parks of the brigade.
[Illustration: “A PANCAKE.”
WHAT A MACHINE DID TO A DERRICK--PILOT UNHURT.
COLLISION.]
[Illustration: 92ND SQUADRON, CAMP BORDEN--OFFICERS AND MECHANICS.]
[Illustration: FORMATION. GLIDING HOME.
MACHINE SEEN THROUGH A VERTICAL “BANK.”]
[Illustration: AEROPLANE REPAIR--CAMP MOHAWK.]
In British Columbia, the A.I.D. gave valuable services by the passing
of all aeroplane lumber purchased by the Imperial Ministry of
Munitions for aeroplane purposes, and from this source was drawn raw
material required by Canadian factories. The quantities handled were
very large, as much as four and a half million feet being inspected
in the course of a month. Other services were the supervision of the
manufacture of the many engines purchased by the brigade from the
Curtiss Aeroplane and Engine Company in the United States.
In order that there might be a thorough consensus upon all technical
questions, there was formed shortly after arrival of the R.A.F. an
Aircraft Advisory Board. This consisted of representatives from
the factory, from the R.A.F. and from the A.I.D., and dealt with
the question of any changes required or contemplated in machines.
It is hardly necessary to add that no alterations were actually
made without conference between the Board and the A.I.D. The chief
inspector states that always and under all circumstances the greatest
possible harmony has existed between his organization and that of the
R.A.F.
THE INSTRUCTOR.
Flying instructors are, for the most part, too good to be sent
overseas. This is a bald and possibly astonishing statement. The rest
are usually those who, being incapacitated at the front from further
active duty, spend the rest of their service imparting valuable
knowledge to others. From which it may be seen that the appointment
is highly honourable as well as arduous.
In the early days of the R.F.C., Canada, the job was not as exacting
as in the later months of the R.A.F., Canada. The instructor was
then a man who could fly. To-day he is still a man who can fly,
but has, to boot, a peculiar and well developed art of infusing
his own skill and courage into the pupil by following a certain
recognized procedure which has been demonstrated to be the last
word in training. There is nothing in this derogatory to the early
instructors. Their work was admirable. In a sense they took even
greater risks, owing to the slight preliminary training then afforded
to pupils before going up. But the instructor of to-day is one who
himself has been instructed not only in the mechanics and dynamics of
flight, but also in that inductive process by which he acquires the
complete confidence of his pupil. It will be understood therefore,
that on the introduction of the more modern system of training, to
which reference is made on page 211, it was necessary to re-examine
all instructors and make sure that their abilities equalled the new
requirements. In addition it was constantly necessary to be sure that
instructors were not growing stale in their work.
[Illustration: 85TH SQUADRON--CAMP MOHAWK.]
[Illustration: ON THE WESTERN FRONT.]
While there is undoubted fascination in flying, the sensation begins
to pall after hundreds of hours in the air in a slow machine which
circles somewhat monotonously over areas of which every detail has
long since been memorized. The Canadian JN4 is considered reliable,
with vagaries too slight to demand much attention, and a most
excellent machine for instructional purposes. It is not as inherently
stable as some others, but instruction on a stable machine would not
have been as desirable as on one which required constant if simple
control, and effected its higher manoeuvres by acquired momentum and
not by engine power.
In Canadian flying therefore, per se, there is nothing particularly
attractive for the instructor. The most unstable element is provided
by the cadet, and it has been remarked that at the outset “he has
many opportunities for error and usually discovers them all.”
To anyone who has observed a machine reeling unsteadily around
an aerodrome under the guidance of a fledgling pilot, while his
instructor sits impassively in the seat of danger, it will be
apparent that the latter has attained an abnormal degree of pluck and
composure. It is a point of honour with him not to assume control
until it is obviously imperative, and even then there is danger lest
the pupil, in an excess of fear, cling desperately to the stick and
bring about disaster.
With the instructor must be placed the second in command of
squadrons. To this officer falls the responsibility of conducting
the “pool,” through which all pupils pass before being posted out.
Here take place those final tests which determine the cadet’s
proficiency. Failing in any one, the pupil is returned for further
tuition. To this officer, therefore, the squadron commander looks for
the ultimate approval of the work of every cadet, as well for the
satisfactory condition of instructors and aerodrome discipline.
There are compensations, however, if no guarantee of personal
security. To the instructor, for instance, there is always interest
in the never-ending tide of cadets, their personalities, their
characteristics as developed in the air and their progress. A
cadet’s first solo flight brings, if successful, a peculiar pride to
the man who taught him to fly, but if not successful a self-searching
to determine what link in the armour of tuition has been weak--for
the instructor is held responsible for the crash.
The wing examining officer was called into existence by the
introduction of the Gosport system, which in itself has been
developed and modified to suit Canadian conditions. The first
result of this introduction was that it became necessary to comb
out instructors, some of whom had been too long on the job and were
“stale,” others too old, others too young to be entirely steady, and
others who, though excellent pilots, could not adopt the principles
and psychology evolved. Still others needed instruction themselves.
To this end the School of Special Flying was established at Armour
Heights under a brilliant pilot. A steady supply of well-trained men
was assured by the operations of this unit.
Early in the year 1918, the instructors at every wing were put under
the wing examining officer, whose duty it was to weed out those who
got stale, to test the abilities of all new instructors from time to
time, and form his own opinion of their instructional capacity. In
addition, it was the obligation of this officer, to investigate the
log book of every machine which crashed, and demand an explanation of
any apparent discrepancies, and also to keep knowledge of all crashes
so as to determine whether any one instructor was responsible for an
unreasonable number. In the case of the latter being evident, it was
palpable that the instructor was either stale or too young for his
work, and he was forthwith sent overseas, where usually under the new
and much-longed-for stimulant he did admirably.
[Illustration: OFF TO WORK--CAMP BORDEN.]
[Illustration: “STUNTING” AT ARMOUR HEIGHTS.]
A mind of peculiar judgment is required to find its chief
satisfaction in the achievements of others. This is demanded of all
instructors. Deprived of the tremendous incentive of contact with
the enemy, isolated, as it were, in a daily repetition of duties
that afford little variety, constantly speeding off others to that
thrilling destination where they fain would be--others who owe to
them their fitness to go--such is the every-day grind.
And yet how tremendously it has all counted! A large part of the
work of the brigade was in preparing cadets to a point at which they
were deemed worthy of flying instruction. Toward that honourable
object was directed a vast amount of effort. Decorations were often
subsequently won by pupils whose instructors plugged doggedly along
the same old road. There was no publicity, and only junior--very
junior rank. Here, therefore, is given earnestly and officially, the
grateful thanks of the General Officer Commanding to those men who
by their unfailing readiness and pluck have had so splendid a part
in turning out the pilots the brigade has been privileged to send
overseas.
THE MEDICAL SERVICE.
The R.A.F., Canada, is indebted to many Canadian authorities and
organizations for assistance rendered, but to none is the debt
greater than to the Canadian Army Medical Corps for supplying the
personnel from which the medical service of the Royal Air Force has
from time to time been built up. The request was made in January by
the Imperial Government that the Canadian Militia Department should
supply this service. Prompt action was taken, and from a small
beginning there has been formed a complete corps of medical officers,
medical orderlies and nurses, skilled not only in everyday practice
but also in the special work called for at flying camps.
The original intention was to supply only a small camp hospital,
with one medical officer and the necessary orderlies at the various
aerodromes, but it was soon determined that the work of the Medical
Corps covered a much wider range than was anticipated. Almost the
first need was that of skilled orderlies who were specially trained
in first aid. Owing to calls from overseas, the available number
of men was very small, and it was found imperative that the senior
medical officer of the R.A.F. provide the necessary training.
Coincident with this came a further need of isolation hospitals,
which, although the general health of the brigade was maintained at
an unusually high standard, were found to be essential in order that
the work of training might not suffer in the least degree.
[Illustration: MEDICAL OFFICER AND STAFF, DESERONTO.]
[Illustration: HOSPITAL--CAMP BORDEN.
“HUNGRY LIZZIE.”]
The responsibilities undertaken by the medical department were made
the more onerous, not only because an extremely low percentage of
class “A” men were enlisted--and these only owing to their possession
of invaluable technical ability, but also because the community at
large suffered from severe civilian epidemics of scarlet fever and
influenza. Surgical work, with dental surgery--which latter covered
many major operations owing to crashes resulting in broken jaws and
teeth--comprised a considerable part of the duties performed.
A modern operating room was completely furnished at each aerodrome,
together with X-ray equipment at the “out-stations.” In the autumn of
1917, the medical orderlies were further aided by the introduction
of nursing sisters. For these also we are indebted to the Canadian
Army Medical Corps, and without question their work has been of the
highest possible advantage. Thus, by degrees, the medical staff of
the Royal Air Force increased its personnel, the burden of its duties
and the value of its services.
Ambulance equipment was of prime importance. A Packard machine,
provided with a special type of shock absorbers and every possible
requisite, not only for first aid but also for fire extinguishing,
was stationed at each field, and remained on constant and watchful
duty from the time the first aeroplane took the air till the skies
were empty for the night. So close was the lookout, that “first
aid” was often tearing full-powered to the rescue before the crash
completed its descent. The ground traversed being often rough and
devoid of roads, it was imperative that the ambulances be perfectly
cushioned, lest the condition of “shock” as frequently found in
“crash” be aggravated by the journey home. It is hardly conceivable
that there could have been found vehicles better designed for the
purpose than those selected, and unquestionably lives were saved
in consequence of their use. Chemical extinguishers and asbestos
blankets, the latter introduced for protection of the pilot in case
the crash was in flames, were also carried as part of the equipment.
For winter purposes at outlying stations, the aerial ambulances shown
herewith were evolved. With a wide radius, landings could have been
made in any suitable, snow-covered place, however inaccessible by
motor transport. They were never to be used by the R.A.F., Canada.
In this connection it is interesting to note the degree to which
the duties of the medical officers in flying camps varied from the
more or less regulated routine met with in other services. The
senior medical officer has, from time to time, instilled into his
staff certain axioms for their constant guidance. It has been, for
instance, necessary that the medical officer in flying camps become,
as far as possible, the confidant and adviser of all ranks. It is
advisable that he himself get into the air as soon as feasible, and
that the machine which carries him be put through all evolutions,
in order to acquaint him with the physical phenomena of flying. No
machine must leave the ground unless the medical officer on duty is
within reach, nor must the latter leave the aerodrome while there
is a machine in the air. A further responsibility is that he must
pronounce upon the fitness of all cadets and flying officers to take
the air, and, further, without hesitation, prevent any man from
going up who is, in his opinion, unfit. As routine work he must also
conduct a monthly physical inspection of all cadets, and be present
at all “test flights.”
The psychological side of medical service takes on new proportions
in a flying camp. The personality and characteristics of the patient
in question must be always kept in mind so that when investigating
air sickness the medical officer may determine whether it is real or
assumed. The question of fear, i.e., “aerophobia,” in its actuality,
and any loss of nervous control, must be established if existing--and
obversely. Any excitement or tension must be carefully distinguished
from natural recklessness or other characteristics of what is termed
a “thrusting disposition.”
An exhaustive study of the ideal pilot established the fact that he
should have an acute and correct sense of equilibrium. This does not
appear so essential for an observer, who if he is fairly safe in the
air and does not become giddy in stunting, may prove acceptable.
The “rotation tests,” described in detail below, have proved that as
regards a great number of successful pilots--referring to those who
have flown 100 hours and more,--in no case has a man been discovered
who has not conformed to the above standards laid down for admission
to the brigade. Above all there is demanded a sound physical
condition, by which alone all bodily functions will respond normally.
The following data are taken verbatim from memoranda issued by
the senior medical officer and authorized by the G.O.C. for the
information of medical and flying officers:--
“For the information of the flying officer, a short explanation of
the phenomena of equilibrium may not be out of place. Deep in the
bones of the skull, in close connection with the hearing apparatus,
lie, one set on each side, a series of three minute canals, filled
with a clear fluid and lined with a membrane intimately connected by
delicate nervous elements with the brain.
“These canals, each corresponding to half of the arc of a circle, are
about half an inch in length, have a diameter of about one-twentieth
of an inch and inter-communicate. They lie in the three dimensions
or planes of space, and it is primarily due to movements in the
contained fluid acting on the delicate nerve terminals, which are
directly connected with the brain through fibres of the Vill nerve,
that man is enabled to maintain the equilibrium of the body. It may
be of interest to note at this point that the corresponding system
in birds shows the extremely high degree of development one would
expect. Knowing that to be a successful pilot a man must have an
accurate and delicate perception of his position in relation to
the earth, it is readily seen how intimately the internal ear, its
adjuncts, and the problems involved in aeronautics are related. It
should be understood that the canals mentioned above have nothing to
do with the sense of hearing.
“Close to these, and in the same portion of the bone, lie two others
closely resembling the spiral canals found in conch shells, and it
is on these canals, also filled with fluid and lined with cells
connected to the brain by fine nervous filaments, that we rely for
our auditory impressions. It has been proved that not only dizziness,
but also nausea and vomiting, all untoward symptoms frequently
encountered in airmen, are closely connected with lesions or
functional disturbances of the labyrinth of the auditory apparatus.
“In order to test the action of these canals, the contained fluid
may be set in motion by rotating the body. This is most readily done
by seating the patient in a revolving chair, and so, with the head
in different planes, testing the different canals in turn. It has
been found that pilots experiencing difficulty in flying, especially
in maintaining equilibrium, and those who are troubled with vertigo
or nausea, often show abnormal reactions, and it is for this reason
that these tests are employed. These ‘rotation’ or ‘turning tests’
have been used for a considerable time in connection with diseases of
the internal ear and in the diagnosis of lesions of the brain, but
it is only recently, as a result of experimental work, that their
application to aeronautics has been demonstrated and proved to be of
practical value.
[Illustration: OPERATING ROOM. CAMP BORDEN HOSPITAL.]
[Illustration: WINTER CRASHES.]
“In the ‘nystagmus test’ the applicant is first spun in the chair
exactly ten times in twenty seconds, accurately checked with a stop
watch. The examiner now carefully observes certain lateral, jerking
movements of the eyes which normally appear, but should cease on an
average in twenty-six seconds. A certain variation is allowed from
the normal time, and cadets for pilots not conforming to this test
should not be allowed to fly. In it the head is tilted forward to an
angle of thirty degrees in order to stimulate only those canals which
lie in the horizontal plane.
“In order to stimulate those canals lying in the vertical plane,
‘falling tests’ are employed. The subject is instructed to lean
forward, resting his forehead on his hands which are placed on his
knees, and is then turned alternately to right and left five times in
ten seconds.
“Should he be rotated to the right and be ordered to sit up, he
should immediately fall to the right, which is the normal reaction,
but should he sit directly upright or fall to the opposite direction,
a faulty functioning of these canals or of the pathways in the brain
is thus demonstrated.
“‘Pointing tests’ are applied somewhat similarly. The candidate is
turned ten times in ten seconds alternately to right and left, with
eyes closed. He is then instructed to raise his arm and point to
a fixed object, usually the examiner’s finger, of the position of
which he is already aware. As a result of the dizziness produced,
if he has been turned to the right, he should point to the right
of the object. This ‘past-pointing’ is a normal reaction, and any
considerable deviation will immediately reject the applicant. Even
after the chair has stopped, the man still feels that he is turning
and is endeavouring to locate the fixed point. The ‘past-pointing’
shows that he is attempting to allow or the rotary motion which he is
still experiencing, though actually the chair is stationary.
“Since the more sensitive, theoretically, a man is, as shown by
‘turning tests,’ the more likely he is to be a good pilot, as he
should be able to detect more accurately and early the movements of
his plane without the use of his eyes. This is, however, true only
to a limited degree, for we have found that as a rule the higher the
nystagmus time, the more likely is the man to suffer from vertigo,
nausea or vomiting in the air. On the other hand, theoretically, a
man with a short period of nystagmus should be less sensitive to
unpleasant, subjective sensations, and those with ‘dead labyrinths’
ought to be immune.