FOOTNOTES:

[1] Philip married a natural daughter of Louis XIV., and in this way

the later princes of Orleans are descended from the Grand Monarque.

[2] Henry contracted a morganatic marriage, and consequently his son

Henry, who died in 1894, was ruled out of the succession. This branch

of the family is now extinct.

[3] The branch of the family descended from the infante Gabriel is

still flourishing, its head being Francis, duke of Marchena.

[4] By a second marriage Robert has a large family, including six

sons--Sixtus, Xavier, Felix, Rene, Louis and Gaetan.

BOURBON, CHARLES, DUKE OF (1490-1527), constable of France, second son

of Gilbert, count of Montpensier and dauphin of Auvergne, was born on

the 17th of February 1490, his mother being a Gonzaga. In 1505 he

married Suzanne, heiress of Peter II., duke of Bourbon, by Anne of

France, daughter of King Louis XI., and assumed the title of duke of

Bourbon. The addition of this duchy to the numerous duchies, countships

and other fiefs which he had inherited on the death of his elder brother

Louis in 1501, made him at the age of fifteen the wealthiest noble in

Europe. He gained his first military experience in the Italian campaigns

of Louis XII., taking part in the suppression of the Genoese revolt

(1507) and contributing to the victory over the Venetians at Agnadello

(May 14, 1509). Shortly after the accession of Francis I. Bourbon

received the office of constable of France, and for his brilliant

services at the battle of Marignano (September 1515) he was made

governor of the Milanese, which he succeeded in defending against an

attack of the emperor Maximilian. But dissensions arose between Francis

and the constable. Grave, haughty and taciturn, Bourbon was but ill

suited to the levities of the court, and his vast wealth and influence

kindled in the king a feeling of resentment, if not of fear. The duke

was recalled from the government of the Milanese; his official salary

and the sums he had borrowed for war expenses remained unpaid; and in

the campaign in the Netherlands against the emperor Charles V. the

command of the vanguard, one of the most cherished prerogatives of the

constables, was taken from him. The death of his wife without surviving

issue, on the 28th of April 1521, afforded the mother of the king,

Louise of Savoy, a means to gratify her greed, and at the same time to

revenge herself on Bourbon, who had slighted her love. A suit was

instituted at her instance against the duke in the parlement of Paris,

in which Louise, as grand-daughter of Charles, duke of Bourbon (d.

1456), claimed the female and some of the male fiefs of the duchy of

Bourbon, while the king claimed those fiefs which were originally

appanages, as escheating to the crown, and other claims were put

forward. Before the parlement was able to arrive at a decision, Francis

handed over to his mother a part of the Bourbon estates, and ordered

the remainder to be sequestrated.

Smarting under these injuries, Bourbon, who for some time had been

coquetting with the enemies of France, renewed his negotiations with the

emperor and Henry VIII. of England. It was agreed that the constable

should raise in his own dominions an armed force to assist the emperor

in an invasion of France, and should receive in return the hand of

Eleonora, queen dowager of Portugal, or of another of the emperor's

sisters, and an independent kingdom comprising his own lands together

with Dauphine and Provence. He was required, too, to swear fidelity to

Henry VIII. as king of France. But Bourbon's plans were hampered by the

presence of the French troops assembling for the invasion of Italy, and

for this reason he was unable to effect a junction with the emperor's

German troops from the east. News of the conspiracy soon reached the

ears of Francis, who was on his way to take command of the Italian

expedition. In an interview with Bourbon at Moulins the king endeavoured

to persuade him to accompany the French army into Italy, but without

success. Bourbon remained at Moulins for a few days, and after many

vicissitudes escaped into Italy. The joint invasion of France by the

emperor and his ally of England had failed signally, mainly through lack

of money and defects of combination. In the spring of 1524, however,

Bourbon at the head of the imperialists in Lombardy forced the French

across the Sesia (where the chevalier Bayard was mortally wounded) and

drove them out of Italy. In August 1524 he invested Marseilles, but

being unable to prevent the introduction of supplies by Andrea Doria,

the Genoese admiral in the service of Francis, he was forced to raise

the siege and retreat to the Milanese. He took part in the battle of

Pavia (1525), where Francis was defeated and taken prisoner. But

Bourbon's troops were clamouring for pay, and the duke was driven to

extreme measures to satisfy their demands. Cheated of his kingdom and

his bride after the treaty of Madrid (1526), Bourbon had been offered

the duchy of Milan by way of compensation. He now levied contributions

from the townsmen, and demanded 20,000 ducats for the liberation of the

chancellor Girolamo Morone (d. 1529), who had been imprisoned for an

attempt to realize his dream of an Italy purged of the foreigner. But

the sums thus raised were wholly inadequate. In February 1527 Bourbon's

army was joined by a body of German mercenaries, mostly Protestants, and

the combined forces advanced towards the papal states. Refusing to

recognize the truce which the viceroy of Naples had concluded with Pope

Clement VII., Bourbon hastened to put into execution the emperor's plan

of attaching Clement to his side by a display of force. But the troops,

starving and without pay, were in open mutiny, and Spaniards and

Lutherans alike were eager for plunder. On the 5th of May 1527 the

imperial army appeared before the walls of Rome. On the following

morning Bourbon attacked the Leonine City, and while mounting a scaling

ladder fell mortally wounded by a shot, which Benvenuto Cellini in his

_Life_ claims to have fired. After Bourbon's death his troops took and

sacked Rome.

See E. Armstrong, _Charles V._ (London, 1902); _Cambridge Mod. Hist._

vol. ii., bibliography to chaps. i. ii. and iii.

BOURBON-LANCY, a watering-place of east-central France in the department

of Saone-et-Loire, on a hill about 2 m. from the right bank of the Loire

and on the Borne, 52 m. S.S.E. of Nevers by rail. Pop. (1906) town,

1896; commune, 4266. The town possesses thermal springs, resorted to in

the Roman period, and ancient baths and other remains have been found.

The waters, which are saline and ferruginous, are used for drinking and

bathing, in cases of rheumatism, &c. Their temperature varies from 117

deg. to 132 deg. F. Cardinal Richelieu, Madame de Sevigne, James II. of

England, and other celebrated persons visited the springs in the 17th

and 18th centuries. The town has a well-equipped bathing establishment,

a large hospital, and a church of the 11th and 12th centuries (used as

an archaeological museum), and there are ruins of an old stronghold on a

hill overlooking the town. A belfry pierced by a gateway of the 15th

century and houses of the 15th and 16th centuries also remain. The

industries of the town include the manufacture of farm implements.

In the middle ages Bourbon-Lancy was an important stronghold and a fief

of the Bourbon family, from the name of a member of which the suffix to

its name is derived.

BOURBON L'ARCHAMBAULT, a town of central France in the department of

Allier, on the Burge, 16 m. W. of Moulins by rail. Pop. (1906) 2306. The

town has thermal springs known in Roman times, which are used in cases

of scrofula and rheumatism. The bathing-establishment is owned by the

state. A church dating from the 12th century, and ruins of a castle of

the dukes of Bourbon (13th and 15th centuries), including a cylindrical

keep, are of interest. There are a military and a civil hospital in the

town. Stone is quarried in the vicinity. Bourbon (_Aquae Borvonis_ or

_Bormonis_) was anciently the capital of the Bourbonnais and gave its

name to the great Bourbon family. The affix Archambault is the name of

one of its early lords.

BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS, a town of eastern France, in the department of

Haute-Marne, 35-1/2 m. by rail E.N.E. of Langres. Pop. (1906) 3738. It

is much frequented on account of its hot saline springs, which were

known to the Romans under the name _Aquae Borvonis_. The heat of these

springs varies from 110 deg. to 156 deg. F. The waters are used in cases

of lymphatic affections, scrofula, rheumatism, wounds, &c. The principal

buildings are a church of the 12th century, the state

bathing-establishment and the military hospital; there are also the

remains of a castle. Timber-sawing and plaster manufacture are carried

on in the town. In the neighbourhood are the buildings of the celebrated

Cistercian abbey of Morimond.

BOURCHIER, ARTHUR (1864- ), English actor, was born in Berkshire in

1864, and educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford. At the university

he became prominent as an amateur actor in connexion with the

O.U.A.D.C., which he founded, and in 1889 he joined Mrs Langtry as a

professional. He also acted with Charles Wyndham at the Criterion, and

was for a while in Daly's company in America. In 1894 he married the

actress Violet Vanbrugh, elder sister of the no less well-known actress

Irene Vanbrugh, and he and his wife subsequently took the leading parts

under his management of the Garrick theatre. Both as tragedian and

comedian Mr Bourchier took high rank on the London stage, and his career

as actor-manager was remarkable for the production of a number of

successful modern plays, by Mr Sutro and others.

BOURCHIER, THOMAS (c. 1404-1486), English archbishop, lord chancellor

and cardinal, was a younger son of William Bourchier, count of Eu (d.

1420), and through his mother, Anne, a daughter of Thomas of Woodstock,

duke of Gloucester, was a descendant of Edward III. One of his brothers

was Henry, earl of Essex (d. 1483), and his grand-nephew was John, Lord

Berners, the translator of Froissart. Educated at Oxford and then

entering the church, he obtained rapid promotion, and after holding some

minor appointments he became bishop of Worcester in 1434. In the same

year he was chancellor of the university of Oxford, and in 1443 he was

appointed bishop of Ely; then in April 1454 he was made archbishop of

Canterbury, becoming lord chancellor of England in the following March.

Bourchier's short term of office as chancellor coincided with the

opening of the Wars of the Roses, and at first he was not a strong

partisan, although he lost his position as chancellor when Richard, duke

of York, was deprived of power in October 1456. Afterwards, in 1458, he

helped to reconcile the contending parties, but when the war was renewed

in 1459 he appears as a decided Yorkist; he crowned Edward IV. in June

1461, and four years later he performed a similar service for the queen,

Elizabeth Woodville. In 1457 Bourchier took the chief part in the trial

of Reginald Pecock, bishop of Chichester, for heresy; in 1467 he was

created a cardinal; and in 1475 he was one of the four arbitrators

appointed to arrange the details of the treaty of Picquigny between

England and France. After the death of Edward IV. in 1483 Bourchier

persuaded the queen to allow her younger son, Richard, duke of York, to

share his brother's residence in the Tower of London; and although he

had sworn to be faithful to Edward V. before his father's death, he

crowned Richard III. in July 1483. He was, however, in no way implicated

in the murder of the young princes, and he was probably a participant in

the conspiracies against Richard. The third English king crowned by

Bourchier was Henry VII., whom he also married to Elizabeth of York in

January 1486. The archbishop died on the 30th of March 1486 at his

residence, Knole, near Sevenoaks, and was buried in Canterbury

cathedral.

See W.F. Hook, _Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury_ (1860-1884).

BOURDALOUE, LOUIS (1632-1704), French Jesuit and preacher, was born at

Bourges on the 20th of August 1632. At the age of sixteen he entered the

Society of Jesus, and was appointed successively professor of rhetoric,

philosophy and moral theology, in various colleges of the Order. His

success as a preacher in the provinces determined his superiors to call

him to Paris in 1669 to occupy for a year the pulpit of the church of St

Louis. Owing to his eloquence he was speedily ranked in popular

estimation with Corneille, Racine, and the other leading figures of the

most brilliant period of Louis XIV.'s reign. He preached at the court of

Versailles during the Advent of 1670 and the Lent of 1672, and was

subsequently called again to deliver the Lenten course of sermons in

1674, 1675, 1680 and 1682, and the Advent sermons of 1684, 1689 and

1693. This was all the more noteworthy as it was the custom never to

call the same preacher more than three times to court. On the revocation

of the Edict of Nantes he was sent to Languedoc to confirm the new

converts in the Catholic faith, and he had extraordinary success in this

delicate mission. Catholics and Protestants were unanimous in praising

his fiery eloquence in the Lent sermons which he preached at Montpellier

in 1686. Towards the close of his life he confined his ministry to

charitable institutions, hospitals and prisons, where his sympathetic

discourses and conciliatory manners were always effective. He died in

Paris on the 13th of May 1704. His peculiar strength lay in his power of

adapting himself to audiences of every kind, and throughout his public

career he was highly appreciated by all classes of society. His

influence was due as much to his saintly character and to the gentleness

of his manners as to the force of his reasoning. Voltaire said that his

sermons surpassed those of Bossuet (whose retirement in 1669, however,

practically coincided with Bourdaloue's early pulpit utterances); and

there is little doubt that their simplicity and coherence, and the

direct appeal which they made to hearers of all classes, gave them a

superiority over the more profound sermons of Bossuet. Bourdaloue may be

with justice regarded as one of the greatest French orators, and many of

his sermons have been adopted as text-books in schools.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The only authoritative source for the Sermons is the

edition of Pere Bretonneau (14 vols., Paris, 1707-1721, followed by

the _Pensees_, 2 vols., 1734). There has been much controversy both as

to the authenticity of some of the sermons in this edition and as to

the text in general. It is, however, generally agreed that the changes

confessedly made by Bretonneau were merely formal. Other editions not

based on Bretonneau are inferior; some, indeed, are altogether

spurious (e.g. that of Abbe Sicard, 1810). Among critical works are:

Anatole Feugere, _Bourdaloue, sa predication et son temps_ (Paris,

1874); Adrien Lezat, _Bourdaloue, theologien et orateur_ (Paris,

1874); P.M. Lauras, _Bourdaloue, sa vie et ses oeuvres_ (2 vols.,

Paris, 1881); Abbe Blampignon, _Etude sur Bourdaloue_ (Paris, 1886);

Henri Cherot, _Bourdaloue inconnu_ (Paris, 1898), and _Bourdaloue, sa

correspondance et ses correspondans_ (Paris, 1898-1904); L. Pauthe,

_Bourdaloue_ (_les maitres de la chaire au XVII^e siecle_) (Paris,

1900); E. Griselle, _Bourdaloue, histoire critique de sa predication_

(2 vols., Paris, 1901), _Sermons inedits; bibliographie, &c._ (Paris,

1901), _Deux sermons inedits sur le royaume de Dieu_ (Lille and Paris,

1904); Ferdinand Castets, _Bourdaloue, la vie et la predication d'un

religieux au XVII^e siecle_, and _La Revue Bourdaloue_ (Paris,

1902-1904); C.H. Brooke, _Great French Preachers_ (sermons of

Bourdaloue and Bossuet, London, 1904); F. Brunetiere, "L'Eloquence de

Bourdaloue," in _Revue des deux mondes_ (August 1904), a general

inquiry into the authenticity of the sermons and their general

characteristics.

BOURDON, FRANCOIS LOUIS (d. 1797), known as BOURDON DE L'OISE, French

revolutionist, was _procureur_ at the parlement of Paris. He ardently

embraced the revolutionary doctrines and took an active part in the

insurrection of the 10th of August 1792. Representing the department of

the Oise in the Convention, he voted for the immediate death of the

king. He accused the Girondists of relations with the court, then turned

against Robespierre, who had him expelled from the Jacobin club for his

conduct as commissioner of the Convention with the army of La Rochelle.

On the 9th Thermidor he was one of the deputies delegated to aid Barras

to repress the insurrection made by the commune of Paris in favour of

Robespierre. Bourbon then became a violent reactionary, attacking the

former members of the Mountain and supporting rigorous measures against

the rioters of the 12th Germinal and the 1st Prairial of the year III.

In the council of Five Hundred, Bourdon belonged to the party of

"Clichyens," composed of disguised royalists, against whom the directors

made the _coup d'etat_ of the 18th Fructidor. Bourdon was arrested and

deported to French Guiana, where he died soon after his arrival.

BOURG-EN-BRESSE, a town of eastern France, capital of the department of

Ain, and formerly capital of the province of Bresse, 36 m. N.N.E. of

Lyons by the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) town, 13,916; commune,

20,045. Bourg is situated at the western base of the Jura, on the left

bank of the Reyssouze, a tributary of the Saone. The chief of the older

buildings is the church of Notre-Dame (16th century), of which the

facade belongs to the Renaissance; other parts of the church are Gothic.

In the interior there are stalls of the 16th century. The other public

buildings, including a handsome prefecture, are modern. The hotel de

ville contains a library and the Lorin museum with a collection of

pictures, while another museum has a collection of the old costumes and

ornaments characteristic of Bresse. Among the statues in the town there

is one of Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), a native of Bourg. Bourg is the seat

of a prefect and of a court of assizes, and has a tribunal of first

instance, a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank

of France. Its educational establishments include lycees for boys and

girls, and training colleges. The manufactures consist of iron goods,

mineral waters, tallow, soap and earthenware, and there are flour mills

and breweries; and there is considerable trade in grain, cattle and

poultry. The church of Brou, a suburb of Bourg, is of great artistic

interest. Marguerite of Bourbon, wife of Philibert II. of Savoy, had

intended to found a monastery on the spot, but died before her intention

could be carried into effect. The church was actually built early in the

16th century by her daughter-in-law Marguerite of Austria, wife of

Philibert le Beau of Savoy, in memory of her husband. The exterior,

especially the facade, is richly ornamented, but the chief interest lies

in the works of art in the interior, which date from 1532. The most

important are the three mausoleums with the marble effigies of

Marguerite of Bourbon, Philibert le Beau, and Marguerite of Austria. All

three are remarkable for perfection of sculpture and richness of

ornamentation. The rood loft, the oak stalls, and the reredos in the

chapel of the Virgin are masterpieces in a similar style.

Roman remains have been discovered at Bourg, but little is known of its

early history. Raised to the rank of a free town in 1250, it was at the

beginning of the 15th century chosen by the dukes of Savoy as the chief

city of the province of Bresse. In 1535 it passed to France, but was

restored to Duke Philibert Emmanuel, who later built a strong citadel,

which afterwards withstood a six months' siege by the soldiers of Henry

IV. The town was finally ceded to France in 1601. In 1814 the

inhabitants, in spite of the defenceless condition of their town,

offered resistance to the Austrians, who put the place to pillage.

BOURGEOIS, LEON VICTOR AUGUSTE (1851- ), French statesman, was born at

Paris on the 21st of May 1851, and was educated for the law. After

holding a subordinate office (1876) in the department of public works, he

became successively prefect of the Tarn (1882) and the Haute-Garonne

(1885), and then returned to Paris to enter the ministry of the interior.

He became prefect of police in November 1887, at the critical moment of

President Grevy's resignation. In the following year he entered the

chamber, being elected deputy for the Marne, in opposition to General

Boulanger, and joined the radical left. He was under-secretary for home

affairs in the Floquet ministry of 1888, and resigned with it in 1889,

being then returned to the chamber for Reims. In the Tirard ministry,

which succeeded, he was minister of the interior, and subsequently, on

the 18th of March 1890, minister of public instruction in the cabinet of

M. de Freycinet, a post for which he had qualified himself by the

attention he had given to educational matters. In this capacity he was

responsible in 1890 for some important reforms in secondary education. He

retained his office in M. Loubet's cabinet in 1892, and was minister of

justice under M. Ribot at the end of that year, when the Panama scandals

were making the office one of peculiar difficulty. He energetically

pressed the Panama prosecution, so much so that he was accused of having

put wrongful pressure on the wife of one of the defendants in order to

procure evidence. To meet the charge he resigned in March 1893, but again

took office, and only retired with the rest of the Freycinet ministry. In

November 1895 he himself formed a cabinet of a pronouncedly radical type,

the main interest of which was attached to its fall, as the result of a

constitutional crisis arising from the persistent refusal of the senate

to vote supply. The Bourgeois ministry appeared to consider that popular

opinion would enable them to override what they claimed to be an

unconstitutional action on the part of the upper house; but the public

was indifferent and the senate triumphed. The blow was undoubtedly

damaging to M. Bourgeois's career as an _homme de gouvernement_. As

minister of public instruction in the Brisson cabinet of 1898 he

organized courses for adults in primary education. After this short

ministry he represented his country with dignity and effect at the Hague

peace congress, and in 1903 was nominated a member of the permanent court

of arbitration. He held somewhat aloof from the political struggles of

the Waldeck-Rousseau and Combes ministries, travelling considerably in

foreign countries. In 1902 and 1903 he was elected president of the

chamber. In 1905 he replaced the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier as senator for

the department of Marne, and in May 1906 became minister of foreign

affairs in the Sarrien cabinet. He was responsible for the direction of

French diplomacy in the conference at Algeciras.

BOURGEOIS, a French word, properly meaning a freeman of a _bourg_ or

borough in France; later the term came to have the wider significance of

the whole class lying between the _ouvriers_ or workmen and the

nobility, and is now used generally of the trading middle-class of any

country. In printing, the word (pronounced burjoice') is used of a type

coming in size between longprimer and brevier; the derivation is

supposed to be from the name of a French printer, otherwise unknown.

BOURGES, a city of central France, chief town of the department of Cher,

144 m. S. of Paris on the Orleans railway between Vierzon and Nevers.

Pop. (1906) town, 34,581; commune, 44,133. Bourges is built amidst flat

and marshy country on an eminence limited on three sides by the waters

of the Canal Of Berry, the Yevre, the Auron, and other smaller streams

with which they unite at this point. The older part of the town with its

narrow streets and old houses forms a centre, to the south and east of

which lie important engineering suburbs. Flourishing nurseries and

market-gardens are situated in the marshy ground to the north and

north-east. Bourges preserves portions of the Roman ramparts of the 4th

century, which are for the most part built into the houses of the old

quarter. They measure considerably less in circumference than the

fortifications of the 13th century, remains of which in the shape of

ruined walls and towers are still to be seen. The summit of the rise on

which the city is built is crowned by the cathedral of St Etienne, one

of the most important in France. Begun at the end of the 12th century,

it was not completed till the 16th century, to which period belong the

northernmost of the two unfinished towers flanking the facade and two of

its five elaborately sculptured portals. The interior, which has double

aisles, the inner aisles of remarkable height, and no transepts,

contains, among many other works of art, magnificent stained glass of

the 13th century. Beneath the choir there is a crypt of Romanesque

construction, where traces of the Roman fosses are to be found; the two

lateral portals are also survivals of a Romanesque church. The Jardin de

l'Archeveche, a pleasant terrace-garden, adjoins the choir of the

cathedral. Bourges has many fine old houses. The hotel Lallemant and the

hotel Cujas (now occupied by the museum) are of the Renaissance period.

The hotel de Jacques Coeur, named after the treasurer of Charles VII.

and now used as the law-court, is of still greater interest, though it

has been doubted whether Jacques Coeur himself inhabited it. The mansion

is in the Renaissance style, but two towers of the Roman fortifications

were utilized in the construction of the south-western facade (see

HOUSE, Plate II. figs. 7 and 8). Its wings surround a courtyard into

which three staircase turrets project; one of these leads to a chapel,

the ceiling of which is decorated by fine frescoes.

Bourges is the seat of an archbishopric, a court of appeal, a court of

assizes and a prefect; and is the headquarters of the VIII. army corps.

It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of

trade-arbitrators, and a chamber of commerce, and a branch of the Bank

of France. Its educational institutions include an ecclesiastical

seminary, a lycee for boys, and a college for girls, training colleges,

and a school of industrial art. The industrial activity of Bourges

depends primarily on its gunpowder and ammunition factories, its

cannon-foundry and gun-carriage works. These all belong to the

government, and, together with huge magazines, a school of pyrotechnics,

and an artillery school, lie in the east of the town. The suburb of

Mazieres has large iron and engineering works, and there are

manufactories of anvils, edge-tools, biscuits, woollen goods, oil-cloth,

boots and shoes, fertilizers, brick and tile works, breweries,

distilleries, tanneries, saw-mills and dye-works. The town has a port on

the canal of Berry, and does a considerable trade in grain, wine,

vegetables, hemp and fruit.

Bourges occupies the site of the Gallic town of _Avaricum_, capital of

the Bituriges, mentioned by Caesar as one of the most important of all

Gaul. In 52 B.C., during the war with Vercingetorix, it was completely

destroyed by the Roman conqueror, but under Augustus it rose again into

importance, and was made the capital of Aquitania Prima. About A.D. 250

it became the seat of a bishop, the first occupant of the see being

Ursinus. Captured by the Visigoths about 475, it continued in their

possession till about 507. In the middle ages it was the capital of

Berry. During the English occupation of France in the 15th century it

became the residence of Charles VII., who thus acquired the popular

title of "king of Bourges." In 1463 a university was founded in the city

by Louis XI., which continued for centuries to be one of the most famous

in France, especially in the department of jurisprudence. On many

occasions Bourges was the seat of ecclesiastical councils--the most

important being the council of 1438, in which the Pragmatic Sanction of

the Gallican church was established, and that of 1528, in which the

Lutheran doctrines were condemned.

BOURGET, PAUL CHARLES JOSEPH (1852- ), French novelist and critic, was

born at Amiens on the 2nd of September 1852. His father, a professor of

mathematics, was afterwards appointed to a post in the college at

Clermont-Ferrand. Here Bourget received his early education. He

afterwards studied at the Lycee Louis-le-Grand and at the Ecole des

Hautes Etudes. In 1872-1873 he produced a volume of verse, _Au bord de

la mer_, which was followed by others, the last, _Les Aveux_, appearing

in 1882. Meanwhile he was making a name in literary journalism, and in

1883 he published _Essais de psychologic contemporaine_, studies of

eminent writers first printed in the _Nouvelle Revue_, and now brought

together. In 1884 Bourget paid a long visit to England, and there wrote

his first published story (_L'Irreparable_). _Cruelle Enigme_ followed

in 1885; and _Andre Cornelis_ (1886) and _Mensonges_ (1887) were

received with much favour. _Le Disciple_ (1889) showed the novelist in a

graver attitude; while in 1891 _Sensations d'Italie_, notes of a tour in

that country, revealed a fresh phase of his powers. In the same year

appeared the novel _Coeur de femme_, and _Nouveaux Pastels_, types of

the characters of men, the sequel to a similar gallery of female types

(_Pastels_, 1890). His later novels include _La Terre promise_ (1892);

_Cosmopolis_ (1892), a psychological novel, with Rome as a background;

_Une Idylle tragique_ (1896); _La Duchesse bleue_ (1897); _Le Fantome_

(1901); _Les Deux Soeurs_ (1905); and some volumes of shorter

stories--_Complications sentimentales_ (1896), the powerful _Drames de

famille_ (1898), _Un Homme fort_ (1900), _L'Etape_ (1902), a study of

the inability of a family raised too rapidly from the peasant class to

adapt itself to new conditions. This powerful study of contemporary

manners was followed by _Un Divorce_ (1904), a defence of the Roman

Catholic position that divorce is a violation of natural laws, any

breach of which inevitably entails disaster. _Etudes et portraits_,

first published in 1888, contains impressions of Bourget's stay in

England and Ireland, especially reminiscences of the months which he

spent at Oxford; and _Outre-Mer_ (1895), a book in two volumes, is his

critical journal of a visit to the United States in 1893. He was

admitted to the Academy in 1894, and in 1895 was promoted to be an

officer of the Legion of Honour, having received the decoration of the

order ten years before.

As a writer of verse Bourget was merely trying his wings, and his poems,

which were collected in two volumes(1885-1887), are chiefly interesting

for the light which they throw upon his mature method and the later

products of his art. It was in criticism that his genius first found its

true bent. The habit of close scientific analysis which he derived from

his father, the sense of style produced by a fine ear and moulded by a

classical education, the innate appreciation of art in all its forms,

the taste for seeing men and cities, the keen interest in the oldest not

less than the newest civilizations, and the large tolerance not to be

learned on the _boulevard_--all these combined to provide him with a

most uncommon equipment for the critic's task. It is not surprising that

the _Sensations d'ltalie_ (1891), and the various psychological studies,

are in their different ways scarcely surpassed throughout the whole

range of literature. Bourget's reputation as a novelist has long been

assured. Deeply impressed by the singular art of Henry Beyle (Stendhal),

he struck out on a new course at a moment when the realist school

reigned without challenge in French fiction. His idealism, moreover, had

a character of its own. It was constructed on a scientific basis, and

aimed at an exactness, different from, yet comparable to, that of the

writers who were depicting with an astonishing faithfulness the

environment and the actions of a person or a society. With Bourget

observation was mainly directed to the secret springs of human

character. At first his purpose seemed to be purely artistic, but when

_Le Disciple_ appeared, in 1889, the preface to that remarkable story

revealed in him an unsuspected fund of moral enthusiasm. Since then he

has varied between his earlier and his later manner, but his work in

general has been more seriously conceived. From first to last he has

painted with a most delicate brush the intricate emotions of women,

whether wronged, erring or actually vicious; and he has described not

less happily the ideas, the passions and the failures of those young men

of France to whom he makes special appeal.

Bourget has been charged with pessimism, and with undue delineation of

one social class. The first charge can hardly be sustained. The lights

in his books are usually low; there is a certain lack of gaiety, and the

characters move in a world of disenchantment. But there is no despair in

his own outlook upon human destiny as a whole. As regards the other

indictment, the early stories sometimes dwell to excess on the mere

framework of opulence; but the pathology of moral irresolution, of

complicated affairs of the heart, of the ironies of friendship, in which

the writer revels, can be more appropriately studied in a cultured and

leisured society than amid the simpler surroundings of humbler men and

women. The style of all Bourget's writings is singularly graceful. His

knowledge of the literature of other lands gives it a greater

flexibility and a finer allusiveness than most of his contemporaries can

achieve. The precision by which it is not less distinguished, though

responsible for a certain over-refinement, and for some dull pages of

the novels, is an almost unmixed merit in the critical essays. As a

critic, indeed, either of art or letters, Bourget leaves little to be

desired. If he is not in the very first rank of novelists, if his books

display more ease of finished craftsmanship than joy in spontaneous

creation, it must be remembered that the supreme writers of fiction have

rarely succeeded as he has in a different field.

See also C. Lecigne, _L'Evolution morale et religieuse de M. Paul

Bourget_ (1903); Sargeret, _Les Grands Convertis_ (1906). His _Oeuvres

completes_ began to appear in a uniform edition in 1899.

BOURIGNON, ANTOINETTE (1616-1680), Flemish mystic, was born at Lille on

the 13th of January 1616. From an early age she was under the influence

of religion, which took in course of time a mystical turn. Undertaking

the work of a reformer, she visited France, Holland, England and

Scotland. Her religious enthusiasm, peculiarity of views and disregard

of all sects raised both zealous persecutors and warm adherents. On her

death at Franeker, Friesland, on the 30th of October 1680, she left a

large number of followers, who, however, dwindled rapidly away; but in

the early 18th century her influence revived in Scotland sufficiently to

call forth several denunciations of her doctrines in the various

Presbyterian general assemblies of 1701, 1709 and 1710. So far as

appears from her writings and contemporary records, she was a visionary

of the ordinary type, distinguished only by the audacity and persistency

of her pretensions.

Her writings, containing an account of her life and of her visions and

opinions, were collected by her disciple, Pierre Poiret (19 vols.,

Amsterdam, 1679-1686), who also published her life (2 vols., 1679).

For a critical account see Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (Leipzig, 1897),

and Etude sur Antoinette Bourignon_, by M. E. S. (Paris, 1876). Three

of her works at least have been translated into English:--_An

Abridgment of the Light of the World_ (London, 1786); _A Treatise of

Solid Virtue_ (1699); _The Restoration of the Gospel Spirit (1707)

BOURKE, a town of Cowper county, New South Wales, Australia, 503 m. by

rail N.W. from Sydney. Pop. (1901) 2614. It is situated on the south

bank, and at the head of the ordinary winter navigation, of the Darling

river. Very rich copper ore exists in the district in great abundance.

Bourke is the centre of a large sheep-farming area, and the annual

agricultural show is one of the best in the colony. On the west side of

the Darling, 3 m. distant, is the small town of North Bourke, and at

Pera, 10 m. distant, is an important irrigation settlement.

BOURMONT, LOUIS AUGUSTE VICTOR, COMTE DE GHAISNE DE (1773-1846), marshal

of France, entered the _Gardes Francaises_ of the royal army shortly

before the Revolution, emigrated in 1789, and served with Conde and the

army of the _emigres_ in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, subsequently

serving as chief of staff to Scepeaux, the royalist leader, in the civil

war in lower Anjou (1794-1796). Bourmont, excepted from the amnesty of

April 1796, fled into Switzerland, but soon afterwards, having been made

by Louis XVIII. a _marechal de camp_ and a knight of St Louis, he headed

a fresh insurrection, which after some preliminary successes collapsed

(1799-1800). He then made his submission to the First Consul, married,

and lived in Paris; but his thinly veiled royalism caused his arrest a

few months later, and he remained a prisoner for more than three years,

finally escaping to Portugal in 1804. Three years later the French army

under General Junot invaded Portugal, and Bourmont offered his services

to Junot, who made him chief of staff of a division. He returned to

France with Junot after the convention of Cintra, and was promptly

re-arrested. He was soon released, however, on Junot's demand, and was

commissioned as an officer in the imperial army. He served in Italy for

a time, then went on the staff of the viceroy Eugene (Beauharnais), whom

he accompanied in the Moscow campaign. He was taken prisoner in the

retreat, but escaped after a time and rejoined the French army. His

conspicuous courage at the battle of Lutzen in 1813 led Napoleon to

promote him general of brigade, and in 1814 his splendid defence of

Nogent (February 13) earned him the rank of general of division. At the

first Restoration Bourmont was naturally employed by the Bourbons, to

whose service he had devoted his life, but he rejoined Napoleon on his

return from Elba. On the eve of the campaign of 1815, and at the urgent

request of Count Gerard, he was given a divisional command in the army

of the north. On the first day of the Waterloo campaign Bourmont went

over to the enemy. It is not probable that he gave information of French

movements to the allies, but the best that can be said in exculpation of

his treachery is that his old friends and comrades, the royalists of

Anjou, were again in insurrection, and that he felt that he must lead

them. He made no attempt to defend his conduct, and acted as the accuser

of Marshal Ney. A year later he was given command of a division of the

royal guard; and in 1823 he held an important position in the army

which, under the command of the duc d'Angouleme, invaded Spain. He

commanded the whole army in Spain for a time in 1824, became minister of

war in 1829, and in 1830 was placed in command of the Algiers

expedition. The landing of the French and the capture of Algiers were

directed by him with complete success, and he was rewarded with the

_baton_ of marshal. But the revolution of 1830 put an end to his

command, and, refusing to take the oath to Louis Philippe, he was forced

to resign. In 1832 Marshal Bourmont took part in the rising of the

duchesse de Berri, and on its failure retired to Portugal. Here, as

always, on the side of absolutism, he commanded the army of Dom Miguel

during the civil war of 1833-1834, and after the victory of the

constitutional party he retired to Rome. At the amnesty of 1840 he

returned to France. He died at the chateau of Bourmont on the 27th of

October 1846.

Charles de Bourmont, a son of the marshal, wrote several pamphlets in

vindication of his father's career.

BOURNE, VINCENT (1695-1747), English classical scholar, familiarly known

as "Vinny" Bourne, was born at Westminster in 1695. In 1710 he became a

scholar at Westminster school, and in 1714 entered Trinity College,

Cambridge. He graduated in 1717, and obtained a fellowship three years

later. Of his afterlife exceedingly little is known. It is certain that

he passed the greater portion of it as usher in Westminster school. He

died on; the 2nd of December 1747. During his lifetime he published

three editions of his Latin poems, and in 1772 there appeared a very

handsome quarto volume containing all Bourne's pieces, but also some

that did not belong to him. The Latin poems are remarkable not only for

perfect mastery of all linguistic niceties, but for graceful expression

and genuine poetic feeling. A number of them are translations of English

poems, and it is not too much to say that the Latin versions almost

invariably surpass the originals. Cowper, an old pupil of Bourne's,

Beattie and Lamb have combined in praise of his wonderful power of Latin

versification.

See an edition (1840) of his _Poemata_, with a memoir by John Mitford.

BOURNE, or BOURN, a market town in the S. Kesteven or Stamford

parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; lying in a fenny

district 95 m. N. by W. from London. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4361.

The Stamford-Sleaford branch of the Great Northern railway here crosses

the Saxby-Lynn joint line of the Great Northern and Midland companies.

The church of St Peter and St Paul is Norman and Early English with

later insertions; it is part of a monastic church belonging to a

foundation of Augustinian canons of 1138, of which the other buildings

have almost wholly disappeared. Trade is principally agricultural.

Bourne is famous through its connexion with the ardent opponent of

William the Conqueror, Hereward the Wake. Of his castle very slight

traces remain. Bourne was also the birthplace of the Elizabethan

statesman Cecil, Lord Burghley. The Red Hall, which now forms part of

the railway station buildings, belonged to the family of Digby, of whom

Sir Everard Digby was executed in 1606 for his connexion with the

Gunpowder Plot.

BOURNE (southern form of burn, Teutonic _born, brun, burna_), an

intermittent stream frequent in chalk and limestone country where the

rock becomes saturated with winter rain, that slowly drains away until

the rock becomes dry, when the stream ceases. A heavy rainfall will

cause streams to run in winter from the saturated soil. These are the

winter bournes that have given name to several settlements upon

Salisbury Plain, such as Winterbourne Gunning. The "bourne" may also be

a permanent "burn," but the word is usually applied to an intermittent

stream. (2) (From the Fr. _borne_), a boundary; the first use of the

word in English is in Lord Ferrers' translation of Forrest, 1523; the

figurative meaning of limit, end or final destination comes from

Shakespeare's Hamlet, "the undiscovered country, from whose bourne no

traveller returns."

BOURNEMOUTH, a municipal and county borough and watering-place of

Hampshire, England, in the parliamentary borough of Christchurch,

107-1/2 m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South-Western railway.

Pop. (1901) 59,762. It is beautifully situated on Poole Bay.

Considerable sandstone cliffs rise from the sandy beach, and are scored

with deep picturesque dells or chines. The town itself lies in and about

the valley of the Bourne stream. Its sheltered situation and desirable

winter climate began to attract notice about 1840; in 1855 a national

sanatorium for consumptive patients was erected by subscription; a pier

was opened in 1861, and in 1870 railway communication was afforded. The

climate is remarkably equable, being relatively warm in winter and cool

in summer; the average temperature in July is 61.7 deg. F., and in

January 40.3 deg. The town contains numerous handsome buildings,

including municipal buildings, churches, various places of

entertainment, sanatoria and hospitals, a public library and a science

and art school. Its suburbs have greatly extended along the sea front,

and the beautiful chines of Boscombe, Alum and Branksome have attracted

a large number of wealthy residents. There are piers at the town itself

and at Boscombe, and the bathing is excellent. The parks, gardens and

drives are extensive and pleasant. A service of electric tramways is

maintained, notable as being the first system installed in England with

a combination of the trolley and conduit principles of supplying

current. There are golf links in Meyrick and Queen's parks, both laid

out by the corporation, which has in other ways studied the

entertainment of visitors. The two railway stations are the Central and

West, and through communications with the north are maintained by the

Somerset & Dorset and Midland, and the Great Western and Great Central

railways. The town, which is of wholly modern and remarkably rapid

growth (for in the middle of the 19th century the population was less

than 1000), was incorporated in 1890, and became a county borough in

1900. The corporation consists of a mayor, 11 aldermen and 33

councillors. Area, 5769 acres.

BOURNONITE, a mineral species, a sulphantimonite of lead and copper with

the formula PbCuSbS3. It is of some interest on account of the twinning

and the beautiful development of its crystals. It was first mentioned by

Philip Rashleigh in 1797 as "an ore of antimony," and was more

completely described by the comte de Bournon in 1804, after whom it was

named: the name given by Bournon himself (in 1813) was endellione, since

used in the form endellionite, after the locality in Cornwall where the

mineral was first found. The crystals are orthorhombic, and are

generally tabular in habit owing to the predominance of the basal

pinacoid (c); numerous smooth bright faces are often developed on the

edges and corners of the crystals. An un-twinned crystal is represented

in fig. 1. Usually, however, the crystals are twinned, the twin-plane

being a face of the prism (m); the angle between the faces of this prism

being nearly a right angle (86 deg. 20'), the twinning gives rise to

cruciform groups (fig. 2), and when it is often repeated the group has

the appearance of a cog-wheel, hence the name _Radelerz_ (wheel-ore) of

the Kapnik miners. The repeated twinning gives rise to twin-lamellae,

which may be detected on the fractured surfaces, even of the massive

material. The mineral is opaque, and has a brilliant metallic lustre

with a lead-grey colour. The hardness is 2-1/2, and the specific gravity

5.8.

[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Crystal of Bournonite.]

[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Twinned Crystal of Bournonite.]

At the original locality, Wheal Boys in the parish of Endellion in

Cornwall, it was found associated with jamesonite, blende and chalybite.

Later, still better crystals were found in another Cornish mine, namely,

Herodsfoot mine near Liskeard, which was worked for argentiferous

galena. Fine crystals of large size have been found with quartz and

chalybite in the mines at Neudorf in the Harz, and with blende and

tetrahedrite at Kapnik-Banya near Nagy-Banya in Hungary. A few other

localities are known for this mineral. (L. J. S.)

BOURREE, a French name for a dance common in Auvergne and in Biscay in

Spain; also a term for a musical composition or a dance-movement in a

suite, somewhat akin to the gavotte, in quick time with two beats to the

bar.

BOURRIENNE, LOUIS ANTOINE FAUVELET DE (1769-1834), French diplomatist,

was born at Sens on the 9th of July 1769. He was educated at the

military school of Brienne in Champagne along with Napoleon Bonaparte;

and although the solitary habits of the latter made intimacy difficult,

the two youths seem to have been on friendly terms. It must, however, be

added that the stories of their very close friendship, as told in

Bourrienne's memoirs, are open to suspicion. Leaving Brienne in 1787,

and conceiving a distaste for the army, Bourrienne proceeded to Vienna.

He was pursuing legal and diplomatic studies there and afterwards at

Leipzig, when the French Revolution broke out and went through its first

phases. Not until the spring of 1792 did Bourrienne return to France; at

Paris he renewed his acquaintance with Bonaparte. They led a Bohemian

life together, and among other incidents of that exciting time, they

witnessed the mobbing of the royal family in the Tuileries (June 20) and

the overthrow of the Swiss Guards at the same spot (August 10).

Bourrienne next obtained a diplomatic appointment at Stuttgart, and soon

his name was placed on the list of political _emigres_, from which it

was not removed until November 1797. Nevertheless, after the affair of

13th Vendemiaire (October 5, 1795) he returned to Paris and renewed his

acquaintance with Bonaparte, who was then second in command of the Army

of the Interior and soon received the command of the Army of Italy.

Bourrienne did not proceed with him into Italy, but was called thither

by the victorious general at the time of the long negotiations with

Austria (May-October 1797), when his knowledge of law and diplomacy was

of some service in the drafting of the terms of the treaty of Campo

Formio (October 17). In the following year he accompanied Bonaparte to

Egypt as his private secretary, and left a vivid, if not very

trustworthy, account of the expedition in his memoirs. He also

accompanied him on the adventurous return voyage to Frejus

(September-October 1799), and was of some help in the affairs which led

up to the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire (November) 1799. He remained by the

side of the First Consul in his former capacity, but in the autumn of

1802 incurred his displeasure owing to his very questionable financial

dealings. In the spring of 1805 he was sent as French envoy to the free

city of Hamburg. There it was his duty to carry out the measures of

commercial war against England, known as the Continental System; but it

is known that he not only viewed those tyrannical measures with disgust,

but secretly relaxed them in favour of those merchants who plied him

with _douceurs_. In the early spring of 1807, when directed by Napoleon

to order a large number of military cloaks for the army, then in East

Prussia, he found that the only means of procuring them expeditiously

was to order them from England. After gaining a large fortune while at

Hamburg, he was recalled to France in disgrace at the close of 1810. In

1814 he embraced the royal cause, and during the Hundred Days (1815)

accompanied Louis XVIII. to Ghent. The rest of his life was uneventful;

he died at Caen on the 7th of February 1834, after suffering from a

mental malady for two years.

The fame of Bourrienne rests, not upon his achievements or his

original works, which are insignificant, but upon his _Memoires_,

edited by C.M. de Villemarest (10 vols., Paris, 1829-1831), which

have been frequently republished and translated. The best English

edition is that edited by Colonel R.W. Phipps (4 vols., London,

1893); a new French edition has been edited by D. Lacroix (5 vols.,

Paris, 1899-1900). See _Bourrienne et ses erreurs, volontaires et

involontaires_ (Paris, 1830), by Generals Belliard, Gourgaud, &c., for

a discussion of the genuineness of his Memoirs; also _Napoleon et ses

detracteurs_, by Prince Napoleon (Paris, 1887; Eng. trans., London,

1888). (J. Hl. R.)

BOURRIT, MARC THEODORE (1739-1819), Swiss traveller and writer, came of

a family which was of French origin but had taken refuge at Geneva for

reasons connected with religion. His father was a watchmaker there, and

he himself was educated in his native city. He was a good artist and

etcher, and also a pastor, so that by reason of his fine voice and love

of music he was made (1768) precentor of the church of St Peter (the

former cathedral) at Geneva. This post enabled him to devote himself to

the exploration of the Alps, for which he had conceived a great passion

ever since an ascent (1761) of the Voirons, near Geneva. In 1775 he made

the first ascent of the Buet (10,201 ft.) by the now usual route from

the Pierre a Berard, on which the great flat rock known as the _Table au

Chantre_ still preserves his memory. In 1784-1785 he was the first

traveller to attempt the ascent of Mont Blanc (not conquered till 1786),

but neither then nor later (1788) did he succeed in reaching its summit.

On the other hand he reopened (1787) the route over the Col du Geant

(11,060 ft.), which had fallen into oblivion, and travelled also among

the mountains of the Valais, of the Bernese Oberland, &c. He received a

pension from Louis XVI., and was named the _historiographe des Alpes_ by

the emperor Joseph II., who visited him at Geneva. His last visit to

Chamonix was in 1812. His writings are composed in a naive, sentimental

and rather pompous style, but breathe throughout a most passionate love

for the Alps, as wonders of nature, and not as objects of scientific

study. His chief works are the _Description des glacieres de Savoye_,

1773 (English translation, Norwich, 1775-1776), the _Description des

Alpes pennines et rhetiennes_ (2 vols., 1781) (reprinted in 1783 under

the title of _Nouvelle Description des vallees de glace_, and in 1785,

with additions, in 3 vols., under the name of _Nouvelle Description des

glacieres_), and the _Descriptions des cols ou passages des Alpes_, (2

vols., 1803), while his _Itineraire de Geneve, Lausanne et Chamouni_,

first published in 1791, went through several editions in his lifetime.

(W. A. B. C.)

BOURSAULT, EDME (1638-1701), French dramatist and miscellaneous writer,

was born at Mussy l'Eveque, now Mussy-sur-Seine (Aube), in October 1638.

On his first arrival in Paris in 1651 his language was limited to a

Burgundian patois, but within a year he produced his first comedy, _Le

Mort vivant_. This and some other pieces of small merit secured for him

distinguished patronage in the society ridiculed by Moliere in the

_Ecole des femmes_. Boursault was persuaded that the "Lysidas" of that

play was a caricature of himself, and attacked Moliere in _Le Portrait

du peintre ou la contre-critique de l'Ecole des femmes_ (1663). Moliere

retaliated in _L'Impromptu de Versailles_, and Boileau attacked

Boursault in Satires 7 and 9. Boursault replied to Boileau in his

_Satire des satires_ (1669), but was afterwards reconciled with him,

when Boileau on his side erased his name from his satires. Boursault

obtained a considerable pension as editor of a rhyming gazette, which

was, however, suppressed for ridiculing a Capuchin friar, and the editor

was only saved from the Bastille by the interposition of Conde. In 1671

he produced a work of edification in _Ad usum Delphini: la veritable

etude des souverains_, which so pleased the court that its author was

about to be made assistant tutor to the dauphin when it was found that

he was ignorant of Greek and Latin, and the post was given to Pierre

Huet. Perhaps in compensation Boursault was made collector of taxes at

Mont-lucon about 1672, an appointment that he retained until 1688. Among

his best-known plays are _Le Mercure galant_, the title of which was

changed to _La Comedie sans titre_ (1683); _La Princesse de Cleves_

(1676), an unsuccessful play which, when refurbished with fresh names by

its author, succeeded as _Germanicus; Esope a la ville_ (1690); and

_Esope a la cour_ (1701). His lack of dramatic instinct could hardly be

better indicated than by the scheme of his _Esope_, which allows the

fabulist to come on the stage in each scene and recite a fable.

Boursault died in Paris on the 15th of September 1701.

The _Oeuvres choisies_ of Boursault were published in 1811, and a

sketch of him is to be found in M. Saint-Rene Taillandier's _Etudes

litteraires_ (1881).

BOURSE (from the Med. Lat. _bursa_, a purse), the French equivalent of

the Stock Exchange, and so used of the Paris Exchange, or of any foreign

money-market. The English form "burse," as in Sir Thomas Gresham's

building, which was known as "Britain's Burse," went out of use in the

18th century. The origin of the name is doubtful; it is not derived from

any connexion between purse and money, but rather from the use of a

purse as a sign. At Bruges a house belonging to the family de Bursa is

said to have been first used as an Exchange, and to have had three

purses as a sign on the front.

BOURSSE, ESAIAS (1630-1673), Dutch painter, was born in Amsterdam. He

was a follower of Pieter de Hooch, in whose manner he worked for many

years in his native town; then he took service with the Dutch East India

Company, and died on a sea voyage. His paintings are exceedingly rare,

perhaps because, in spite of their greater freedom and breadth, many of

them pass under the names of Vermeer of Delft and Pieter de Hooch. Two

of the paintings ascribed to the latter (one bears the false signature)

at the Ryks museum in Amsterdam, are now recognized as being the work of

Boursse. His subjects are interiors with figures, painted with great

precision and with exquisite quality of colour. The Wallace collection

has his masterpiece, an interior with a woman and a child in a cradle,

almost as brilliant as on the day it was painted, and reflecting

something of the feeling of Rembrandt, by whom he was influenced. Other

important examples are at the Ryks museum and at Aix-la-Chapelle.

Boursse's "Boy blowing Soap Bubbles," in the Berlin museum, was until

lately attributed to Vermeer of Delft. More than one picture bearing the

false signature of Boursse have been publicly shown of late years.

BOUSSINGAULT, JEAN BAPTISTE JOSEPH DIEUDONNE (1802-1887), French

chemist, was born in Paris on the 2nd of February 1802. After studying

at the school of mines at Saint-Etienne he went, when little more than

twenty years old, to South America as a mining engineer on behalf of an

English company. During the insurrection of the Spanish colonies he was

attached to the staff of General Bolivar, and travelled widely in the

northern parts of the continent. Returning to France he became professor

of chemistry at Lyons, and in 1839 was appointed to the chair of

agricultural and analytical chemistry at the Conservatoire des Arts et

Metiers in Paris. In 1848 he was elected to the National Assembly, where

he sat as a Moderate republican. Three years later he was dismissed from

his professorship on account of his political opinions, but so much

resentment at this action was shown by scientific men in general, and

especially by his colleagues, who threatened to resign in a body, that

he was reinstated. He died in Paris on the 11th of May 1887. His first

papers were concerned with mining topics, and his sojourn in South

America yielded a number of miscellaneous memoirs, on the cause of

goitre in the Cordilleras, the gasses of volcanoes, earthquakes,

tropical rain, &c., which won the commendation of A. von Humboldt. From

1836 he devoted himself mainly to agricultural chemistry and animal and

vegetable physiology, with occasional excursions into mineral chemistry.

His work included papers on the quantity of nitrogen in different foods,

the amount of gluten in different wheats, investigations on the question

whether plants can assimilate free nitrogen from the atmosphere (which

he answered in the negative), the respiration of plants, the function of

their leaves, the action and value of manures, and other similar

subjects. Through his wife he had a share in an estate at Bechebronn in

Alsace, where he carried out many agricultural experiments. He

collaborated with J.B.A. Dumas in writing an _Essai de statique

chimique des etres organises_ (1841), and was the author of _Traite

d'economic rurale_ (1844), which was remodelled as _Agronomie, chimie

agricole, et physiologie_ (5 vols., 1860-1874; 2nd ed., 1884), and of

_Etudes sur la transformation du fer en acier_ (1875).

BOUTERWEK, FRIEDRICH (1766-1828), German philosopher and critic, was

born at Oker, near Goslar in Lower Saxony, and studied law at Gottingen.

From 1790, however, he became a disciple of Kant, published _Aphorismen

nach Kants Lehre vorgelegt_ (1793), and became professor of philosophy

at Gottingen (1802), where he died on the 9th of August 1828. As a

philosopher, he is interesting for his criticism of the theory of the

"thing-in-itself" (_Ding-an-sich_). For the pure reason, as described in

the _Kritik_, the "thing-in-itself" can be only an inconceivable

"something-in-general"; any statement about it involves the predication

of Reality, Unity and Plurality, which belong not to the absolute thing

but to phenomena. On the other hand, the subject is known by the fact of

will, and the object by that of resistance; the cognizance of willing is

the assertion of absolute reality in the domain of relative knowledge.

This doctrine has since been described as absolute Virtualism. Following

this train of thought, Bouterwek left the Kantian position through his

opposition to its formalism. In later life he inclined to the views of

F.H. Jacobi, whose letters to him (published at Gottingen, 1868) shed

much light on the development of his thought. His chief philosophical

works are _Ideen zu einer allgemeinen Apodiktik_ (Gottingen and Halle,

1799); _Aesthetik_ (Leipzig, 1806; Gottingen, 1815 and 1824); _Lehrbuch

der philos. Vorkenntnisse_ (Gottingen, 1810 and 1820); _Lehrbuch der

philos. Wissenschaften_ (Gottingen, 1813 and 1820). In these works he

dissociated himself from the Kantian school. His chief critical work was

the _Geschichte der neuern Poesie und Beredsamkeit_ (Gottingen, 12

vols., 1801-1819), of which the history of Spanish literature has been

published separately in French, Spanish and English. The _Geschichte_ is

a work of wide learning and generally sound criticism, but it is not of

equal merit throughout. He also wrote three novels, _Paulus Septimus_

(Halle, 1795), _Graf Donamar_ (Gottingen, 1791) and _Ramiro_ (Leipzig,

1804), and published a collection of poems (Gottingen, 1802).

BOUTHILLIER, CLAUDE, SIEUR DE FOUILLETOURTE (1581-1652), French

statesman, began life as an advocate. In 1613 he was councillor in the

parlement of Paris, and in 1619 became councillor of state and a

secretary to the queen-mother, Marie de' Medici. The connexion of his

father, Denis Bouthillier (d. 1622), with Cardinal Richelieu secured for

him the title of secretary of state in 1628, and he was able to remain

on good terms with both Marie de' Medici and Richelieu, in spite of

their rivalry. In 1632 he became superintendent of finances. But his

great role was in diplomacy. Richelieu employed him on many diplomatic

missions, and the success of his foreign policy was due in no small

degree to Bouthillier's ability and devotion. In 1630 he had taken part

at Regensburg in arranging the abortive treaty between the emperor and

France. From 1633 to 1640 he was continually busied with secret missions

in Germany, sometimes alone, sometimes with Father Joseph. Following

Richelieu's instructions, he negotiated the alliances which brought

France into the Thirty Years' War. Meanwhile, at home, his tact and

amiable disposition, as well as his reputation for straightforwardness,

had secured for him a unique position of influence in a court torn by

jealousies and intrigues. Trusted by the king, the confidant of

Richelieu, the friend of Marie de' Medici, and through his son, Leon

Bouthillier, who was appointed in 1635 chancellor to Gaston d'Orleans,

able to bring his influence to bear on that prince, he was an invaluable

mediator; and the personal influence thus exercised, combined with the

fact that he was at the head of both the finances and the foreign policy

of France, made him, next to the cardinal, the most powerful man in the

kingdom. Richelieu made him executor of his will, and Louis XIII. named

him a member of the council of regency which he intended should govern

the kingdom after his death. But the king's last plans were not carried

out, and Bouthillier was obliged to retire into private life, giving up

his office of superintendent of finances in June 1643. He died in Paris

on the 13th of March 1652.

His son, LEON BOUTHILLIER (1608-1652), comte de Chavigny, was early

associated with his father, who took him with him from 1629 to 1632 to

all the great courts of Europe, instructing him in diplomacy. In 1632 he

was named secretary of state and seconded his father's work, so that it

is not easy always to distinguish their respective parts. After the

death of Louis XIII. he had to give up his office; but was sent as

plenipotentiary to the negotiations at Munster. He showed himself

incapable, however, giving himself up to pleasure and fetes, and

returned to France to intrigue against Mazarin. Arrested twice during

the Fronde, and then for a short time in power during Mazarin's exile

(April 1651), he busied himself with small intrigues which came to

nothing.

BOUTS-RIMES, literally (from the French) "rhymed ends," the name given

in all literatures to a kind of verses of which no better definition can

be found than was made by Addison, in the Spectator, when he described

them as "lists of words that rhyme to one another, drawn up by another

hand, and given to a poet, who was to make a poem to the rhymes in the

same order that they were placed upon the list." The more odd and

perplexing the rhymes are, the more ingenuity is required to give a

semblance of common-sense to the production. For instance, the rhymes

_breeze, elephant, squeeze, pant, scant, please, hope, pope_ are

submitted, and the following stanza is the result:--

Escaping from the Indian _breeze_,

The vast, sententious _elephant_

Through groves of sandal loves to _squeeze_

And in their fragrant shade to _pant_;

Although the shelter there be _scant_,

The vivid odours soothe and _please_,

And while he yields to dreams of _hope_,

Adoring beasts surround their _Pope_.

The invention of bouts-rimes is attributed to a minor French poet of the

17th century, Dulot, of whom little else is remembered. According to the

_Menagiana_, about the year 1648, Dulot was complaining one day that he

had been robbed of a number of valuable papers, and, in particular, of

three hundred sonnets. Surprise being expressed at his having written so

many, Dulot explained that they were all "blank sonnets," that is to

say, that he had put down the rhymes and nothing else. The idea struck

every one as amusing, and what Dulot had done seriously was taken up as

a jest. Bouts-rimes became the fashion, and in 1654 no less a person

than Sarrasin composed a satire against them, entitled _La Defaite des

bouts-rimes_, which enjoyed a great success. Nevertheless, they

continued to be abundantly composed in France throughout the 17th

century and a great part of the 18th century. In 1701 Etienne Mallemans

(d. 1716) published a collection of serious sonnets, all written to

rhymes selected for him by the duchess of Maine. Neither Piron, nor

Marmontel, nor La Motte disdained this ingenious exercise, and early in

the 19th century the fashion was revived. The most curious incident,

however, in the history of bouts-rimes is the fact that the elder

Alexandre Dumas, in 1864, took them under his protection. He issued an

invitation to all the poets of France to display their skill by

composing to sets of rhymes selected for the purpose by the poet, Joseph

Mery (1798-1866). No fewer than 350 writers responded to the appeal, and

Dumas published the result, as a volume, in 1865.

W.M. Rossetti, in the memoir of his brother prefixed to D.G. Rossetti's

_Collected Works_ (1886), mentions that, especially in 1848 and 1849, he

and Dante Gabriel Rossetti constantly practised their pens in writing

sonnets to _bouts-rimes_, each giving the other the rhymes for a sonnet,

and Dante Gabriel writing off these exercises in verse-making at the

rate of a sonnet in five or eight minutes. Most of W.M. Rossetti's poems

in _The Germ_ were _bouts-rimes_ experiments. Many of Dante Gabriel's, a

little touched up, remained in his brother's possession, but were not

included in the _Collected Works_. (E. G.)

BOUTWELL, GEORGE SEWALL (1818-1905), American statesman, was born in

Brookline, Massachusetts, on the 28th of January 1818. He was reared on

a farm, and at an early age began a mercantile career at Groton, Mass.

There he studied law and in 1836 was admitted to the bar, but did not

begin practice for many years. In 1842-1844 and again in 1847-1850 he

served in the state house of representatives, and became the recognized

leader on the Democratic side; he was thrice defeated for Congress, and

was twice an unsuccessful candidate for governor. In 1851, however, by

means of "Free-Soil" votes, he was chosen governor, and was re-elected

by the same coalition in 1852. In the following year he took an active

part in the state constitutional convention. He became a member of the

Massachusetts Board of Education in 1853, and as its secretary in

1855-1861 prepared valuable reports and rendered much service to the

state's school system. The passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill in 1854

had finally alienated him from the Democratic party, and he became one

of the founders of the new Republican party in the state. He played an

influential part in the Republican national convention in 1860, and in

1862 after the passage of the war tax measures he was appointed by

President Lincoln the first commissioner of internal revenue, which

department he organized. From 1863 to 1869 he was a representative in

Congress, taking an influential part in debate, and acting as one of the

managers of President Johnson's impeachment. From 1869 to 1873 he was

secretary of the treasury in President Grant's cabinet, and from 1873

until 1877 was a United States senator from Massachusetts. Under an

appointment by President Hayes, he prepared the second edition of the

_United States Revised Statutes_ (1878). In 1880 he represented the

United States before the commission appointed in accordance with the

treaty of that year, between France and the United States, to decide the

claims brought by French citizens against the United States for acts of

the American authorities during the Civil War, and the claims of

American citizens against France for acts of French authorities during

the war between France and Mexico, the Franco-German War and the

Commune. He opposed the acquisition by the United States of the

Philippine Islands, became president of the Anti-Imperialistic League,

and was a presidential elector on the Bryan (Democratic) ticket in 1900.

He died at Groton, Massachusetts, on the 28th of February 1905. He

published various volumes, including _The Constitution of the United

States at the End of the First Century_ (1895), and _Reminiscences of

Sixty Years in Public Affairs_ (2 vols., New York, 1902).

BOUVARDIA, a genus of handsome evergreen greenhouse shrubs, belonging to

the natural order Rubiaceae, and a native of tropical America. The

flowers are in terminal generally many-flowered clusters; the corolla

has a large tube and a spreading four-rayed limb. The cultivated forms

include a number of hybrids. The plants are best increased by cuttings

taken off in April, and placed in a brisk heat in a propagating frame

with a close atmosphere. When rooted they should be potted singly into

3-in. pots in fibrous peat and loam, mixed with one-fourth leaf-mould

and a good sprinkling of sand, and kept in a temperature of 70 deg. by

night and 80 deg. during the day; shade when required; syringe overhead

in the afternoon and close the house with sun-heat. The plants should be

topped to ensure a bushy habit, and as they grow must be shifted into

6-in. or 7-in. pots. After midsummer move to a cool pit, where they may

remain till the middle of September, receiving plenty of air and space.

They should then be removed to a house, and some of the plants put at

once in a temperature of about 70 deg. at night, with a few degrees

higher in the daytime, to bring them into flower. Others are moved into

heat to supply flowers in succession through the winter and spring.

BOUVET, FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1753-1832), French admiral, son of a captain in

the service of the French East India Company, was born on the 23rd of

April 1753. He went to sea at the age of twelve with his father. Bouvet

served in the East Indies in the famous campaign of 1781-83 under the

command of Suffren, but only in a subordinate rank. On the outbreak of

the French Revolution he very naturally took the anti-royalist side.

Murder and exile had removed the great majority of the officers of the

monarchy, and the services of a man of Bouvet's experience were

valuable. He was promoted captain and received the command of the

"Audacieux" (80) in the first great fleet collected by the republic. In

the same year (1793) he was advanced to rear-admiral, and he commanded a

division in the fleet which fought the battle of the 1st of June 1794

against Lord Howe. Until the close of 1796 he continued in command of a

squadron in the French Channel fleet. In the December of that year he

was entrusted with the van division of the fleet which was sent from

Brest to attempt to land General Hoche with an expeditionary force in

the south of Ireland. The stormy weather which scattered the French as

soon as they left Brest gave Bouvet a prominence which he had not been

designed to enjoy. Bouvet, who found himself at daybreak on the 17th of

December separated with nine sail of the line from the rest of the

fleet, opened his secret orders, and found that he was to make his way

to Mizen Head. He took a wide course to avoid meeting British cruisers,

and on the 19th had the good luck to fall in with a considerable part of

the rest of the fleet and some of the transports. On the 21st of

December he arrived off Dursey Island at the entry to Bantry Bay. On the

24th he anchored near Bear Island with part of his fleet. The continued

storms which blew down Bantry Bay, and the awkwardness of the French

crews, made it impossible to land the troops he had with him. On the

evening of the 25th the storm increased to such a pitch of violence that

the frigate in which Bouvet had hoisted his flag was blown out to sea.

The wind moderated by the 29th, but Bouvet, being convinced that none of

the ships of his squadron could have remained at the anchorage, steered

for Brest, where he arrived on the 1st of January 1797. His fortune had

been very much that of his colleagues in this storm-tossed expedition,

and on the whole he had shown more energy than most of them. He was

wrong, however, in thinking that all his squadron had failed to keep

their anchorage in Bantry Bay. The government, displeased by his

precipitate return to Brest, dismissed him from command soon afterwards.

He was compelled to open a school to support himself. Napoleon restored

him to the service, and he commanded the squadron sent to occupy

Guadaloupe during the peace of Amiens, but he had no further service,

and lived in obscurity till his death on the 21st of July 1832.

Tronde, _Batailles navales de la France_, vols. ii. and iii., and

James, _Naval History_, vols. i. and ii., give accounts of the 1st of

June and the expedition to Ireland. There is a vigorous account of the

expedition in Tronde's _English in Ireland_, and it is dealt with in

Admiral Colomb's _Naval Warfare_. (D. H.)

BOUVIER, JOHN (1787-1851), American jurist, was born in Codogno, France,

in 1787. In 1802 his family, who were Quakers (his mother was a member

of the well-known Benezet family), emigrated to America and settled in

Philadelphia, and after varied experiences as proprietor of a book shop

and as a country editor he was admitted to the bar in 1818, having

become a citizen of the United States in 1812. He attained high standing

in his profession, was recorder of Philadelphia in 1836, and from 1838

until his death was an associate justice of the court of criminal

sessions in that city. He is best known for his able legal writings. His

_Law Dictionary Adapted to the Constitution and Laws of the United

States of America and of the Several States of the American Union_

(1839, revised and brought up to date by Francis Rawle, under the title

of _Bouvier's Law Dictionary_, 2 vols., 1897) has always been a

standard. He published also an edition of _Bacon's Abridgement of the

Law_ (10 vols., 1842-1846), and a compendium of American law entitled

_The Institutes of American Law_ (4 vols., 1851; new ed. 2 vols., 1876).

BOUVINES, a village on the French-Belgian frontier between Lille and

Tournay, the scene of one of the greatest battles of the middle ages,

fought on the 27th of July 1214, between the forces of Philip Augustus,

king of France, and those of the coalition formed against him, of which

the principal members were the emperor and King John of England. The

plan of campaign seems to have been designed by King John, who was the

soul of the alliance; his general idea was to draw the French king to

the southward against himself, while the emperor Otto IV., the princes

of the Netherlands and the main army of the allies should at the right

moment march upon Paris from the north. John's part in the general

strategy was perfectly executed; the allies in the north moved slowly.

While John, after two inroads, turned back to his Guienne possessions on

the 3rd of July, it was not until three weeks later that the emperor

concentrated his forces at Valenciennes, and in the interval Philip

Augustus had countermarched northward and concentrated an army at

Peronne. Philip now took the offensive himself, and in manoeuvring to

get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle (July

27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque--the same plain

on which in 1794 the brilliant cavalry action of Willems was fought. The

imperial army accepted the challenge and drew up facing south-westward

towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one

great mass in the centre, supported by the cavalry corps under the

emperor himself. The total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and

40,000 foot. The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry)

took ground exactly opposite to the enemy and in a similar formation,

cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the _milice des communes_, in

the centre, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the Oriflamme in rear of

the foot. The battle opened with a confused cavalry fight on the French

right, in which individual feats of knightly gallantry were more

noticeable than any attempt at combined action. The fighting was more

serious between the two centres; the infantry of the Low Countries, who

were at this time almost the best in existence, drove in the French;

Philip led the cavalry reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the

day, and after a long and doubtful fight, in which he himself was

unhorsed and narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings.

In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had thoroughly

defeated the imperialists opposed to them, and William Longsword, earl

of Salisbury, the leader of this corps, was unhorsed and taken prisoner

by the warlike bishop of Beauvais. Victory declared itself also on the

other wing, where the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and

captured Count Ferdinand of Flanders, one of the leaders of the

coalition. In the centre the battle was now between the two mounted

reserves led respectively by the king and the emperor in person. Here

too the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved only

by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The day was already

decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards

to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. The battle closed with

the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne, a revolted vassal of King

Philip, who formed a ring of seven hundred Brabancon pikemen, and not

only defied every attack of the French cavalry, but himself made

repeated charges or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually,

and long after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant

schiltron was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand

men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the _melee_; and the

prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William

Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The killed

amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party, and many thousands

of foot on either side, of whom no accurate account can be given.

See Oman, _History of the Art of War_, vii. pp. 457-480; also Kohler,

_Kriegsgeschichte, &c_., i. 140, and Delpech, _Tactique au XIII

siecle_, 127.

BOVEY BEDS, in geology, a deposit of sands, clays and lignite, 200-300

ft. thick, which lies in a basin extending from Bovey Tracey to Newton

Abbot in Devonshire, England. The deposit is evidently the result of the

degradation of the neighbouring Dartmoor granite; and it was no doubt

laid down in a lake. O. Heer, who examined the numerous plant remains

from these beds, concluded that they belonged to the same geological

horizon as the Molasse or Oligocene of Switzerland. Starkie Gardiner,

however, who subsequently examined the flora, showed that it bore a

close resemblance to that of the Bournemouth Beds or Lower Bagshot; in

this view he is supported by C. Reid. Large excavations have been made

for the extraction of the clays, which are very valuable for pottery

and similar purposes. The lignite or "Bovey Coal" has at times been

burned in the local kilns, and in the engines and workmen's cottages,

but it is not economical.

See S. Gardiner, _Q. J. G. S._ London, xxxv., 1879; W. Pengelly and O.

Heer, _Phil. Trans._, 1862; C. Reid, _Q. J. G. S._ lii., 1896, p. 490,

and _loc. cit._ liv., 1898, p. 234. An interesting general account is

given by A.W. Clayden, _The History of Devonshire Scenery_ (London,

1906), pp. 159-168.

BOVIANUM, the name of two ancient Italian towns, (1) UNDECIMANORUM

[_Boiano_], the chief city of the Pentri Samnites, 9 m. N.W. of Saepinum

and 18 m. S.E. of Aesernia, on the important road from Beneventum to

Corfinium, which connected the Via Appia and the Via Valeria. The

original city occupied the height (Civita) above the modern town, where

remains of Cyclopean walls still exist, while the Roman town (probably

founded after the Social War, in which Bovianum was the seat of the

Samnite assembly) lay in the plain. It acquired the name _Undecimanorum_

when Vespasian settled the veterans of the Legio XI. Claudia there. Its

remains have been covered by over 30 ft. of earth washed down from the

mountains. Comparatively few inscriptions have been discovered. (2)

VETUS (near Pietrabbondante, 5 m. S. of Agnone and 19 m. N.W. of

Campobasso), according to Th. Mommsen (_Corpus Inscrip. Lat._ ix.

Berlin, 1883, p. 257) the chief town of the Caraceni. It lay in a remote

situation among the mountains, and where Bovianum is mentioned the

reference is generally to Bovianum Undecimanorum. Remains of

fortifications and lower down of a temple and a theatre (cf. _Romische

Mitteilungen_, 1903, 154)--the latter remarkable for the fine

preservation of the stone seats of the three lowest rows of the

auditorium--are to be seen. No less than eight Oscan inscriptions have

been found. (T. As.)

BOVIDAE, the name of the family of hollow-horned ruminant mammals

typified by the common ox (_Bos taurus_), and specially characterized by

the presence on the skulls of the males or of both sexes of a pair of

bony projections, or cores, covered in life with hollow sheaths of horn,

which are never branched, and at all events after a very early stage of

existence are permanently retained. From this, which is alone sufficient

for diagnostic purposes, the group is often called the Cavicornia. For

other characteristics see PECORA. The _Bovidae_ comprise a great number

of genera and species, and include the oxen, sheep, goats, antelopes and

certain other kinds which come under neither of these designations. In

stature they range from the size of a hare to that of a rhinoceros; and

their horns vary in size and shape from the small and simple spikes of

the oribi and duiker antlers to the enormous and variously shaped

structures borne respectively by buffaloes, wild sheep and kudu and

other large antelopes. In geographical distribution the _Bovidae_

present a remarkable contrast to the deer tribe, or _Cervidae_. Both of

these families are distributed over the whole of the northern

hemisphere, but whereas the Cervidae are absent from Africa south of the

Sahara and well represented in South America, the Bovidae are unknown in

the latter area, but are extraordinarily abundant in Africa. Neither

group is represented in Australasia; Celebes being the eastern limit of

the _Bovidae_. The present family doubtless originated in the northern

half of the Old World, whence it effected an entrance by way of the

Bering Strait route into North America, where it has always been but

poorly represented in the matter of genera and species.

The _Bovidae_ are divided into a number of sections, or subfamilies,

each of which is briefly noticed in the present article, while fuller

mention of some of the more important representatives of these is made

in other articles.

The first section is that of the _Bovinae_, which includes buffaloes,

bison and oxen. The majority of these are large and heavily-built

ruminants, with horns present in both sexes, the muzzle broad, moist and

naked, the nostrils lateral, no face-glands, and a large dewlap often

developed in the males; while the tail is long and generally tufted,

although in one instance longhaired throughout. The horns are of nearly

equal size in both sexes, are placed on or near the vertex of the skull,

and may be either rounded or angulated, while their direction is more or

less outwards, with an upward direction near the tips, and conspicuous

knobs or ridges are never developed on their surface. The tall upper

molars have inner columns. The group is represented throughout the Old

World as far east as Celebes, and has one living North American

representative. All the species may be included in the genus _Bos_, with

several subgeneric divisions (see ANOA, AUROCHS, BANTIN, BISON, BUFFALO,

GAUR, GAYAL, OX and YAK).

The second group, or _Caprinae_, includes the sheep and goats, which are

smaller animals than most of the _Bovidae_, generally with horns in both

sexes, but those of the females small. In the males the horns are

usually compressed and triangular, with transverse ridges or knobs, and

either curving backwards or spiral. The muzzle is narrow and hairy; and

when face-glands are present these are small and insignificant; while

the tail is short and flattened. Unlike the _Bovinae_, there are

frequently glands in the feet; and the upper molar teeth differ from

those of that group in their narrower crowns, which lack a distinct

inner column. When a face-pit is present in the skull it is small. The

genera are _Ovis_ (sheep), _Capra_ (goats) and _Hemitragus_ (tahr).

Sheep and goats are very nearly related, but the former never have a

beard on the chin of the males, which are devoid of a strong odour; and

their horns are typically of a different type. There are, however,

several more or less transitional forms. Tahr are short-horned goats.

The group is unknown in America, and in Africa is only represented in

the mountains of the north, extending, however, some distance south into

the Sudan and Abyssinia. All the species are mountain-dwellers. (See

UDAD, ARGALI, GOAT, IBEX, MOUFLON, SHEEP and TAHR.)

The musk-ox (_Ovibos moschatus_) alone represents the family

_Ovibovinae_, which is probably most nearly related to the next group

(see MUSK-OX).

Next come the _Rupicaprinae_, which include several genera of

mountain-dwelling ruminants, typified by the European chamois

(_Rupicapra_); the other genera being the Asiatic serow, goral and

takin, and the North American Rocky Mountain goat. These ruminants are

best described as goat-like antelopes. (See ANTELOPE, CHAMOIS, GORAL,

ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT, SEROW and TAKIN.)

Under the indefinable term "antelope" (q.v.) may be included the seven

remaining sections, namely _Tragelaphinae_ (kudu and eland),

_Hippotraginae_ (sable antelope and oryx), _Antilopinae_ (black-buck,

gazelles, &c.), _Cervicaprinae_ (reedbuck and waterbuck), _Neotraginae_

(klipspringer and steinbok), _Cephalophinae_ (duikers and four-horned

antelopes) and _Bubalinae_ (hartebeests and gnus). (R. L.*)

BOVILL, SIR WILLIAM (1814-1873), English judge, a younger son of

Benjamin Bovill, of Wimbledon, was born at All-hallows, Barking, on the

26th of May 1814. On leaving school he was articled to a firm of

solicitors, but entering the Middle Temple he practised for a short time

as a special pleader below the bar. He was called in 1841 and joined the

home circuit. His special training in a solicitor's office, and its

resulting connexion, combined with a thorough knowledge of the details

of engineering, acquired through his interest in a manufacturing firm in

the east end of London, soon brought him a very extensive patent and

commercial practice. He became Q.C. in 1855, and in 1857 was elected

M.P. for Guildford. In the House of Commons he was very zealous for

legal reform, and the Partnership Law Amendment Act 1865, which he

helped to pass, is always referred to as Bovill's Act. In 1866 he was

appointed solicitor-general, an office which he vacated on becoming

chief justice of the common pleas in succession to Sir W. Erie in

November of the same year. He died at Kingston, Surrey, on the 1st of

November 1873. As a barrister he was unsurpassed for his remarkable

knowledge of commercial law; and when promoted to the bench his

painstaking labour and unswerving uprightness, as well as his great

patience and courtesy, gained for him the respect and affection of the

profession.

BOVILLAE, an ancient town of Latium, a station on the Via Appia (which

in 293 B.C. was already paved up to this point), 11 m. S.E. of Rome. It

was a colony of Alba Longa, and appears as one of the thirty cities of

the Latin league; after the destruction of Alba Longa the _sacra_ were,

it was held, transferred to Bovillae, including the cult of Vesta (in

inscriptions _virgines Vestales Albanae_ are mentioned, and the

inhabitants of Bovillae are always spoken of as _Albani Longani

Bovillenses_) and that of the _gens Iulia_. The existence of this

hereditary worship led to an increase in its importance when the Julian

house rose to the highest power in the state. The knights met Augustus's

dead body at Bovillae on its way to Rome, and in A.D. 16 the shrine of

the family worship was dedicated anew,[1] and yearly games in the circus

instituted, probably under the charge of the _sodales Augustales_, whose

official calendar has been found here. In history Bovillae appears as

the scene of the quarrel between Milo and Clodius, in which the latter,

whose villa lay above the town on the left of the Via Appia, was killed.

The site is not naturally strong, and remains of early fortifications

cannot be traced. It may be that Bovillae took the place of Alba Longa

as a local centre after the destruction of the latter by Rome, which

would explain the deliberate choice of a strategically weak position.

Remains of buildings of the imperial period--the circus, a small

theatre, and edifices probably connected with the post-station--may

still be seen on the south-west edge of the Via Appia.

See L. Canina, _Via Appia_ (Rome, 1853), i. 202 seq.; T. Ashby in

_Melanges de l'ecole francaise de Rome_ (1903), p. 395. (T. As.)