sufficient variety may be obtained to distinguish one fount from
another without hesitation; but I would strongly advise that the
nicks should be deep, as it allows the compositor to see quickly how
the letters lie in the box, and enables him to pick them up with
greater facility, particularly by candlelight.
A single nick may be--low on the shank, in the middle, or nearer the
top; two nicks may be close together--at the bottom, in the middle,
or at the top, or they may be wide apart; three nicks may be--two at
bottom and one at top, two at top and one at bottom, or the three
close together, at the bottom, the middle, or the top, or wide
apart. Where there are a great number of founts, it would add to the
distinguishing mark, if consisting of more than one nick, that one
of them should be cast shallow: but where there is only one nick it
ought always to be cast deep.
NISKHI. _See_ PERSIAN.
NONPAREIL.
The name of a type, one size larger than Pearl and one smaller than
Minion. Moxon spelt the name Nomparel, and the French to this day
spell it Nompareille.
NORTHERN LANGUAGES.
For the allowance of the duty on paper used in the printing of
books in the Northern languages within the universities of Oxford
and Cambridge, the universities of Scotland, and the university of
Trinity College, Dublin, _see_ PAPER.
A great deal of information respecting the Northern languages will be
found in _Recherches sur les Langues Tartares, par M. Abel Remusat_.
NORTON, WILLIAM. _See_ DONATIONS.
NOTATION, CHEMICAL. _See_ FORMULÆ.
NOTES.
Quotations down the side of a page are called _Notes_.--_M._ At the
present day we term these Marginal Notes; and usually mean, when we
speak of notes, those at the bottom of a page, although they are
sometimes termed Bottom Notes, or Foot Notes, which see.
NOTICE for entering printing press, types, &c., with Clerk of the
Peace, _see_ CERTIFICATE.
NUMBER LAID ON. _See_ LAY ON.--_M._
NUMERALS.
The names of numerals are very different, not only in several parts
of Asia, but in both North and South America.
“Small stones were used amongst uncivilized nations: hence the words
_calculate_ and _calculation_ appear to have been derived from
_calculus_, the Latin for a pebble-stone. Alphabetic letters had also
a certain numerical value assigned them, and several Greek characters
were employed to express particular numbers.
“The combination of Greek numerical characters was not well known to
the Latins before the thirteenth century, although Greek numerical
characters were frequently used in France and Germany, in episcopal
letters, and continued to the eleventh century. But of all the
Greek ciphers the Episema ϐαῦ was most in use with the Latins: it
gradually assumed the form of _G_ with a tail, for so it appears in
a Latin inscription of the year _296_. It is found to have been used
in the fifth century in Latin MSS. It was reckoned for _6_, and this
value has been evinced by such a number of monumental proofs, that
there is no room to give it any other. Some of the learned, with
even Mabillon, have been mistaken in estimating it as _5_, but in a
posthumous work he acknowledges his error.
“Those authors were led into this error by the medals of the Emperor
Justinian having the episema for _5_; but it is a certain fact that
the coiners had been mistaken and confounded it with the tailed _U_,
for the episema was still in use in the fourth century, and among the
Latins was estimated as six, but under a form somewhat different.
Whenever it appears in other monuments of the western nations of
Europe of that very century, and the following, it is rarely used to
express any number except _5_.
“The Etruscans also used their letters for indicating numbers by
writing them from right to left, and the ancient Danes copied the
example in the application of their letters.
“The Romans, when they borrowed arts and sciences from the Greeks,
learned also their method of using alphabetical numeration. This
custom however was not very ancient among them. Before writing was
yet current with them they made use of nails for reckoning years,
and the method of driving those nails became in process of time a
ceremony of their religion. The first eight Roman numerals were
composed of the I and the V. The Roman ten was composed of the V
proper, and the V inverted (Ʌ), which characters served to reckon as
far as forty, but when writing became more general, I, V, X, L, C,
D, and M, were the only characters appropriated to the indication
of numbers. The above seven letters, in their most extensive
combination, produce six hundred and sixty-six thousand ranged thus,
DCLXVIM. Some however pretend that the Romans were strangers to any
higher number than 100,000. The want of ciphers obliged them to
double, treble, and multiply their numerical characters four-fold;
according as they had occasion to make them express units, tens,
hundreds, &c. &c. For the sake of brevity they had recourse to
another expedient; by drawing a small line over any of their numeral
characters they made them stand for as many thousands as they
contained units. Thus a small line over Ī made it 1000, and over X̄
expressed 10,000, &c.
“When the Romans wrote several units following, the first and last
were longer than the rest IIIIII: thus _vir_ after those six units,
signified _sex-vir_. D stood for 500, and the perpendicular line of
this letter was sometimes separated from the body thus (IƆ,) without
lessening its value. _M_, whether capital or uncial, expressed 1000.
In the uncial form it sometimes assumed that of one of those figures,
CIƆ Ɔ, CD, ∞, ო. The cumbent X was also used to signify a similar
number.
“As often as a figure of less value appears before a higher number,
it denotes that so much must be deducted from the greater number:
thus, I before V makes but four, I before X gives only nine, X
preceding C produces only 90, and even two XX before C reckons for no
more than 80. Such was the general practice with the ancient Romans
with respect to their numerical letters, which is still continued in
recording accounts in our Exchequer.
“In ancient MSS. 4 is written IIII and not IV, 9 thus VIIII, and not
IX, &c. Instead of V five units IIIII were sometimes used in the
eighth century. Half was expressed by an S at the end of the figures,
CIIS was put 102 and a half. This S sometimes appeared in the form of
our 5.
“In some old MSS. those numerical figures LXL are used to express
90. The Roman numeral letters were generally used both in England,
France, Italy, and Germany, from the earliest times to the middle of
the fifteenth century.
“The ancient people of Spain made use of the same Roman ciphers as
we do. The X with the top of the right hand stroke in form of a
semi-circle reckoned for 40; it merits the more particular notice as
it has misled many of the learned. The Roman ciphers however were
continued in use with the Spaniards until the fifteenth century. The
Germans used the Roman ciphers for a long time, nearly in the same
manner as the French.”
“The points after the Roman ciphers were exceedingly various, and
never rightly fixed. It is not known when the ancient custom was
first introduced of placing an O at top immediately after the Roman
characters, as A^o M^o L^o VI^o &c.”--_Astle._
_Numeral Letters._
Roman. Arabic.
Unus, a, um, I. 1.
Duo, æ, o, II. 2.
Tres, ia, III. 3.
Quatuor, IV. 4.
Quinque, V. 5.
Sex, VI. 6.
Septem, VII. 7.
Octo, VIII. 8.
Novem, IX. 9.
Decem, X. 10.
Undecim, XI. 11.
Duodecim, XII. 12.
Tredecim, XIII. 13.
Quatuordecim, XIV. 14.
Quindecim, XV. 15.
Se- sex- decim, XVI. 16.
Septemdecim, XVII. 17.
Octodecim, XVIII. _or_ XIIX. 18.
Novemdecim, }
Undeviginti,} XIX. 19.
Viginti, XX. 20.
Triginta, XXX. 30.
Quadraginta, XL. 40.
Quinquaginta, L. 50.
Sexaginta, LX. 60.
Septuaginta, LXX. 70.
Octoginta, LXXX. 80.
Nonaginta, XC. 90.
Centum, C. 100.
Ducenti, æ, a, CC. 200.
Trecenti, æ, a, CCC. 300.
Quadringenti, æ, a, CCCC. 400.
Quingenti, æ, a, IƆ. _or_ D. 500.
Sexcenti, æ, a, DC. 600.
Septingenti, æ, a, DCC. 700.
Octingenti, æ, a, DCCC. 800.
Nongenti, æ, a, DCCCC. _or_ CM. 900.
Mille, M. _or_ CIƆ. 1,000.
Duo millia, }
Bis mille, } MM. 2,000.
Tria millia, }
Ter mille, } MMM. 3,000.
Quatuor millia, }
Quater mille, } MMMM. 4,000.
Quinque millia, }
Quinquies mille, } IƆƆ. _or_ V̄. 5,000.
Decem millia, }
Decies mille, } CCIƆƆ. _or_ X̄. 10,000.
Quinquaginta millia, }
Quinquagies mille, } IƆƆƆ. _or_ L̄. 50,000.
Centum millia, }
Centies mille, } CCCIƆƆƆ. _or_ C̄. 100,000.
Quingenta millia, }
Quingenties mille, } IƆƆƆƆ. _or_ D̄. 500,000.
Decies centena millia, CCCCIƆƆƆƆ, _or_ M̄. 1,000,000.
If the lesser number is placed before the greater, the lesser is to
be deducted from the greater; thus IV signifies one less than five,
i. e. four; IX, nine; XC, ninety.
If the lesser number be placed after the greater, the lesser is to
be added to the greater; thus VI signifies one more than five, i. e.
six; XI, eleven; CX, one hundred and ten.
An horizontal stroke over a numeral denotes a thousand: thus V̄
signifies five thousand; L̄, fifty thousand: M̄, a thousand times a
thousand, or a million.
I, signifies _one_, because it is the smallest letter.
V, _five_, because it is sometimes used for U, the fifth vowel.
X, _ten_, because it represents two Vs.
L, _fifty_, from its resemblance to the lower half of C.
C, _a hundred_, centum.
IƆ or D, _five hundred_, the half of CIƆ.
M or CIƆ, _a thousand_, from mille. The latter figures joined at
the top ო formed the ancient M.--_Latin Vocabulary_, 18_mo._ _Lond.
Valpy_, 1823.
NUSTALEEK. _See_ PERSIAN.
NUT BOLTS.
Two bolts that pass through the head: they have square return heads,
which clasp the under side of the nut of the spindle to keep it firm
in its place.
NUT OF THE SPINDLE. It is also called the BOX, which _see_.
O.
OBELISK,
marked thus †, is used as a reference to notes in the margin, or at
the bottom of the page.
In printing it is technically called a _dagger_; and is the second
reference used, when more than one occurs in a page.
OCTAVO.
A sheet of paper folded into eight leaves or sixteen pages is termed
an octavo or 8vo.
ODD PAGE.
The first, third, fifth, seventh, and all uneven numbered pages, are
_Odd Pages_.--_M._
OFF.
A pressman usually says, I am off, meaning he has wrought off his
token, his heap, his form.--_M._ It is used also for part of the
whole number that is to be worked; as, when a ream, or two reams are
worked of a large number, he says, A ream’s off, Two reams off.
OFF CHEEK.
That cheek of the press which is on the opposite side to that at
which the pressmen stand to beat and pull; the catch of the bar is
fixed to the off cheek.
OFFCUT.
That part of a sheet which, when printed, cuts off, and when folded
is inserted in the middle of the other part, which together form a
regular and orderly succession of all the pages in the signature.
OIL.
The best oil for presses is neats foot oil, which does not candy nor
become glutinous, as almost all other oils do. On this account it is
used in the machinery employed in cotton manufactories, where it is
necessary to have as little friction as possible.
OLD ENGLISH. _See_ BLACK LETTER.
OPENING OF THE QUOINS.--_M._ _See_ UNLOCK THE FORM.
OPEN MATTER.
Full of breaks and whites.--_M._
OPEN THE FORM.
In laying-up a form to wash it, the compositor, after unlocking the
quoins, opens the matter with his fingers so as to suffer the water
to penetrate among the letters and wash away the lye and ink.--_M._
OPISTHOGRAPHIC.
The first productions of the press were printed on one side of
the paper only; as the art improved among the early printers they
impressed both sides: and those early productions, when they are
printed on both sides of the paper, are styled Opisthographic.
ORGANIC REMAINS.
Abbreviations of Authors’ Names on Organic Remains.
Bast. Basterot. Goldf. Goldfuss.
Beaum. Elie de Beaumont. Jäg. Jäger.
Blain. Blainville. Lam. Lamarck.
Blum. Blumenbach. Lam^x. Lamouroux.
Bobl. Boblaye. Linn. Linnæus.
Broc. Brocchi. Lons. Lonsdale.
Al. Brong. Alex. Brongniart Mant. Mantell.
Ad. Brong. Adolphe Brongniart. Munst. Munster.
Brug. Bruguière. Murch. Murchison.
Buckl. Buckland. M. de S. Marcel de Serres.
Conyb. Conybeare. Nils. Nilsson.
Cuv. Cuvier. Park. Parkinson.
De C., or De Cau. De Caumont. Phil. Phillips.
Defr. Defrance. Raf. Rafinesque.
De la B. De la Beche. Rein. Reinecke.
Desh. Deshayes. Schlot. Schlotheim.
Des M. Des Moulins. Sedg. Sedgwick.
Desm. Desmarest. Sow. Sowerby.
Desn. Desnoyers. Sternb. Sternberg.
Dufr. Dufrénoy. Thir. Thirria.
Dum. Dumont. Y. & B. Young and Bird.
Fauj. de St F. Faujas de St Fond. Wahl. Wahlenberg.
Flem. Fleming. Weav. Weaver.
_De la Beche’s Geological Manual._ 2d. edit. 12mo. 1832.
ORIENTAL LANGUAGES.
For the allowance of the duty on paper used in the printing of
books in the Oriental languages within the universities of Oxford
and Cambridge, the universities of Scotland, and the university of
Trinity College, Dublin, _see_ PAPER.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
The orthography of the English Language is attended with much
uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this
inconvenience may be remedied, by attending to the general laws of
formation; and, for this end, the reader is presented with a view of
such general maxims in spelling primitive and derivative words, as
have been almost universally received.
RULE I.--Monosyllables ending with _f_, _l_, or _s_, preceded by a
single vowel, double the final consonant; as staff, mill, pass, &c.
The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this,
us, and thus.
RULE II.--Monosyllables ending with any consonant but _f_, _l_,
or _s_, and preceded by a single vowel, never double the final
consonant; excepting only, add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn,
purr, and buzz.
RULE III.--Words ending with _y_, preceded by a consonant, form
the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past
participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing _y_ into
_i_; as, spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest; he carrieth or carries;
carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest.
The present participle in _ing_, retains the _y_, that _i_ may not be
doubled; as, carry, carrying; bury, burying, &c.
But _y_, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not
changed; as, boy, boys; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c; except in lay,
pay, and say; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said; and their
compounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c.
RULE IV.--Words ending with _y_, preceded by a consonant, upon
assuming an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly
change _y_ into _i_; as, happy, happily, happiness. But when _y_ is
preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the additional
syllable; as, coy, coyly; boy, boyish, boyhood; annoy, annoyed,
annoyance; joy, joyless, joyful, &c.
RULE V.--Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable,
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double
that consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with a
vowel: as, wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abettor; to begin,
a beginner.
But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding
syllable, the consonant remains single: as, to toil, toiling; to
offer, an offering; maid, maiden, &c.
RULE VI.--Words ending with any double letter but _l_, and taking
_ness_, _less_, _ly_, or _ful_, after them, preserve the letter
double: as, harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly,
successful, distressful, &c. But those words which end with double
_l_, and take _ness_, _less_, _ly_, or _ful_, after them, generally
omit one _l_, as, fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, &c.
RULE VII.--_Ness_, _less_, _ly_, and _ful_, added to words ending
with silent _e_, do not cut it off: as, paleness, guileless, closely,
peaceful; except in a few words: as, duly, truly, awful.
RULE VIII.--_Ment_, added to words ending with silent _e_, generally
preserves the _e_ from elision: as, abatement, chastisement,
incitement, &c. The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are
deviations from the rule.
Like other terminations it changes _y_ into _i_, when preceded by a
consonant: as, accompany, accompaniment; merry, merriment.
RULE IX.--_Able_ and _ible_, when incorporated into words ending
with silent _e_, almost always cut it off: as, blame, blamable;
cure, curable; sense, sensible, &c.; but if _c_ or _g_ soft comes
before _e_ in the original word, the _e_ is then preserved in words
compounded with _able_: as, change, changeable; peace, peaceable, &c.
RULE X.--When _ing_ or _ish_ is added to words ending with silent
_e_, the _e_ is almost universally omitted: as, place, placing;
lodge, lodging; slave, slavish; prude, prudish.
RULE XI.--Words taken into composition, often drop those letters
which were superfluous in their simples; as, handful, dunghil,
withal; also, chilblain, foretel.
The orthography of a great number of English words, is far from
being uniform, even amongst writers of distinction. Thus, _honour_
and _honor_, _inquire_ and _enquire_, _negotiate_ and _negociate_,
_control_ and _controul_, _expense_ and _expence_, _allege_ and
_alledge_, _surprise_ and _surprize_, _abridgment_ and _abridgement_,
and many other orthographical variations, are to be met with
in the best modern publications. Some authority for deciding
differences of this nature appears to be necessary; and where can
we find one of equal pretensions with Dr. Johnson’s Dictionary?
though a few of his decisions do not appear to be warranted by the
principles of etymology and analogy, the stable foundations of his
improvements.--“As the weight of truth and reason,” (says Nares
in his ‘Elements of Orthoepy,’) “is irresistible, Dr. Johnson’s
Dictionary has nearly fixed the external form of our language.
Indeed, so convenient is it to have one acknowledged standard to
recur to; so much preferable, in matters of this nature, is a
trifling degree of irregularity, to a continual change, and fruitless
pursuit of unattainable perfection; that it is earnestly to be hoped,
that no author will henceforth, on light grounds, be tempted to
innovate.”
The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding _s_ to the
singular: as, dove, doves; face, faces; thought, thoughts. But when
the substantive singular ends in _x_, _ch_ soft, _sh_, _ss_, or _s_,
we add _es_ in the plural: as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash,
lashes; kiss, kisses; rebus, rebusses. If the singular ends in _ch_
hard, the plural is formed by adding _s_; as, monarch, monarchs;
distich, distichs.
Nouns which end in _o_, have sometimes _es_ added to the plural;
as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo: and
sometimes only _s_; as, folio, grotto, junto, nuncio, portico,
punctilio, tyro.
Nouns ending in _f_, or _fe_, are rendered plural by the change of
those terminations into _ves_: as, loaf, loaves; half, halves; wife,
wives; except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form
the plural by the addition of _s_. Those which end in _ff_, have the
regular plural: as, ruff, ruffs; except, staff, staves.
Nouns which have _y_ in the singular, with no other vowel in the same
syllable, change it into _ies_ in the plural: as, beauty, beauties;
fly, flies. But the _y_ is not changed, when there is another vowel
in the syllable: as, key, keys; delay, delays; attorney, attorneys.
Some nouns become plural by changing the _a_ of the singular into
_e_: as, man, men; woman, women; alderman, aldermen. The words, ox
and child, form oxen and children: brother, makes either brothers, or
brethren. Sometimes the diphthong _oo_ is changed into _ee_ in the
plural: as, foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth. Louse and mouse
make lice and mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies, when the coin is
meant; die, dice (for play); die, dies (for coining).
The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, Greek,
and Latin languages, are thus distinguished with respect to number.
Singular. Plural.
Cherub. Cherubim.
Seraph. Seraphim.
Antithesis. Antitheses.
Diæresis. Diæreses.
Ellipsis. Ellipses.
Emphasis. Emphases.
Automaton. Automata.
Basis. Bases.
Crisis. Crises.
Criterion. Criteria.
Arcanum. Arcana.
Calx. Calces.
Datum. Data.
Effluvium. Effluvia.
Encomium. Encomia, _or_ Encomiums.
Erratum. Errata.
Genius. Genii.*
Genus. Genera.
Index. Indices, _or_ Indexes.†
Hypothesis. Hypotheses.
Metamorphosis. Metamorphoses.
Phænomenon. Phænomena.
Appendix. Appendices, _or_ Appendixes.
Lamina. Laminæ.
Medium. Media.
Magus. Magi.
Memorandum. Memoranda, _or_ Memorandums.
Radius. Radii.
Stamen. Stamina.
Stratum. Strata.
Vortex. Vortices.
* _Genii_, when denoting aërial spirits: _Geniuses_, when
signifying persons of genius.
† _Indexes_, when it signifies pointers, or Tables of contents:
_Indices_, when referring to algebraic quantities.--_Murray._
The following observations relate to English and Scotch orthography,
temp. Hen. VIII.:--
_A_ is frequently used in Scottish orthography for _o_; as, _aith_
for _oath_, _ane_ for _one_, _twa_ for _two_, _hame_ for _home_,
_quha_ for _who_.
_Qu_ is in Scottish commonly substituted for _w_, as, _quha_ for
_who_, _quhair_ for _where_, _quhilk_ for _which_.
_U_ is in Scottish usually substituted for the English _oo_, as,
_guid_ or _gude_ for _good_, _stude_ for _stood_.
_V_ and _W_, at the commencement of words and syllables, are used
indiscriminately, and sometimes also at their termination, as,
_foryew_ for _foryeve_; _w_ is in Scottish also substituted for _u_
in the middle of syllables, as, _swt_ for _suit_.
_Y_ is in Scottish almost always used for _th_ (being corrupted from
the Anglo-Saxon þ), and its place supplied by _z_.
_Z_ is in Scottish constantly used for _y_, being corrupted from the
Anglo-Saxon ȝ.
_Verbs._--The following are some of the most commonly used irregular
verbs, having a preterite and participle varying from those in use at
the present time:--
To Be--in the second person singular Bes; in the third person Beis,
Beth, or Beeth; in the third person plural Arn, Be, Ben, Been, Bene,
Byn, or Er; in the third person plural of the preterite Werne.
To Bid--in the preterite Bode; in the participle Bode, Boden.
To Bind--in the preterite Bonde; in the participle Band, Bond,
Bounde, Bounden.
To Bite--in the preterite Bote.
To Con or Can, _to be able_--in the third person singular
Conith.--Michel can, _to be powerful_.
To Climb--in the preterite Clomb, Clame, Clambe, Clombe, Clomben.
To Cling--in the preterite Clong.
To Ferme (Sc.) _to establish_--in the participle Fermen.
To Fet, to _fetch_--in the preterite Fetten; in the participle
Fette.--Ferfett, _farfetched_.
To Flete (Sc.) _to float_--in the preterite Flet.
To Forbede or Forbid--in the preterite Forbod; in the participle
Forboden, Forbode, Forbodden.
To Gar or Ger (Sc.) _to cause_--in the preterite and participle Gart,
Gert.
To Geve, Gif, or Gyf, _to give_--in the preterite Gaf; in the
participle Giffin, Goue, Gouun, or Gyffen.
To Glide--in the preterite Glode.
To Kithe (Sc.) _to prove_--in the preterite Kidde.
Man, Mone, or Moten (Sc.)--_must_.
To Mow, Moue, or May, _to be able_--in the preterite Mot, Mought,
Moght, or Mowght; in the future Shall mow or may; subjunctive May
mow; To mow in the infinitive.
To Owe--preterite Ought; as “He oweth to pay,” “They owe to
come,”--“D. ought him thirty shillings,” “He ought suit,” “Kindness
ought to us.”
To Preif or Pryve (Sc.) _to prove_--in the preterite and participle
Prewit or Pryved.
To Recet or Receipt (Sc.) _to harbour a criminal_--in the participle
Reset, Resettit, or Receipted.
To Rede, _to advise_--in the preterite Radde.
To Reve, Reffe, or Riffe (Sc.) _to rob_--in the preterite Reft; in
the participle Reft, Reved, or Revin.
To Tyne, Tyin, Tyn, or Tynte (Sc.) _to lose_--in the participle Tint,
Tynt.
To Vys or Wis, _to know_--in the preterite Vyst or Wist.
To Wete, Wite, or Wit, _to know_--in the preterite Wote; in the
imperative Wateth, Witeth, _know thou_.
To Will--in the preterite Willed, Woled, Wold, or Wolde;
preterpluperfect Had wold; future Shall will.