[Illustration: First page]
[Illustration: Second page]
[Illustration: Third page]
Plan of the Old Greek Upper Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s
Offices.
[Illustration: Layout of the old Greek case]
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Α | Β | Γ | Δ | Ε | Ζ | Η ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Θ | Ι | Κ | Λ | Μ | Ν | Ξ ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Ο | Π | Ρ | Σ | Τ | Υ | Φ ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| Χ | Ψ | Ω | ϗ | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+---+---+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------++
| ος | ει | ς | ου | kern. | kern. | kern. ||
| | | | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| ού| οὺ| οῦ| οὑ| οὐ| οὕ| οὓ| οὔ| οὒ| oὗ| οὖ| οϋ| οΰ| οῢ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| ´ | ` | ῀ | ῾ | ᾿ | ῞ | ῝ | ῎ | ῍ | ῟ | ῏ | ̈ | ΅ | ῭ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ά | ὰ | ᾶ | ἁ | ἀ | ἅ | ἃ | ἄ | ἂ | ἇ | ἆ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| έ | ὲ | | ἑ | ἐ | ἕ | ἓ | ἔ | ἒ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ή | ὴ | ῆ | ἡ | ἠ | ἥ | ἣ | ἤ | ἢ | ἧ | ἦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ί | ὶ | ῖ | ἱ | ἰ | ἵ | ἳ | ἴ | ἲ | ἷ | ἶ | ϊ | ΐ | ῒ |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ό | ὸ | | ὁ | ὀ | ὅ | ὃ | ὄ | ὂ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ύ | ὺ | ῦ | ὑ | ὐ | ὕ | ὓ | ὔ | ὒ | ὗ | ὖ | ϋ | ΰ | ῢ |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ώ | ὠ | ῶ | ὡ | ὠ | ὥ | ὣ | ὤ | ὢ | ὧ | ὦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Plan of the Old Greek Lower Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s
Offices.
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----------++
|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.| Hair | ||
| α | η | υ | ω | ου | sp. | σ ||
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------+-----------++
| β | ϐ | [#] | γ | δ | ε ||
+-----+-----+-----+-----+------------+-----------++
| κ | [#] | λ | μ | ν ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+------+-----------++
| | ζ | | | | Thick and ||
| ξ +-----+ υ | [#] | τ | thin sp. ||
| | [#] | | | | ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+------+-----------++
++-------+---+---+-------+------------+------------+
|| | | | | | |
|| ς | ρ | φ | ψ | ῥ | ῤ |
++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
|| ι | η | ϑ | θ | φ | χ |
++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
|| ο | π | ϖ | , | ρ |En quadrats.|Em quadrats.|
++-------+---+---+---+---+------------+------------+
|| | | ; | : | |
|| α | ω +---+---+ Quadrats. |
|| | | . | ̈ | |
++-------+-------+---+---+-------------------------+
Plan of the New Greek Upper Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s
Offices.
[Illustration: Layout of the new Greek case]
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| Α | Β | Γ | Δ | Ε | Ζ | Η ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| Θ | Ι | Κ | Λ | Μ | Ν | Ξ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| Ο | Π | Ρ | Σ | Τ | Υ | Φ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| Χ | Ψ | Ω | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+-------+-------+-------+-------+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| | | | | kern. | kern. | kern. ||
| | | | | ᾳ | ῃ | ῳ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
| ´ | ` | ῀ | ῾ | ᾿ | ῞ | ῝ | ῎ | ῍ | ῟ | ῏ | ̈ | ΅ | ῭ ||
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---++
2 1 6 4 5 3 8 7
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ά | ὰ | ᾶ | ἁ | ἀ | ἅ | ἃ | ἄ | ὰ | ἇ | ἆ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| έ | ὲ | | ἑ | ἐ | ἕ | ἓ | ἔ | ὲ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ή | ὴ | ῆ | ἡ | ἠ | ἥ | ἣ | ἤ | ἢ | ἧ | ἦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ί | ὶ | ῖ | ἱ | ἰ | ἵ | ἳ | ἴ | ἲ | ἷ | ἶ | ϊ | ΐ | ῒ |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ό | ὸ | | ὁ | ὀ | ὅ | ὃ | ὄ | ὂ | | | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ύ | ὺ | ῦ | ὑ | ὐ | ὕ | ὓ | ὔ | ὒ | ὗ | ὖ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
|| ώ | ὼ | ῶ | ὡ | ὠ | ὥ | ὣ | ὤ | ὢ | ὧ | ὦ | | | |
++---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Plan of the New Greek Lower Case, as used in Mr. Spottiswoode’s
Offices.
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------++
|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.|kern.| Thin ||
| α | ε | η | ο | υ | ω | Sp. ||
+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+--------++
| β | ϐ | γ | δ | ε ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++
| κ | λ | μ | ν ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++
| | | | | | Thick ||
| ξ | ζ | υ | | τ | Sp. ||
| | | | | | ||
+-----+-----+-----------+-----+-----+--------++
++-----------+-----------+-----------+---------+---------+
|| σ | ς | ψ | ῥ | ῤ |
|| | | | | |
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+
|| ι | η | ϑ | θ | φ | χ |
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+
|| ο | π | , | ρ | En | Em |
|| | | | |quadrats.|quadrats.|
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+---------+---------+
|| | | ; | : | |
|| α | ω +-----+-----+ Quadrats. |
|| | | . | ̈ | |
++-----------+-----------+-----+-----+-------------------+
_Greek in the British Founderies._
_Double Pica._--Caslon and Livermore; cut by Martin. V. and J.
Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson;
Glasgow Homer.
_Great Primer._--Caslon and Livermore; cut by Martin. V. and J.
Figgins. Thorowgood and Besley; formerly Byddells. University of
Oxford. Wilson.
_English._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson.
_Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood and
Besley (2). University of Oxford. Wilson.
_Small Pica._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins.
Thorowgood and Besley. Wilson.
_Long Primer._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins.
Thorowgood and Besley, late Fry’s; one fount cut from the MS. of
the late Professor Porson. University of Oxford. Wilson; matrices
from type cast in which the Elzevirs printed some of their
editions.
_Bourgeois._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley.
_Brevier._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley. University of Oxford. Wilson.
_Nonpareil._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins. Thorowgood
and Besley.
_Pearl._--Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley; formerly
Bynneman’s.
_Diamond._--Caslon and Livermore. V. and J. Figgins.
_Alexandrian Greek, Pica._--Thorowgood and Besley, late Fry’s;
cut by Jackson, for Dr. Woide’s facsimile edition of the New
Testament of the Codex Alexandrinus.
For the allowance of the duty on paper used in the printing of
books in the Greek language within the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge, the Universities of Scotland, and the University of
Trinity College, Dublin, _see_ PAPER.
GROOVES.
There is always a groove on the upper surface of the short cross of a
chase, at each end, six or seven inches long. Their use is to receive
the spur, when working with points, and to allow it to make a hole
in the paper, without injury to itself. The grooves in wrought iron
chases are of a good form, being cut with a tool tapering to the
bottom like a wedge, which enables the spur to make a clean hole in
the paper; those in cast iron chases are generally flat at the bottom
and too wide, which causes the holes to gull. _See_ GULL.
GUIDE CRAMPS. _See_ CRAMP IRONS.
GULL.
When the points tear the point holes at press, they say, they
are Gulled, or the Holes Gull. This may arise from two or three
causes--if the point of the spur be turned again, it will cause
it--in cast iron chases the groove to receive the spur is generally
too wide, this may also cause it--and if the spur does not fall
fairly into the groove, this may be another cause: the remedy is not
difficult, unless the paper be very tender. In the first case, the
spur ought to be filed to a smooth tapering point--in the second, it
is usual to wedge a bit of reglet into the groove, to cut it down to
the surface of the cross, and to make a hole in it with a bodkin for
the reception of the spur--in the last, it is necessary that the spur
fall fairly into the groove. If the fault arises from the bluntness
and thickness of the spurs, they must be filed smaller and to a point.
GUTTER.
Gutter Sticks are used to set between pages on either side the
crosses; they are made of an equal thickness their whole length;
but they have a groove, or gutter, laid on the upper side of them,
as well that the water may drain away when the form is washed or
rinsed, as that they should not print, when, through the tenderness
of the tympan, the platen presses it and the paper lower than
ordinary.--_M._ We now mean by the term Gutter, the piece of
furniture that separates two adjoining pages in a chase, as in an
octavo that between pages 1 and 16, in a duodecimo that between
pages 1 and 24, and so on. The pieces that are put at the sides of
the pages next the cross, are called _Backs_; and those at the tops
of the pages next the cross, are called _Heads_. I would recommend
that the gutters should be cut a little longer than the page, the
heads for each quarter being in two pieces, so that the gutter may be
between them; one head will thus project a little over the sidestick,
and will form an abutment for it, while the other will project a
little over the back; by this method there will be no danger of any
of them binding, and the gutters will answer for pages of different
lengths.
GUY, THOMAS. _See_ DONATIONS.
GYPSUM.
Earl Stanhope says, “The best burnt gypsum mixes up most
conveniently, for stereotyping, in the proportion of seven parts of
water to nine parts of gypsum.”
H.
HALF A PRESS.
When but one man works at a press, it is called _Half a Press_.--_M._
It is still termed _a Half Press_. A man is said to be working Half
Press.
HALF WORK.
He that works but three days in the week, does but _Half work_.--_M._
HANGS. _See_ LETTER HANGS.--_M._
HANG UP PAPER.
To hang the sheets upon the poles to dry after they have been printed.
For this purpose the warehouseman takes the peel in his hand, and
lays it flat upon the heap that is to be hung up, so as to let the
paper project beyond the left side of it; he turns over upon it from
six to twelve or fourteen sheets of paper, with the wrapper, and
then moves the peel two or three inches to the left, and goes on
repeating the process, till he has got as many lifts on it as it will
conveniently support; he then raises them above the pole on which
they are to be placed, and holding the handle slanting the sheets
open at the under side, so that when the peel is withdrawn the lifts
are left suspended on the pole; he then inserts the end of the peel
between the first and second lifts, which are undermost, where he
shifted his peel in taking them up, lifts them a little, and moves
them farther from each other on the pole, still letting the one
overhang a little the other he leaves in its first place, and thus he
proceeds till one by one he has separated all he had upon his peel;
he then takes another peelful, repeating this process, and so he goes
on till the whole heap is hung up.
He is guided by circumstances as to the number of sheets he should
take in a lift: if the work is in a great hurry, or his vacant poles
are not in a favourable situation for drying, or the weather be rainy
and the atmosphere charged with moisture, he will hang the paper up
thin; but if he is short of pole-room, and the work is not in a great
hurry, if the situation is favourable for drying, and the weather dry
and warm, he will make his lifts thicker; but I would caution him not
to go to an extreme, as in that case the paper may mildew upon the
poles, particularly in the fold.
Houses of extensive business have drying rooms fitted up with pipes,
and heated either with steam or hot water, so that they can dry their
printed paper expeditiously, without hinderance or drawback.
HANG THE PLATEN.
To tie the platen to the hose hooks, in a wooden press.
To perform this it is usual to lay on the press stone a form of solid
type, and to turn the tympans down upon it, to place the platen in
its place, square with the press, to pull the bar home, and to keep
it in this situation by a letter board placed so as to take a bearing
against the shoulder of the bar close to the handle, and also against
the off cheek; but I prefer a piece of wide furniture with a notch
cut in one end for the bar, and the other end against the off cheek,
as it is more secure and less liable to be displaced; then to make a
noose on a piece of laid cord, place this on one of the front hose
hooks, and take a turn round the corresponding platen hooks, and
continue these turns till a sufficient quantity of cord is wound
round the hooks; take a hitch round one of the hooks to prevent the
cord slipping, then begin to wind the cord round these layers, every
two or three turns drawing it tight by taking a turn round a short
piece of broad or narrow furniture, by means of which it may be drawn
more forcibly, so as to bring the parts together, which makes it so
firm that there is no danger of its giving way; the end may then be
fastened to one of the hooks. The same process is repeated at the
opposite angle, behind the press; then at the two other angles; the
platen is then firmly hung, and is ready for work.
The same process is observed in iron presses, with the exception that
the platen is not tied with cord; it is attached to the press by
means of screws.
HANSARD, LUKE. _See_ DONATIONS.
HARD IMPRESSION.
When there is too much pull in working at press, particularly with
engravings, and the lines come off strong which ought to be light and
delicate, it is said the impression is hard.
HARD INK.
Ink very well boiled.--_M._ It is now called strong ink.
HARD JUSTIFYING.
If a compositor fills his stick very stiff with letters or spaces,
they say it is hard justified.--_M._
HARD PULL.
In justifying the head of a press for a short pull, which is done by
putting solid blocks of wood into the mortises of the cheeks, it is
called an _Hard Pull_.--_M._ This relates to wooden presses; but,
instead of the blocks of wood, scaleboard is now used, additional
pieces of which are put into the mortises, by lowering the head,
which is again tightly screwed up: in the Stanhope Press, and in
Clymer’s, it is accomplished by shortening the coupling bar, by
means of a screw; in Cogger’s press, by a screw through the head;
and in Cope’s press, by putting pieces of plate iron upon the crown
of the platen. In Sherwin and Cope’s Imperial press, by turning a
screw attached to a wedge placed in the front, above the spindle; Mr.
Hopkinson has adopted the same method in Cope’s press, placed on the
near side.
HARD WORK.
With compositors, ill written copy, much Italick, Latin or Greek, or
marginal notes, or few breaks, &c. is called _Bad_, _Heavy_, _Hard
Work_: with pressmen, small letter and a large form is called _Hard
Work_.--_M._ _See_ BAD WORK.
There has been an alteration in the mode of paying for work since
Moxon’s time, which is to the advantage of the workman: foreign
languages, Greek, and marginal notes are now extra charges; and the
Pressman has an additional price for his work, as the type decreases
in size and the size of the page increases. _See_ PRICES.
HEAD.
That part of a wooden press in which the nut of the spindle is fixed;
it has a tenon at each end which fit into long mortises in the
cheeks, not tightly, but sufficiently so to prevent lateral motion;
and it is suspended from the cap by two long iron bolts, which go
through the head and the cap, above which are iron washers and
screws by which to lower the head, or screw it up tighter. The head
is usually made of elm. The whole of the pressure in the process of
printing is between the head and the winter.
HEAD BAND.
A thin bar of iron that connects the two sides of the tympans at the
top: it is made thin, to allow it to run under the platen without
impediment. The half of the frisket joints are riveted to the head
band. _See_ FRISKET JOINTS.
HEAD BOLTS.
Two long bolts that pass through the head and the cap, in wooden
presses, with a screw at the upper end: the head of the press is
supported upon the heads of the bolts, and their screw ends pass
through the cap, upon which they are secured by washers and female
screws that can be tightened by the fingers; these screws are for the
purpose of screwing up the head, to justify the pull.
HEAD LINE.
The top line of a page in which is the running title and the folio,
but sometimes only a folio: the divisions and subdivisions of a work,
when they are set in lines, and chapters, are also called _Head
Lines_.
HEAD OF A PAGE.
The top or beginning of a page.--_M._
HEAD PAGE.
The first page of a work, and each page on which a new division of
the subject commences, such as parts and chapters, provided they
begin the page.
HEAD PIECES.
The same changes have taken place with regard to head pieces that I
have described under the article FAC; from the beautiful drawings
with which manuscripts and some of the first productions of the press
were illuminated, they gradually descended to engravings on wood,
which was the first step, then to cast metal ornaments, and then to
the types called flowers, which were displayed in every variety of
form that they were capable of, or that the ingenuity of the printer
could devise; these gave place to a piece of double brass rule, that
is now out of fashion; and head pieces at the present day are only
spoken of as things that once existed. _See_ FAC.
HEAD STICK.
Pieces of furniture put at the head of pages when a form is imposed,
to make the margin at the head of the page; they are called reglets,
if they exceed not an English thick.--_M._ _See_ BOLTS.
HEAP.
So many reams or quires as are set out by the warehouse-keeper for
the pressman to wet, is called a _Heap_; but then it is called a dry
heap, till the pressman have wet it, and then it is indeed called a
_Heap_.--_M._
When paper is given out for a work, and wetted, it is called a heap,
and retains that name till it is made up into books.
In gathering the printed sheets in the warehouse, all the sheets of
each signature are placed upon the gathering table, arranged in their
regular order, except it be a long number, and then about a bundle of
each; each signature in this situation is called a heap.
HEAP HOLDS OUT.
When it hath its full intended number of sheets.--_M._ At the present
time, when accidents and other causes have not reduced the surplus so
much as to prevent the warehouseman from delivering the proper number.
HEAVY WORK. _See_ BAD WORK and HARD WORK.
HEBREW.
The Chaldaic letters are derived from the ancient Hebrew or
Samaritan, which are the same, or nearly so, with the old Phenicien.
The prophet Ezra, is supposed to have exchanged the old Hebrew
characters, for the more beautiful and commodious Chaldee, which are
still in use.
Hebrew has no capitals; and therefore letters of the same shape, but
of a large body, are used at the beginning of chapters and other
parts of Hebrew work.
[Illustration: The Hebrew Alphabet]
_The Hebrew Alphabet._
+---------+--------+-------+---------------------------------+-----+
| Names. |Figure. |Simil- | Sound or power of the letters. | Num-|
| | Finals.| itude.| | ber.|
+---------+---+----+-------+---------------------------------+-----+
| | | | | | |
| Aleph | א | | | A _spiritus lenis_, or soft | 1 |
| | | | | breathing, indicating the bare | |
| | | | | opening of the mouth, and simple| |
| | | | | emission of the voice. | |
| | | | | | |
| Bheth | ב | | ב כ | _bh_, very soft; with dagesh, | 2 |
| | | | | בּ _b_ hard. | |
| | | | | | |
| Ghimel | ג | | ג נ | _gh_, very soft; with dagesh, | 3 |
| | | | | גּ _g_ hard. | |
| | | | | | |
| Dhaleth | ד | | ד ך ר | _dh_, very soft, as in that; | 4 |
| | | | | with dagesh, דּ _d_ hard. | |
| | | | | | |
| He | ה | | ה ח ת | a _spiritus densus_, or thick, | 5 |
| | | | | hard breathing. | |
| | | | | | |
| Vau | ו | | ו ז ן | _v_, or the digamma _vv_. | 6 |
| | | | | | |
| Zajin | ז | | | _z_ or _s_ between vowels, | 7 |
| | | | | as in _miser_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Hheth | ח | | | _hh_, a very hard or thick | 8 |
| | | | | breathing, harder than ה, | |
| | | | | softer than כ, somewhat similar | |
| | | | | in sound to the Greek χ _chi_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Teth | ט | | ט מ | _t_. | 9 |
| | | | | | |
| Jodh | י | | י ו | _i_ or _j_. | 10 |
| | | | | | |
| Chaph | כ | ך | | _c_ or _ch_, harder than ח with | 20 |
| | | | | a dagesh, it sounds like ק _k_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Lamedh | ל | | | _l_. | 30 |
| | | | | | |
| Mem | מ | ם | | _m_. | 40 |
| | | | | | |
| Nun | נ | ן | | _n_. | 50 |
| | | | | | |
| Samech | ס | | ם ס | _s_, sounds like the _hissing_ | 60 |
| | | | | of a goose or serpent. | |
| | | | | | |
| Ghnaiin | ע | | ץ ע | sounds like the bleating of a | 70 |
| | | | | calf in the absence of its dam. | |
| | | | | | |
| Phe | פ | ף | | _ph_ or _f_; with a | 80 |
| | | | | dagesh, פ _p_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Tzade | צ | ץ | | _ts_, with a harder _hiss_ | 90 |
| | | | | than ז. | |
| | | | | | |
| Koph | ק | | | _k_ or _q_. | 100 |
| | | | | | |
| Resh | ר | | | _r_, the canine or barking | 200 |
| | | | | letter, imitating, by the | |
| | | | | quivering of the tongue, the | |
| | | | | snarling growl of a dog. | |
| | | | | | |
| Schin | שׁ | | | _sch_, pointed on the right, | 300 |
| | | | | it sounds _sch_ or _sh_, | |
| | | | | on the left _s_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Sin | שׂ | | | _s_. | |
| | | | | | |
| Thau | ת | | | _th_, as in thief, smith; with | 400 |
| | | | | a dagesh תּ _t_, hard. | |
+---------+---+----+-------+---------------------------------+-----+
Particular attention should be paid to the letters in the column
“Similitude” in the Table of the Alphabet, which are liable to be
mistaken, one for the other, on account of their great resemblance
one to another.
The vowels properly so called are ten in number, viz.:
_Long._
Kamets בָ _ā_
Tseri בֵ _ē_
Great Chirek בִי _ēī_
Hholem or Cholem וֹ _ō_
Shurek וּ _ū_, or _ōō_
_Short._
Patach בַ _ă_
Segol בֶ _ĕ_
Little Chirek בִ _ĭ_
Kamets Catuph, or short (בֳ) בָ _ŏ_
Kybbutz בֻ _ŭ_
Sheva (בְ) is sounded like very short _e_. 1. At the beginning of
a word. 2. In the middle after a long vowel, or instead of a long
vowel. 3. After a companion, _i. e._ another (וְ). 4. Under dagesh,
also under dagesh understood.
(בְ) never follows (בְ) in the beginning of a word, or in the
middle after a perfect syllable; but the first is changed into (בִ)
(בַ) or (בֶ) chiefly on account of a guttural and ר: very seldom
into (בֳ).
Dagesh, from the Chaldaic, _he punctured_, is a point in the body of
a letter, and is either _lene_ or _forte_.
Dagesh lene removes the aspiration from the six letters
בְּגַדכְּפַת, and strengthens their pronunciation in some degree.
Dagesh forte doubles the letters in which it occurs. Regularly it
follows a short vowel, and only a long one when accented.
Mappik is a point in הּ final only, but vanishes on an increase of
the word.
ACCENTS.
Hebrew accents are either mere points, or lines, or circles.
Those which are mere points or dots, consist of one, or two, or three
such points, and are always placed above the middle of the accented
letter, thus
That consisting of
One, called _rebia_, ב֗, i. e. _sitting over_.
Two, called royal _zakeph katon_, ב֔, or, _the little
elevator_, from its figure which is composed of upright points.
Three, called royal _segolta_, ב֒, an inverted (∵).
The lines are either upright, inclined, or transverse.
The upright is either solitary or with points or dots.
The solitary is either
between two words ב׀ב, termed _pesick_, or musical pause, and
terminating a song.
or under a word
_Metheg_ בֽ, or _bridle_, an euphonic accent at the beginning
of a word.
Royal _silluk_, בֽ, _end_, which is placed before (׃)
_soph-pasuk_, i. e. towards the end.
With points, namely
two, above the letter, royal _zakeph gadhol_ ב֕, _the great
elevator_, strains the sound.
one, below the letter, royal _tebhir_, ב֛, _broken_ sound,
from its figure and tone.
Inclined lines hang either above or below.
Above, towards the right