| Name. | Formula. | Oxygen | Hydrogen |
| | | = 100. | = 1. |
+-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+
| | | | |
| Oxygen | O | 100.000 | 16.026 |
| | | | |
| Hydrogen | H | 6.2398 | 1.000 |
| | 2H | 12.4796 | 2.000 |
| | | | |
| Nitrogen | N | 88.518 | 14.186 |
| | 2N | 177.086 | 28.372 |
| | | | |
| Phosphorus | P | 196.155 | 31.436 |
| | 2P | 392.310 | 68.872 |
| | | | |
| Chlorine | Cl | 221.325 | 35.470 |
| | 2Cl | 442.650 | 70.940 |
| | | | |
| Iodine | I | 768.781 | 123.206 |
| | 2I | 1537.562 | 246.412 |
| | | | |
| Carbon | C | 76.437 | 12.250 |
| | 2C | 152.875 | 24.500 |
| | | | |
| Boron | B | 135.983 | 21.793 |
| | 2B | 271.966 | 43.586 |
| | | | |
| Silicon | Si | 277.478 | 44.469 |
| | | | |
| Selenium | Se | 494.582 | 79.263 |
| | | | |
| Arsenic | As | 470.042 | 75.329 |
| | 2As | 940.084 | 150.659 |
| | | | |
| Chromium | Cr | 351.819 | 56.383 |
| | 2Cr | 703.638 | 112.766 |
| | | | |
| Molybdenum | Mo | 598.525 | 95.920 |
| | | | |
| Tungstenium | Tu or W | 1183.200 | 189.621 |
| | | | |
| Antimony | Sb | 806.452 | 129.243 |
| | 2Sb | 1612.904 | 258.486 |
| | | | |
| Tellurium | Te | 806.452 | 129.243 |
| | | | |
| Tantalum | Ta | 1153.715 | 184.896 |
| | 2Ta | 2307.430 | 369.792 |
| | | | |
| Titanium | Ti | 389.092 | 62.356 |
| | | | |
| Gold (aurum) | Au | 1243.013 | 199.207 |
| | 2Au | 2486.026 | 398.415 |
| | | | |
| Platina | Pt | 1215.220 | 194.753 |
| | | | |
| Rhodium | R | 750.680 | 120.305 |
| | 2R | 1501.360 | 240.610 |
| | | | |
| Palladium | Pd | 714.618 | 114.526 |
| | | | |
| Silver (argentum) | Ag | 1351.607 | 216.611 |
| | | | |
| Mercury (hydrargyrus) | Hg | 1265.822 | 202.863 |
| | 2Hg | 2531.645 | 405.725 |
| | | | |
| Copper (cuprum) | Cu | 395.695 | 63.415 |
| | 2Cu | 791.390 | 126.829 |
| | | | |
| Uranium | U | 2711.360 | 434.527 |
| | 2U | 5422.720 | 869.154 |
| | | | |
| Bismuth | Bi | 1330.376 | 213.208 |
| | 2Bi | 2660.752 | 426.416 |
| | | | |
| Tin (stannum) | Sn | 735.294 | 117.839 |
| | | | |
| Lead (plumbum) | Pb | 1294.498 | 207.458 |
| | 2Pb | 2588.996 | 414.917 |
| | | | |
| Cadmium | Cd | 696.767 | 111.665 |
| | | | |
| Zinc | Zn | 403.226 | 64.621 |
| | | | |
| Nickel | Ni | 369.675 | 59.245 |
| | | | |
| Cobalt | Co | 368.991 | 59.135 |
| | 2Co | 737.982 | 118.270 |
| | | | |
| Iron (ferrum) | Fe | 339.213 | 54.363 |
| | 2Fe | 678.426 | 108.725 |
| | | | |
| Manganese | Mn | 355.787 | 57.019 |
| | 2Mn | 711.575 | 114.038 |
| | | | |
| Cerium | Ce | 574.718 | 92.105 |
| | 2Ce | 1149.436 | 184.210 |
| | | | |
| Zirconium | Zr | 420.238 | 67.348 |
| 2Zr | 840.476 | 134.696 |
| | | | |
| Yttrium | Y | 401.840 | 64.395 |
| | | | |
| Beryllium (glucinum) | Be | 331.479 | 53.123 |
| | 2Be | 662.958 | 106.247 |
| | | | |
| Aluminum | Al | 171.167 | 27.431 |
| | 2Al | 342.234 | 54.863 |
| | | | |
| Magnesium | Mg | 158.353 | 25.378 |
| | | | |
| Calcium | Ca | 256.019 | 41.030 |
| | | | |
| Strontium | Sr | 547.285 | 87.709 |
| | | | |
| Baryum | Ba | 856.88 | 137.325 |
| | | | |
| Lithium | L | 127.757 | 20.474 |
| | | | |
| Natrium (sodium) | Na | 290.897 | 46.620 |
| | 2Na | 581.794 | 93.239 |
| | | | |
| Kalium (potassium) | K | 489.916 | 78.515 |
| | | | |
| Ammonia | 2N 2H^3 | 214.474 | 34.372 |
| | | | |
| Cyanogen | 2NC | 329.911 | 52.872 |
| | | | |
| Sulphuretted hydrogen | 2HS | 213.644 | 34.239 |
| | | | |
| Hydrochloric acid | 2HCl | 455.129 | 72.940 |
| | | | |
| Hydrocyanic acid | 2HNC | 342.390 | 54.872 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Water | 2H | 112.479 | 18.026 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of nitrogen | 2N | 277.036 | 44.398 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Deutoxide of nitrogen | N | 188.518 | 30.212 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Nitrous acid | 2N | 477.036 | 76.449 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Nitric acid | 2N | 677.036 | 108.503 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Hydrosulphuric acid | S | 301.165 | 48.265 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Sulphurous acid | S | 401.165 | 64.291 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Hyposulphuric acid | 2S | 902.330 | 144.609 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Sulphuric acid | S | 501.165 | 80.317 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Phosphoric acid | 2P | 892.310 | 143.003 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Chloric acid | 2Cl | 942.650 | 151.071 |
| | | | |
| | ::: | | |
| Perchloric acid | 2Cl | 1042.650 | 167.097 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Iodic acid | 2I | 2037.562 | 326.543 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Carbonic acid | C | 276.437 | 44.302 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxalic acid | 2C | 452.875 | 72.578 |
| | | | |
| | ::: | | |
| Boracic acid | 2B | 871.966 | 139.743 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Silicic acid | Si | 577.478 | 92.548 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Selenic acid | Se | 694.582 | 111.315 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Arsenic acid | 2As | 1440.084 | 230.790 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Protoxide of chrome | 2Cr | 1003.638 | 160.840 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Chromic acid | Cr | 651.819 | 104.462 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Molybdic acid | Mo | 898.525 | 143.999 |
| | | | |
| Tunstic, or | ... | | |
| wolfram acid | W | 1483.200 | 237.700 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of antimony | 2Sb | 1912.904 | 306.565 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Antimonious acid | Sb | 1006.452 | 161.296 |
| | | | |
| | .... | | |
| | 2Sb | 2012.904 | 322.591 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Antimonic acid | 2Sb | 2112.904 | 338.617 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Oxide of tellurium | Te | 1006.452 | 161.296 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Tantalic acid | 2Ta | 2607.430 | 417.871 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Titanic acid | Ti | 589.092 | 94.409 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of gold | 2Au | 2786.026 | 446.493 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Oxide of platina | Pt | 1415.220 | 226.086 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of rhodium | 2R | 1801.360 | 228.689 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of palladium | Pd | 814.618 | 130.552 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of silver | Ag | 1451.607 | 232.637 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of mercury | 2Hg | 2631.645 | 421.752 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Peroxide of mercury | Hg | 1365.822 | 218.889 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of copper | 2Cu | 801.390 | 142.856 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Peroxide of copper | Cu | 495.695 | 79.441 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of uranium | U | 2811.360 | 450.553 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of uranium | 2U | 5722.720 | 917.132 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of bismuth | 2Bi | 2960.752 | 474.49 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of tin | Sn | 835.294 | 133.866 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Peroxide of tin | Sn | 935.294 | 149.892 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of lead | Pb | 1394.498 | 223.484 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Minium | 2Pb | 2888.996 | 462.995 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Brown oxide of lead | Pb | 1494.498 | 239.511 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of cadmium | Cd | 796.767 | 127.691 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of zinc | Zn | 503.226 | 80.649 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of nickel | Ni | 469.675 | 75.271 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Oxide of cobalt | Co | 468.991 | 75.161 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of cobalt | 2Co | 1037.982 | 166.349 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of iron | Fe | 439.213 | 70.389 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of iron | 2Fe | 978.426 | 156.804 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of manganese| Mn | 455.787 | 73.045 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of manganese | 2Mn | 1011.575 | 162.117 |
| | | | |
| | .. | | |
| Peroxide of manganese | Mn | 555.787 | 89.071 |
| | | | |
| | :.: | | |
| Manganesic acid | 2Mn | 1211.575 | 194.169 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Protoxide of cerium | Ce | 674.718 | 108.132 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Oxide of cerium | 2Ce | 1449.436 | 232.289 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Zirconia | 2Zr | 1140.476 | 182.775 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Yttria | Y | 501.840 | 80.425 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Glucina, or beryllia | 2Be | 962.958 | 154.325 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Alumina | 2Al | 642.334 | 109.492 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Magnesia | Mg | 258.353 | 41.404 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Lime | Ca | 356.019 | 57.056 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Strontia | Sr | 647.285 | 103.735 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Baryta | Ba | 956.880 | 153.351 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Lithia | L | 227.757 | 36.501 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Natron, or soda | Na | 390.897 | 62.646 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of sodium | 2Na | 881.794 | 141.318 |
| | | | |
| | . | | |
| Kali, or potassa | K | 589.916 | 94.541 |
| | | | |
| | ... | | |
| Peroxide of potassium | K | 789.916 | 126.593 |
| | | | |
| | . ... | | |
| Sulphate of potassa | KS | 1091.081 | 174.859 |
| | | | |
| | . ... | | |
| Protosulphate of iron | FeS | 940.378 | 150.706 |
| | | | |
| | ... ... | | |
| Persulphate of iron | 2FeS^3 | 2481.906 | 397.754 |
| | | | |
| Protochloride of iron | Fe2Cl | 781.863 | 125.303 |
| | | | |
| Perchloride of iron | 2Fe2Cl^3 | 2006.376 | 321.545 |
| | | | |
| Protochloride | | | |
| of mercury | 2Hg2Cl | 2974.295 | 476.666 |
| | | | |
| Perchloride of mercury| Hg2Cl | 1708.472 | 273.803 |
+-----------------------+----------------+-----------+----------+
+---------------+------------------------+-----------+----------+
| | | | |
| Ferrocyanide | Fe2NC + 2K2NC | 2308.778 | 370.008 |
| of iron | | | |
| | . ... ... ... . | | |
| Alum | KS + 2AlS^{3} + 24 2H | 5936.406 | 951.378 |
| | | | |
| | . ... ... ... | | |
| Felspar | KSi + 2Al Si | 3542.162 | 567.673 |
+---------------+------------------------+-----------+----------+
Berzelius’s Symbols of all the Elementary Substances.
Elements. Symb. Elements. Symb.
Aluminum Al Mercury (Hydrargyrum) Hg
Antimony (Stibium) Sb Molybdenum Mo
Arsenic As Nickel Ni
Barium Ba Nitrogen N
Bismuth Bi Osmium Os
Boron B Oxygen O
Bromine Br Palladium Pd
Cadmium Cd Phosphorus P
Calcium Ca Platinum Pl
Carbon C Potassium (Kalium) K
Cerium Ce Rhodium R
Chlorine Cl Selenium Se
Chromium Cr Silicium Si
Cobalt Co Silver (Argentum) Ag
Columbium (Tantalum) Ta Sodium (Natrium) Na
Copper (Cuprum) Cu Strontium Sr
Fluorine F Sulphur S
Glucinium G Tellurium Te
Gold (Aurum) Au Thorium Th
Hydrogen H Tin (Stannum) Sn
Iodine I Titanium Ti
Iridium Ir Tungsten (Wolfram) W
Iron (Ferrum) Fe Vanadium V
Lead (Plumbum) Pb Uranium U
Lithium L Yttrium Y
Magnesium Mg Zinc Zn
Manganese Mn Zirconium Zr
* * * * *
Degrees of Oxidation are indicated by Dots placed over the Symbol.
:.:
Nitric Acid N
...
Sulphuric do. S
Fluoric do. HF
..
Carbonic do. C
:.:
Phosphoric do. P_
Muriatic Acid HCI
...
Boracic do. B
:.:
Arsenic do. As_
.
Water H
Table of the principal Groups of the Isomorphous Substances at
present observed by Chemists.
1. Silver Ag
Gold Au
...
2. Arsenious Acid (usual form) A͟
...
Sesquioxide of Antimony Sb͟
...
3. Alumina Al͟
...
Peroxide of Iron Fe͟
:.:
4. Salts of Phosphoric Acid P͟
:.:
Arsenic do. A͟
...
5. Salts of Sulphuric Acid S
...
Selenic do. Se
...
Chromic do. Cr
...
Manganic do. Mn
:.::
6. Salts of Perchloric do. Cl
:.::
Permanganic do. Mn͟
.
7. Salts of Potassa K
Ammonia with 1 eq. of .
Water H^3N + H
.
8. Salts of Soda Na
.
Oxide of Silver Ag
.
9. Salts of Baryta Ba
.
Strontia Sr
.
Lime (in Arragonite) Ca
.
Protoxide of Lead Pb
.
10. Salts of Lime Ca
.
Magnesia Mg
.
Protoxide of Iron Fe
.
Manganese Mn
.
Zinc Zn
.
Nickel Ni
.
Cobalt Co
.
Copper Cu
Lead (in
Plumbo .
Calcitie) Pb
...
11. Salts of Alumina Al͟
...
Peroxide of Iron Fe
...
Oxide of Chromium Cr
...
Sesquioxide of Manganese Mn
* * * * *
Professor Whewell in an Essay on the Employment of Notation in
Chemistry, observes, “I have no hesitation in saying, that in
mineralogy it is utterly impossible to express clearly, or to reason
upon, the chemical constitution of our substances, without the
employment of some notation or other. Every one who makes the trial
will find that, without a notation, his attempts to compare the
composition of different minerals will be confused and fruitless, and
that, by employing symbols, his reasonings may easily be made brief,
clear, and systematic.”
After criticising the foreign notation as being grossly anomalous and
defective, he adds the following list, which he hopes he has shown to
be mathematically consistent and chemically useful. He has used the
atomic composition adopted by Dr. Turner in his Chemistry.
_ka_ = potassium _ka_ + _o_ = K = Potassa.
_na_ = sodium _na_ + _o_ = N = Soda.
_li_ = lithium _li_ + _o_ = L = Lithia.
_ba_ = barium _ba_ + _o_ = B = Baryta.
_sr_ = strontium _sr_ + _o_ = S_r_ = Strontia.
_ca_ = calcium _ca_ + _o_ = C = Lime (calcia).
_ma_ = magnesium _ma_ + _o_ = M = Magnesia.
_zi_ = zirconium _zi_ + _o_ = Z = Zirconia.
_gl_ = glucinum _gl_ + _o_ = G = Glucina.
_al_ = aluminium _al_ + _o_ = A = Alumina.
_si_ = silicium _si_ + _o_ = S = Silica.
_mn_ = manganese _mn_ + _o_ = M_n_ = Protoxide.
_mn_ + (3/2) _o_ = M_ns_ = Deutoxide.
_mn_ + 2 _o_ = M_nn_ = Peroxide.
_mn_ + 3 _o_ = M_n`_ = Manganesious Acid.
_mn_ + 4 _o_ = M_n´_ = Manganesic Acid.
_fe_ = iron _fe_ + _o_ = F_e_ = oxide.
_fe_ + (3/2) _o_ = F_es_ = peroxide.
_zi_ = zinc _zi_ + _o_ = Z_i_ = oxide.
_cd_ = cadmium _cd_ + _o_ = C_d_ = oxide.
_sn_ = tin _sn_ + _o_ = S_n_ = oxide.
_sn_ + 2 _o_ = S_nn_ = peroxide.
_ce_ = cerium _ce_ + _o_ = C_e_ = oxide.
_ce_ + (3/2) _o_ = C_es_ = peroxide.
_cb_ = cobalt _cb_ + _o_ = C_b_ = oxide.
_cb_ + (3/2) _o_ = C_bs_ = peroxide.
_ni_ = nickel _ni_ + _o_ = N_i_ = oxide.
_ni_ + (3/2) _o_ = N_is_ = peroxide.
_bi_ = bismuth _bi_ + _o_ = B_i_ = oxide.
_ti_ = titanium _ti_ + _o_ = T_i_ = oxide.
_cu_ = copper _cu_ + _o_ = C_u_ = oxide.
_cu_ + 2 _o_ = C_uu_ = peroxide.
_ur_ = uranium _ur_ + _o_ = U_r_ = oxide.
_ur_ + 2 _o_ = U_rr_ = peroxide.
_pb_ = lead _pb_ + _o_ = P_b_ = oxide.
_pb_ + (3/2) _o_ = P_bs_ = deutoxide.
_pb_ + 2 _o_ = P_bb_ = peroxide.
_hg_ = mercury _hg_ + _o_ = H_g_ = oxide.
_hg_ + 2 _o_ = H_gg_ = peroxide.
_ag_ = silver _ag_ + _o_ = A_g_ = oxide.
_au_ = gold _au_ + _o_ = A_u_ = oxide.
_pt_ = platinum _pt_ + _o_ = P_t_ = oxide.
_pd_ = palladium _pd_ + _o_ = P_d_ = oxide.
_ir_ = iridium
_rh_ = rhodium _rh_ + _o_ = R_h_ = oxide.
_rh_ + (3/2) _o_ = R_hs_ = peroxide.
_om_ = osmium
_cr_ = chromium _cr_ + _o_ = C_r_ = oxide.
_cr_ + (5/2) _o_ = _cr´_ = chromic acid.
_mo_ = molybdenum _mo_ + _o_ = M_o_ = oxide.
_mo_ + 2 _o_ = M_oo_ = deutoxide.
_mo_ + 3 _o_ = _mo´_ = molybdic acid.
_tu_ = tungsten _tu_ + 2 _o_ = T_uu_ = oxide.
_tu_ + 3 _o_ = _tu´_ = tungstic acid.
_cm_ = columbium
_an_ = antimony _an_ + _o_ = oxide.
_an_ + (3/2) _o_ = deutoxide.
_ar_ = arsenic _ar_ + (3/2) _o_ = _ar`_ = arsenious acid.
_ar_ + (5/2) _o_ = _ar´_ = arsenic.
_p_ = phosphorus _p_ + (3/2) _o_ = _p`_ = phosphorous acid.
_p_ + (5/2) _o_ = _p´_ = phosphoric.
_s_ = sulphur _s_ + _o_ = hyposulphurous acid.
_s_ + 2 _o_ = _s`_ = sulphurous.
_s_ + 3 _o_ = _s´_ = sulphuric.
_se_ = selenium _se_ + 2 _o_ = _se`_ = selenious acid.
_se_ + 3 _o_ = _se´_ = selenic.
_te_ = tellurium _te_ + _o_ = oxide.
_b_ = boron _b_ + 2 _o_ = _b´_ = boracic acid.
_c_ = carbon _c_ + _o_ = _c`_ = carbonic oxide.
_c_ + 2 _o_ = _c´_ = carbonic acid.
_n_ = nitrogen _n_ + _o_ = oxide.
_n_ + 2 _o_ = deutoxide.
_n_ + 3 _o_ = hyponitrous acid.
_n_ + 4 _o_ = _n`_ = nitrous acid.
_n_ + 5 _o_ = _n´_ = nitric acid.
_n_ + 3 _h_ = A_m_ = ammonia.
_fl_ = fluorine _fl_ + _h_ = _fl´_ = hydrofluoric acid.
_cl_ = chlorine _cl_ + _h_ = _cl´_ = muriatic acid.
_io_ = iodine _io_ + _h_ = _io´_ = hydriodic acid.
Berzelius represents water (_aqua_) by _Aq_; for the sake of
simplicity Whewell says he has used _q_. He also observes, “In the
notation of Berzelius, the atoms of oxygen are indicated by dots
placed over the symbol of the base. Thus, _[..]fe_, _[...]fe_ are
the protoxide and peroxide of iron, which he considers as having two
and three atoms of oxygen respectively. This notation is compact
and simple, but it is not consistent with algebraical rule, so far
as the oxygen is concerned; and I conceive that, if this element
be explicitly expressed, it ought to be done in the manner I have
recommended, _fe_ + 2 _o_, _fe_ + 3 _o_, &c.”--_Journals of Royal
Institution._
I have omitted Professor Whewell’s reasons, which he gives to show
the superiority of his notation over those of foreign nations
and that of Berzelius, as they are not of practical utility in
printing; but I have given his list, which will be useful in printing
mineralogical works in cases where the copy may be bad.
FORTY-EIGHTMO.
A sheet of paper folded into forty-eight leaves, or ninety-six pages.
FORTYMO.
A sheet of paper folded into forty leaves, or eighty pages.
FOUL PROOF.
When a proof has many faults marked in it.--_M._ Pressmen are also in
the habit of calling the first proof a _Foul Proof_; and frequently
they pull it so as to justify the epithet.
FOUL STONE.
After imposing or correcting, if a compositor leave any thing upon
the imposing stone, except the mallet, shooting stick, and planer, it
is termed a foul stone; which in many houses subjects him to a fine.
FOUNT,
is the whole number of letters that are cast of the same body and
face at one time.--_M._ Moxon says this word is properly Fund.
FOUNT CASES.
Cases of larger proportions than those used to compose from, which
are kept to contain the surplus sorts of a fount until they are
required for use. In these cases they are more accessible than when
put into coffins and baskets according to the old plan, and are not
so likely to be mislaid.
FRACTIONS.
A fraction is part of a unit, and is written with two figures, one
above the other, with a line between them: thus, ¼, ⅚, ⅜. The upper
figure is called the numerator, and the lower figure the denominator.
The denominator shows how many parts the unit is divided into; and
the numerator, how many of those parts the fraction represents. A
proper fraction is when the numerator is less than the denominator.
An improper fraction is when the numerator is equal to, or greater
than the denominator.
A compound fraction is the fraction of a fraction, and is known by
the word, of, between the parts; as, ½ of ⅔ of 7/9 of 8/17. A mixed
number is composed of a whole number and fraction; as, 8-3/7, 17½. A
mixed fraction is when the numerator or denominator has a fractional
part; thus, 7⅔/4, 4/7⅔; or, when both of them have fractional parts;
as 5⅓/7⅕.
The fractions cast in one piece to a fount are ⅛, ¼, ⅜, ½, ⅝, ¾, ⅞.
Fractions are also cast in two pieces, from Brevier to English; when
wanted larger, they may be formed of figures of small proportionate
size, with a rule between the numerator and denominator.
This rule in separate fractions is now generally cast on the piece
containing the denominator, above the figure, thus, 1̅ 2̅ 3̅ 4̅ 5̅ 6̅
7̅ 8̅ 9̅ 0̅; but in improper fractions, where the numerator contains
more figures than the denominator, as 3848/21, this rule will not
cover the whole of the numerator, therefore it would be necessary, to
be able to compose fractions in a perfect manner, to have the rule
also cast under the numerator, according to the old plan, so as to
meet both cases, otherwise either the proper fraction or the improper
fraction must be deficient 21/3848.
FRAGMENTS.
After the body of a work, and the index are composed, the title,
preface, contents, &c. are proceeded with. If there be any pages
beyond the concluding sheet, they are now imposed together to save
presswork, and also warehouse work; and these pages are called
_Fragments_.
FRAME.
Made of deal wood, on which the cases are placed to be composed from.
[Illustration: Frame to hold cases]
By the annexed engraving it will be perceived, that the upper and
lower cases are placed upon the frame, not in a horizontal, but
sloping position, as two inclined planes, the upper case being
at a greater angle than the lower, which brings the more distant
boxes nearer to the compositor and thus expedites the work: this
arrangement occupies less room, and allows a greater number of frames
to stand in a given length.
The cases rest on a rail at each end, and in the middle there are
generally two rails, six or seven inches apart, for the inside end
of each case to rest on. There is frequently a piece of board nailed
to the bottom of these rails, which thus forms a depository for page
cords, copy that is not in use, and other small matters: this is
called a _Well_.
Frames are always placed with one end next the window, so that the
compositor when at work may stand with his left hand to the light;
thus he enjoys the full benefit of the light in picking up the
letters with his right hand. They are usually made to contain two
cases in length, which are generally a pair of Roman and a pair of
Italic cases, so that the compositor has not to go out of his frame
when he wants to compose a few words in Italic.
There is a rather strong nail driven into each end rail and each
middle rail for the bottom of the upper cases to rest upon, leaving
sufficient room for the lower cases to be lifted out when necessary.
The dimensions of a frame are--height of back, 4 feet 6 inches;
height of front, 3 feet 6 inches; width, 1 foot 10 inches; length, 4
feet 10 inches.
In a composing room, where there was plenty of room, I have seen the
frames made to contain three cases in length; this is a convenience,
as it allows the compositor to have up an additional pair of cases
for his notes.
FRENCH RULES.
Pieces of Brass, letter high, of different lengths and thicknesses,
on which are filed various dashes, swelling in the middle. They are
used to separate parts of a discourse; or are placed after certain
lines of capitals in titles and jobs, &c. They are also called _Swell
Rules_.
FRENCH WORDS AND PHRASES. _See_ PHRASES.
FRIAR.
When some parts of a ball or roller do not take the ink, so that
it does not adhere to the surface, the parts of the form that come
in contact with them will be deficient of ink, and the paper when
printed will, in those places, be either white or of a pale colour:
these white or pale patches are called _Friars_, as the black
patches, from too great a quantity of ink on particular places, are
called _Monks_.
FRISKET.
A thin iron frame, covered with paper, and connected temporarily with
the tympan, by means of joints attached to it and the headband of the
tympan, having iron pins to slip into them. The parts that are to be
printed are cut out of the paper covering; it turns down upon the
paper to be printed, which is laid upon the tympan, keeps it flat to
its place, preserves the margin clean, and raises it from the form
after it is printed. _See_ FRISKET BUTTON.
Each press in a printing office should have five or six friskets
attached to it, of at least three sizes--Demy, as the standard size
of paper; a size smaller; and a size sufficient for the largest form
the press will print, for it is very inconvenient, and a loss of
time, when the pressmen have to cover a frisket and cut it out for
every form they lay on: and more particularly when regular work is
in the house, and the same frisket will answer for many succeeding
forms. It is adviseable, where it is practicable, to have the frisket
joints at all the presses of one pattern, so that every frisket may
be available at any of the presses.
A pressman should never pull an impression from a form, without being
certain that the frisket is large enough, and that it does not rest
on the edges of the types, which would be destructive to them.
FRISKET BUTTON.
A button screwed on the offside of the tympan near the bottom, to
turn over the frisket and keep it close to the tympan in turning
down.
This button is only used when superior work is printing: it prevents
the sheet from touching the form partially, and also from slipping,
by confining it flat to the tympan, and thus tends to make better
work, and prevent waste; but it cannot be used where despatch is
required.
FRISKET JOINTS.
Two joints of the simplest construction, by which the frisket is
attached to the tympan by means of two pins, made with a head to
each, so that they can easily be taken out with the fingers; they are
inserted between the joints, and thus the heads face each other.
It is customary to place these joints on the flat part of the
headband of the tympan, which, when a large form is on the press,
and the rim of the chase is broad, rest upon, and prevent the form
receiving the effect of the pull. I have known great inconvenience
arise from this cause, in very superior work, where the chase filled
the press, and could not be moved to get rid of this grievance. The
joints should be taken off, and fixed to the extreme edge of the
headband, by which means they will extend beyond the chase, and the
evil be completely remedied. Where the frisket is fixed on centres
this inconvenience does not exist.
FRISKET PINS.
Two iron pins that pass through the frisket joints and connect it
with the tympan. They are made to slip in and out of the joints
easily with the fingers, and are put in from the inside of the
joints, so that the heads are opposite to each other. It is a common
practice with pressmen, when they have occasion to take off the
frisket, to lay the pins on the form. This ought never to be done;
for I have known an impression pulled under these circumstances,
at a good wooden press, without the frisket, and where the pins
were forgot. The consequence was, the destruction of types, and
the bedding in of the pins into the platen:--there was loss of
types--loss of time in replacing them--the platen to be taken off
and planed, with the expense of doing it, in addition to which it
was reduced in thickness full a quarter of an inch, and the further
loss of time while it was doing and hanging again, and justifying the
head. They may always be safely laid within the chase between the
quoins, where they can do no harm, and cannot roll off.
FRISKET STAY.
A slight piece of wood, generally fastened to the ceiling of the
press room, and hanging down to the fore end of each press, for the
frisket to rest against when it is turned up.
FROZE OUT.
In winter when the paper is froze, and the letter froze, so as
the workmen cannot work, they say, _they are froze out_.--_M._
In consequence of greater care in warming printing offices in
winter than in the time of Moxon, the workmen are not now “froze
out;” for there would be no excuse admitted for the non-execution
of parliamentary work, newspapers, reviews, magazines, and other
periodical works.
FRY, EDMUND.
A celebrated type founder, whose foundery was rich in Oriental and
other types for foreign languages, the forms of the characters of
which varied from the Roman character. Dr. Fry sold the whole of
his foundery to Messrs. Thorowgood and Besley, and which is now
incorporated with their previously extensive variety of types.
FUDGE.
To execute work without the proper materials, and where the workman
is obliged to substitute one article for another, and by contrivance
make his work passable: when such cases occur, they show the skill
and ingenuity of the compositor or pressman, in making his production
look well.
FULL CASE.
A case full of letters, wanting no sorts.
FULL FACED LETTER.
Types, in which the capitals, and the ascending letters of the lower
case, fill the whole square of the shank, so that the descending
letters project beyond the bottom of the shank. A full faced letter
is considerably larger in proportion than a letter of the regular
face upon the same body: they are convenient in jobs, as they produce
the effect of larger types, and take up less space.
FULL FORM,
or PAGE. A form or page with few or no breaks or white lines.--_M._
In a full form there are no short pages, nor blank pages.
FULL PAGE.
A page containing its full complement of lines.
FULL PRESS.
When two men work at the press, it is called a _Full Press_.--_M._
FURNITURE.
The term furniture includes all those pieces of wood that are used
in branching out pages, or jobs; in making margin for the folding of
books; and in locking up forms when they are imposed: it is generally
classed as reglet, furniture, side sticks, foot sticks, and quoins.
The height of it is five eighths of an inch, and ought to be the same
as that of quadrats; but the letter founders and the joiners vary
them both.
What is usually called furniture is in lengths of a yard each, and
commences with narrow, which is equal to a narrow quotation; broad,
which is equal to a broad quotation; double narrow; broad and narrow;
double broad; broad and double narrow; and narrow and double broad.
These are used for gutters, heads, and backs; to branch out large
jobs; to fill up with when a chase is too large, and to put round a
job when imposing, to keep the letter from the iron of the chase. The
bottom and two sides are flat, and the top has a groove planed in it
lengthways, the arc of a circle; this groove is said to be designed
for carrying the water off when the form is washed, but I cannot see
the utility of the groove for this purpose; its more obvious use is
to lower that part, so that the balls or rollers shall not touch
it in inking the form, which prevents the frisket tearing from its
pressure upon the inky furniture and from being continually lifted
up.
G.
GAELIC.
The Gaelic alphabet consists of eighteen letters: a, b, c, d, e, f,
g, h, i, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, u. Of these, five are vowels, a, e,
i, o, u; the rest consonants.--_Stewart’s Gaelic Grammar._ 8vo. 2d.
edit. 1812.
“It may be explanatory to mention, that the syllable _Kil_ is
supposed to mark the residence (the _Cella_), in ancient times of an
ecclesiastical recluse; and that _Kin_, _Ken_ (_Cean_) means head.
_Ken_-loch-Spelvie, &c. the Head of Loch Spelvie, &c. The letter
_C_ is always pronounced _K_ in Welsh and Gaelic”--_Sixth Report of
Commissioners for Building Churches in the Highlands of Scotland.
Appendix_, 1831. Note.
GALLEY.
Pieces of thin boards of different sizes, with ledges about three
fifth parts of the height of the letter on one end and one side, for
the types to rest against; others are made with a slice to slide
out, and keep a large page on without disturbing it, the coffin
having several slices fitted to it.--_M._ The use of the galley is to
receive the matter as it is composed, and to afford a level on which
to make up the pages.
Galleys are made of different sizes to suit the different works on
which a compositor may be employed; if it be a reprint, page for
page, he avoids encumbering his cases with large galleys, but takes
one that will hold a page comfortably, completes his page, ties it
up, and slips it upon a page paper, and thus proceeds; but if the
work be not a mere reprint, and is done in a companionship, then,
as each compositor must be setting at random, the work will require
different sorts of galleys, which must contain more matter; in the
latter case he will take one of the proper width for the page, but
that will contain two pages or more, in length, or one double that
width with a ledge down the middle, so as to hold two pages in width.
For works in quarto or folio he must have galleys of a greater width,
so as to enable him to have a quantity of matter at random till he
gets the making up; in doing this, where the page is in folio and
large, it is safer to make up on a slice galley, when he draws the
slice out with the page on it and places it under his frame, and thus
proceeds till he has made up a sheet, when he slides his pages off
the slice upon the stone to impose them; he must in this case have
four slices at least. The following is a representation of a slice
galley:
[Illustration: A slice galley]
For newspaper work brass galleys are employed, the bottoms thin,
and the ledges of brass which are on both sides and one end, while
the other end has a moveable ledge which fits into mortises in the
sides; by this means the compositor is enabled, when a galley full is
composed, to put a sidestick and footstick to it and quoin it, and
pull a proof in the galley.
Galleys are generally made of mahogany: those made of the old panels
of coaches are held to be the best, as the wood, being well seasoned,
is less apt to split or bend, and keeping their flat level surface is
requisite.
GALLEY SLAVE. _See_ ANCIENT CUSTOMS.
GALLOWS.