The Close of the Middle Ages
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PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY
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THE DARK AGES, 476-918
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THE EMPIRE AND THE PAPACY, 918-1273
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Owens College, Victoria University, Manchester.
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THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES, 1273-1494
By R. LODGE, M.A., Professor of History at the University of Edinburgh.
Forming Volume III. of PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY.
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EUROPE IN THE 16th CENTURY, 1494-1598
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University Colleges, Oxford.
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THE ASCENDANCY OF FRANCE, 1598-1715
By H. O. WAKEMAN, M.A., Late Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford.
Forming Volume V. of PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY.
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‘A thoroughly scholarly and satisfactory monograph.’—_Leeds Mercury._
THE BALANCE OF POWER, 1715-1789
By A. HASSALL, M. A., Student of Christ Church, Oxford.
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REVOLUTIONARY EUROPE, 1789-1815
By H. MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., Professor of History at Cornell University,
Ithaca, U.S.A.
Forming Volume VII. of PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY.
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Revolution and the rise of the First Napoleon ever written. In fact, it
is the work of a real historian. The style of the book is strong and
picturesque.’—_Western Morning News._
MODERN EUROPE, 1815-1899
By W. ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A., formerly Senior Scholar of St. John’s
College, Oxford.
Forming Volume VIII. of PERIODS OF EUROPEAN HISTORY.
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‘Mr. Phillips shows decided literary power in the handling of a not too
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‘This thoughtful volume will give the intelligent reader both profit and
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THE CLOSE OF THE MIDDLE AGES
1272-1494
BY
R. LODGE, M.A.
PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
_PERIOD III_
RIVINGTONS
_34 KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN_
LONDON
1906
_Third Edition. Fourth Impression_
PREFACE
The period treated in this volume is one of unique interest and
significance in the history of Europe. Within these two centuries the
political and social conditions of the so-called Middle Ages came to an
end, and the states system of Modern Europe took its rise. But the
importance of the period is more than equalled by the almost superhuman
difficulty of narrating its events in anything like orderly and
intelligible sequence. Such unity as had been given to Western Europe by
the mediæval Empire and Papacy disappeared with the Great Interregnum in
the middle of the thirteenth century; and such unity as was afterwards
supplied by the growth of formal international relations cannot be said
to begin before the invasion of Naples by Charles VIII. of France at the
end of the fifteenth century. In the interval between these two dates
there is apparent chaos, and only the closest attention can detect the
germs of future order in the midst of the struggle of dying and nascent
forces. It is easy to find evidence of astounding intellectual activity
and instances of brilliant political and military achievement, but the
dominant characteristic of the age is its diversity, and it is hard to
find any principle of co-ordination. A cursory glance over some of the
most striking episodes of the period will serve to illustrate the
multiplicity of its interests. The hundred years’ war between England
and France; the rise and fall of the House of Burgundy; the struggle of
old and new conceptions of ecclesiastical polity in the Papal schism, in
the Councils of Constance and Basel, and in the Hussite movement; the
marvellous achievements of the republic of Venice, and of Florence under
both republican and Medicean rule; the revival of art and letters, not
only in one or two great centres, but in numerous petty states which
would otherwise be wholly obscure; the growth and decline of unique
corporations, such as the Hanseatic League and the Teutonic Order; the
extension and gradual union of the Christian states of Spain at the
expense of Mohammedanism, and at the same time the gloomy story of the
conquest of the Eastern Empire by the Turks;—all these episodes might
well be treated in a volume apiece, but it is difficult to arrange them
within the compass of a book which should deal with the general
development of Europe. No doubt it may be held that some of these events
are of more permanent importance than others, and that the essential
fact to grasp in the period is the rise of great and coherent states
like France, Spain, and England. But it is equally true that the
important events are unintelligible without some knowledge of the less
important events with which they are connected; that in this period
Germany and Italy are more prominent than Spain and England, or even
than France; and that Germany and Italy are not coherent states at all.
The former is a bundle of states, and the latter can hardly be said to
be as much. And it may be urged with some force that German history in
the fourteenth century cannot be studied without some attention being
paid to Poland, Hungary, and Denmark; that the history of Venice and
Florence cannot be isolated from that of Genoa and Pisa; and that even
in tracing the growth of states which achieved some measure of unity it
is necessary to note the absorption of the formerly distinct and
independent provinces.
I have stated the difficulty, which is indeed sufficiently obvious, but
I cannot claim to have found a thoroughly satisfactory solution. My
endeavour has been to make the narrative as clear and intelligible as
the conflicting needs of conciseness and of frequent transitions will
admit. I may perhaps point out to my readers that in an age in which
dynastic interests and claims become of greater and greater importance,
in which royal marriages are a prominent factor in international
politics and vitally affect the growth of the greatest states, a careful
study of genealogy is imperatively necessary. This will explain and
justify the insertion of a number of genealogical tables in the
Appendix, which the student of the period may find not the least useful
part of the volume.
R. LODGE.
EDINBURGH, _April 1901_.
CONTENTS
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE x
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE xii
I. GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE AFTER THE 1
INTERREGNUM, 1273-1313
II. ITALY AND THE PAPACY, 1273-1313 20
III. FRANCE UNDER THE LATER CAPETS, 43
1270-1328
IV. FRANCE UNDER THE EARLY VALOIS, 66
1328-1380
V. LEWIS THE BAVARIAN AND THE AVIGNON 98
POPES, 1314-1347
VI. CHARLES IV. AND THE GOLDEN BULL 109
VII. RISE OF THE SWISS CONFEDERATION 124
VIII. ITALY IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, 139
1313-1402
IX. THE SCHISMS IN THE PAPACY AND 182
EMPIRE, 1378-1414
X. THE HUSSITE MOVEMENT AND THE COUNCIL 206
OF CONSTANCE, 1409-1418
XI. THE HUSSITE WARS AND THE COUNCIL OF 222
BASEL, 1419-1449
XII. MILAN AND VENICE IN THE FIFTEENTH 243
CENTURY, 1402-1494
XIII. NAPLES AND THE PAPAL STATES IN THE 265
FIFTEENTH CENTURY
XIV. FLORENCE UNDER THE MEDICI 288
XV. BURGUNDIANS AND ARMAGNACS IN FRANCE, 315
1380-1435
XVI. REVIVAL OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY, 349
1435-1494
XVII. GERMANY AND THE HAPSBURG EMPERORS, 394
1437-1493
XVIII. THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE AND THE 419
SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOM
XIX. THE TEUTONIC ORDER AND POLAND 451
XX. THE CHRISTIAN STATES OF SPAIN 468
XXI. THE GREEK EMPIRE AND THE OTTOMAN 494
TURKS
XXII. THE RENAISSANCE IN ITALY 515
APPENDIX—GENEALOGICAL TABLES—
A—The Succession in Bohemia 535
B—The Succession in Tyrol 535
C—The House of Hapsburg 536
D—The House of Wittelsbach 537
E—The House of Luxemburg 538
F—The Later Capets in France 539
G—The House of Valois 540
H—The Duchy and County of Burgundy 541
I—The First House of Anjou in Naples and 542
Hungary
K—The Second House of Anjou in Naples 543
L—The House of Aragon in Sicily and 544
Naples
M—The Houses of Visconti and Sforza in 545
Milan
N—The Medici in Florence 546
O—The Union of Kalmar 546
P—The Palæologi 547
Q—Castile 548
R—Aragon 549
S—Navarre 550
T—Some European Connections of the House 551
of Portugal
INDEX 553
LIST OF MAPS
_At end of Book_
1. FRANCE, TO SHOW THE ADDITIONST TO THE MONARCHY BETWEEN 1273 AND 1494.
2. POSSESSIONS AND CLAIMS OF CHARLES THE BOLD, DUKE OF BURGUNDY,
1467-1477.
3. ITALY IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
4. THE SWISS CONFEDERATION.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
[The following list has no pretensions to be an exhaustive bibliography
of the period, nor does it profess to include all the authorities
consulted by the author. It is merely compiled with the object of
offering suggestions to any student who wishes to read more widely,
either on the whole period, or on any part of it. Those books which
cannot be classed under any of the great European states are placed
under the head of ‘General.’]
GENERAL—
Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire Générale du IV^e. Siècle à nos jours_,
Tome III.
Creighton, _History of the Papacy during the Reformation, Vols.
I.-III._
Froissart, _Chroniques_. [A popular and useful selection from the
translation of Lord Berners has been published by Messrs. Macmillan
and Co. in the ‘Globe’ Series. The most complete edition is that by
Kervyn de Lettenhove.]
Leroux, _Recherches Critiques sur les relations politiques de la
France avec l’Allemagne_.
Fournier, _Le Royaume d`Arles_.
Oman, _History of War in the Middle Ages_.
H. C. Lea, _History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages_.
R. L. Poole, _Illustrations of Medieval Thought_.
GERMANY—
Nitzsch, _Geschichte des Deutschen Volkes_.
Lorenz, _Deutsche Geschichte im 13-14 Jahrhunderte_.
Zeller, _Histoire de l’Allemagne_.
Droysen, _Geschichte der preussischen Politik, Vols. I. and II._
Dierauer, _Geschichte der schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft_.
Palacky, _Geschichte von Böhmen_.
Loserth, _Hus und Wiclif_ (translated).
Sartorius, _Geschichte des Ursprunges der Deutschen Hanse_.
Schäfer, _die Hansestädte und König Waldemar von Dänemark_.
Treitschke, _Das Deutsche Ordensland Preussen, Historische und
politische Aufsätze, Vol. II._
ITALY—
Villani, _Croniche_.
Sismondi, _Histoire des Républiques italiennes du moyen âge_.
Cipolla, _Storia delle Signorie Italiane, dal 1313 al 1530_.
Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter_ (translated).
Romanin, _Storia documentata di Venezia_.
H. F. Brown, _Venice, an Historical Sketch_.
Machiavelli, _Storia Fiorentina_.
Perrens, _Histoire de Florence_.
Guido Capponi, _Storia della republica di Firenze_.
Napier, _Florentine History_.
Villari, _Machiavelli_ (translated), _Vol. I._
Von Reumont, _Lorenzo de’ Medici_ (translated).
Armstrong, _Lorenzo de’ Medici_.
J. A. Symonds, _Renaissance in Italy_.
FRANCE AND THE NETHERLANDS—
Martin, _Histoire de France_.
Michelet, _Histoire de France_.
Langlois, _Le règne de Philippe le Hardi_.
Boutaric, _La France sous Philippe le Bel_.
Perrens, _Étienne Marcel_.
S. Luce, _Histoire de la Jacquerie_.
Vanderkindere, _Le siècle des Arteveldes_.
Vallet de Viriville, _Histoire de Charles VII._
Beaucourt, _Histoire de Charles VII._
Cosneau, _Le Connétable de Richemont_.
P. Clément, _Jacques Cœur et Charles VII._
Philippe de Commines, _Mémoires_.
Barante, _Histoire des Ducs de Bourgogne_.
Kirk, _History of Charles the Bold_.
Clamageran, _Histoire de l’Impôt en France_.
Gasquet, _Précis des Institutions Politiques et Sociales de
l’ancienne France_.
SPAIN—
Lafuente, _Historia general de España_.
Burke, _History of Spain, 2 vols._
Schäfer und Schirrmacher, _Geschichte von Spanien_.
Prescott, _Ferdinand and Isabella_.
FALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE—
Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_.
Finlay, _Byzantine and Greek Empires_
La Jonquière, _Histoire de l’Empire Ottoman_.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
[This table has been drawn up in order to bring together in their
chronological sequence those events in different parts of Europe which
are necessarily treated in the text under the head of different states.
The chief events in English History are inserted to serve as
guide-posts, even though in some cases no direct reference may be made
to them in the following pages.]
1273. Election of Rudolf of Hapsburg as King of 8
the Romans. Crowned at Aachen, October 24
1274. Death of Henry, King of Navarre and Count of 48
Champagne and Brie. Philip III. of France annexes
Champagne and Brie, and assumes the government of
Navarre
1276. First war between Rudolf I. and Ottokar of 9
Bohemia
“ Death of Pope Gregory X. 27
“ Death of James I. (the Conqueror) of Aragon. 479
Accession of Peter III.
1277. Election of Pope Nicolas III. 27
“ Archbishop Otto Visconti obtains the lordship 36
of Milan
1278. Ottokar of Bohemia killed in the battle of 10
Marchfeld (August 26). Accession of Wenzel II.
1280. The Teutonic Knights complete the conquest 456
of Prussia
“ Death of Pope Nicolas III. 27
1281. Election of Pope Martin IV. 28
1282. The Sicilian Vespers (March 30) lead to the 25
transfer of Sicily from the house of Anjou to
Peter III. of Aragon
“ Constitutional changes in Florence 32
“ Austria, Styria, and Carniola acquired by 10
house of Hapsburg, and Carinthia given to Meinhard
of Tyrol
“ Death of the Greek Emperor Michael VIII., and 497
accession of Andronicus II.
“ Edward I. of England conquers Wales 155
1283. Peter III. of Aragon issues the ‘General 481
Privilege’
1284. Battle of Meloria. The Pisans, defeated by 31
the Genoese, lose their maritime importance
“ Death of Alfonso X. (the Wise) of Castile. 48,
Accession of Sancho IV. 470
“ Charles of Valois accepts the crown of Aragon 49
from the Pope. War between France and Aragon
1285. Death of Charles I., King of Naples (January 25
7). Accession of Charles II.
“ Death of Pope Martin IV. (March 12). Election 28
of Honorius IV.
“ Death of Philip III. of France (October 5). 49
Accession of Philip IV.
“ Death of Peter III. of Aragon (November 11). 25,
Accession of Alfonso III. in Aragon and of James 480
in Sicily
1286. Accession of Eric Menved in Denmark 430
“ Death of Alexander III. of Scotland 157
1287. Alfonso III. of Aragon issues the ‘Privilege 481
of Union’
1288. Death of Pope Honorius IV. Election of 28
Nicolas IV.
1291. Death of Rudolf I. (July 15) 11
“ Formation of League between Uri, Schwyz, and 127
Unterwalden (origin of Swiss Confederation)
“ Fall of Acre puts an end to Christian dominion 456
in the East
“ Death of Alfonso III. of Aragon. Succeeded by 26,
his brother, James II. 480
1292. Election of Adolf of Nassau as King of the 11
Romans (May 5)
“ Death of Nicolas IV., followed by two years’ 28
interregnum in the Papacy
“ Edward I. awards the Scottish crown to John 157
Balliol
1293. ‘Ordinances of Justice’ in Florence 32
1294. Election of Pope Celestine IV. 28
“ Abdication of Celestine. Election of Boniface 28
VIII.
“ Outbreak of war between England and France 51
1295. John Balliol joins France against Edward I. 52
“ Death of Archbishop Otto Visconti. Succeeded 36
by his nephew Matteo
“ Death of Sancho IV. of Castile. Accession of 470
Ferdinand IV.
1296. Edward I. deposes John Balliol and conquers 52
Scotland
“ Boniface VIII. issues the bull _Clericis 29,
laicos_ 52
1297. Rising in Scotland under Wallace 160
“ Closing of the Great Council in Venice 38
1298. Peace between England and France negotiated 52
by Boniface VIII.
1298. Death of Adolf of Nassau. Election of Albert 13
I.
1302. Settlement of the long Sicilian wars. 26
Frederick, brother of James II. of Aragon,
recognised as King of Sicily
“ Defeat of French army by the Flemings at 53
Courtrai (July 11)
“ First meeting of the States-General in France 60
“ Matteo Visconti driven from Milan 36
1303. Outrage at Anagni, and death of Boniface 29
VIII.
“ Andronicus II. invites the ‘Grand Company of 497
the Catalans’ into Greece
1304. Election (February 25) and death (July 27) 29
of Benedict XI.
1305. Election of Clement VII., who remains in 30
France
“ Death of Wenzel II. of Bohemia. Election of 15
Wenzel III.
1306. Death of Wenzel III. of Bohemia. Albert I. 15
procures the crown for his son Rudolf
1307. Death of Rudolf of Bohemia. Accession of 16
Henry of Carinthia
“ Break-up of Seljuk Empire on death of Aladdin 299
III.
1308. Murder of Albert I. Election of Henry VII. 17
(of Luxemburg)
1309. Charles Robert, grandson of Charles II. of 15
Naples, recognised as King of Hungary
“ Headquarters of the Teutonic Order transferred 457
from Venice to Marienburg
“ Clement V. fixes his residence in Avignon 30
“ Death of Charles II. of Naples. Accession of 26
Robert
1310. Origin of the Council of Ten in Venice 39
“ Henry VII. sets out on an expedition to Italy 17,
39
“ Henry of Carinthia driven from Bohemia, and 18
the crown given to Henry VII.’s son John
1311. Henry VII. restores Matteo Visconti in 40
Milan, and appoints him imperial vicar
“ The Teutonic Knights acquire Pomerellen 458
1312. Suppression of the Templars 55
“ Annexation of Lyons by Philip IV. of France 56
“ Henry VII. crowned Emperor in St. John Lateran 41
“ Death of Ferdinand IV. of Castile. Accession 470
of Alfonso XI.
1313. Death of Henry VII. near Siena 18,
42
1314. Battle of Bannockburn (June 24) 168
“ Double election in Germany of Lewis the 98
Bavarian and Frederick of Hapsburg
“ Death of Philip IV. of France (November 29). 62
Accession of Louis X.
“ Death of Clement V., and papal interregnum for 98
two years
1315. Swiss victory at the battle of Morgarten 129
1316. Election of Pope John XXII. 99
“ Death of Louis X. of France. Exclusion of his 64
daughter Jeanne in favour of her uncle, Philip V.
(so-called Salic Law)
1319. Death of Eric Menved, and accession of 431
Christopher II. in Denmark
1322. Defeat and capture of Frederick of Hapsburg 99
at Mühldorf
“ Death of Philip V. of France. Accession of 65
Charles IV.
“ Galeazzo Visconti succeeds his father Matteo 174
in Milan
1323. Lewis the Bavarian protests against the 99
intervention of John XXII. Beginning of quarrel
between Empire and Papacy
“ Death of Waldemar, the last Ascanian Margrave 107
of Brandenburg. Lewis the Bavarian gives
Brandenburg to his eldest son Lewis
1326. Orchan succeeds Othman as leader of the 499
Ottoman Turks
1327. Lewis the Bavarian enters Italy and is 105
crowned in Milan
1328. Lewis crowned Emperor in Rome 105
“ Deposition of John XXII., and election of 105
anti-pope
“ Scottish independence recognised by treaty of 68
Northampton
“ Death of Charles IV. of France. Accession of 65
Philip VI. (of Valois)
“ Separation of France and Navarre: the latter 66
goes to Jeanne, daughter of Louis X.
“ Philip VI. defeats the Flemings at Cassel 70
“ Andronicus II. deposed in favour of his 498
grandson, Andronicus III.
“ Death of Castruccio Castracani, Lord of Lucca 105,
143
“ Death of Galeazzo Visconti 174
1329. Orchan defeats the forces of Andronicus III. 499
at Pelekanon
“ Mastino della Scala succeeds Cangrande in 143
Verona
“ Azzo Visconti becomes imperial vicar in Milan 143,
174
1330. Death of Frederick of Hapsburg 105
“ Lewis the Bavarian returns to Germany 105
“ Luzern joins the league of the Swiss cantons 130
“ John of Bohemia enters Italy and occupies 144
Brescia
1332. League of Italian states against John of 145
Bohemia
“ Edward Balliol obtains the Scottish crown, and 68
does homage to Edward III.
“ Death of Christopher II. followed by eight 432
years’ interregnum in Denmark
1333. John of Bohemia abandons Italy 146
“ Edward III. wins battle of Halidon Hill, takes 68
Berwick, and restores Edward Balliol
“ David Bruce escapes to France, and French 68
intervention in Scotland
1334. Death of John XXII., and election of 102
Benedict XII.
1335. Death of Henry, Duke of Carinthia and Count 106
of Tyrol
“ Carinthia acquired by Hapsburgs, while Tyrol 107
goes to Margaret Maultasch, wife of John Henry of
Moravia
1336. Rudolf Brun effects a revolution in Zürich 131
“ Rising in Ghent under Jacob van Artevelde 71
“ Death of James III. of Aragon, and accession 481
of Peter IV.
1337. Edward III. claims the French crown and 71
seeks allies in Flanders and Germany
1338. Electoral meeting at Rense, and diet at 102
Frankfurt to protest against papal pretensions in
Germany
“ Meeting of Lewis the Bavarian and Edward III. 72
at Coblentz
“ League against Mastino della Scala. Verona 147
loses its ascendency in northern Italy
1339. Edward III. invades France from Flanders. 72
Beginning of Hundred Years’ War. Unsuccessful
campaign in Picardy
“ Death of Azzo Visconti. Succeeded by his uncle 175
Lucchino
1340. Naval victory of the English at Sluys 72
“ Edward repulsed from Tournay, concludes truce 72
with Philip VI.
“ Succession dispute in Brittany on death of 73
John III.
“ Alfonso XI. of Castile defeats the Moors in 471
battle of the Salado
“ Waldemar III. restores monarchical power in 433
Denmark
1341. Lewis the Bavarian divorces Margaret of 107
Maultasch from John Henry of Moravia, and marries
her to his son, Lewis of Brandenburg
“ Death of Andronicus III., and accession of 500
John V.
1342. Edward III. supports John de Montfort in 73
Brittany
“ Death of Carobert of Hungary, and accession of 152
Lewis the Great
“ Death of Benedict XII., and election of 106
Clement VI.
1343. Death of Robert of Naples, and accession of 152
Joanna I.
“ Expulsion of Walter de Brienne, and 148
constitutional changes in Florence
“ Treaty of Kalisch between Poland and the 458
Teutonic Order
1345. Murder of Andrew of Hungary, husband of 152
Joanna of Naples
1345. Assassination of Jacob van Artevelde 74
“ Death of William IV. of Holland, Hainault, and 75,
Zealand. His territories pass to a son of Lewis 108
the Bavarian
1346. Opposition in Germany to Lewis the Bavarian. 108
Election of Charles IV. as King of the Romans
“ Battle of Crécy 76
“ Death of John of Bohemia 108
“ Defeat of the Scots at Nevill’s Cross 77
“ Esthonia handed over by Denmark to the 458
Teutonic Order
1347. Lewis the Great of Hungary attacks Naples. 153
Joanna flies to Provence
“ Triumph of Rienzi in Rome 157
“ Edward III. takes Calais (August 4) 77
“ Death of Lewis the Bavarian (October 11) 108
“ Abdication of Rienzi (December 15) 159
“ John Cantacuzenos recognised as joint emperor 501
in Constantinople
1348. Outbreak of the Black Death in Europe 78
“ Battle of Epila. Peter IV. of Aragon revokes 482
the ‘Privilege of Union’
“ Lewis de Mâle recovers his authority as Count 78
of Flanders
“ Foundation of the University of Prague by 113
Charles IV.
“ Joanna of Naples sells Avignon to Pope Clement 153
VI.
1349. Death of Lucchino Visconti. Succeeded by 175
Giovanni, Archbishop of Milan
“ Annexation of Dauphiné to France 78
“ Death of Jeanne of Navarre, and accession of 79
Charles the Bad
“ Charles IV. succeeds in overcoming opposition 111
in Germany
1350. Death of Philip VI. of France (August 22), 79
and accession of John
“ Death of Eudes IV., Duke and Count of 79
Burgundy. Succeeded by Philip de Rouvre
“ Death of Alfonso XI. of Castile, and accession 471
of Peter the Cruel
“ Giovanni Visconti obtains Bologna 160,
175
“ Outbreak of war between Venice and Genoa 170
1351. Zürich joins the Swiss League 132
“ Peace between Lewis of Hungary and Joanna of 153
Naples
1352. Albert II. of Austria attacks Zürich. Glarus 134
and Zug join the Confederation
“ Death of Pope Clement VI., and election of 160
Innocent VI.
1353. The accession of Bern completes the eight 135
old cantons of the Swiss Confederation
“ Innocent VI. sends Cardinal Albornoz to 160
recover the Papal States, almost lost during the
residence in Avignon
“ Genoa, defeated in naval war with Venice, 170
submits to Milan
1354. Rienzi’s return to Rome and his death 161
“ Genoese victory in the battle of Sapienza 171
“ Death of Giovanni Visconti. Milanese dominions 175
divided between his three nephews
“ John Cantacuzenos compelled to abdicate 502
“ Turks seize Gallipoli, their first possession 502
on European soil
1355. Renewal of English invasion of France 80
“ Charles IV. crowned Emperor in Rome 114
“ Important meeting of States-General in France 81
“ Conspiracy and death of Marin Falier in Venice 169
“ Peace between Venice and Genoa 171
“ Assassination of Matteo Visconti. Partition of 176
Milanese territories between Bernabo and Galeazzo
“ Death of Stephen Dushan, King of Servia 501
1356. Battle of Poitiers, and capture of John of 81
France
“ States-General under the guidance of Etienne 83
Marcel
“ Charles IV. issues the Golden Bull 115
“ Genoa repudiates Milanese suzerainty 171,
176
1358. Rising of the Jacquerie in France 87
“ Assassination of Marcel, and restoration of 88
order and royal authority by Charles, Duke of
Normandy, acting as regent during his father’s
captivity
“ Death of Albert II. of Austria, leaving his 136
territories to the joint rule of four sons
1359. Death of Orchan. Succeeded by Amurath or 502
Murad I.
1360. Treaty of Bretigni (May 8) ends first period 89
of the Hundred Years’ War
“ Cardinal Albornoz recovers Bologna from the 161,
Visconti 177
1361. Death of Philip de Rouvre. Duchy of Burgundy 90
granted by John of France to his fourth son,
Philip
“ Sack of Wisby by Waldemar III. Beginning of 433
war between Denmark and the Hanseatic League
“ Amurath I. seizes Adrianople, which becomes 502
the European capital of the Turks till 1453
1362. Death of Pope Innocent VI., and election of 161
Urban V.
“ Defeat of the Hanseatic League by Danish fleet 434
1363. Death of Meinhard, Duke of Upper Bavaria and 120
Count of Tyrol. Upper Bavaria united with Lower
Bavaria: Tyrol acquired by the Hapsburgs
“ Marriage of Margaret of Denmark to Hakon of 435
Norway
1364. John of France returns to England and dies 188
there. Accession of Charles V.
“ Treaty of mutual inheritance between the 120
houses of Luxemburg and Hapsburg
“ Charles of Blois killed at battle of Aurai 92
“ Deposition of Magnus of Sweden in favour of 436
Albert of Mecklenburg
1365. Death of Rudolf of Hapsburg 137
“ Settlement of Breton war by the recognition of 92
John de Montfort
“ Treaty of Wordingborg between Waldemar III. 436
and Hanse towns
1366. Peter the Cruel, driven from Castile by 93,
Henry of Trastamara, flies to the Black Prince at 473
Bordeaux
1367. The Black Prince wins the battle of Najara, 93,
and restores Peter the Cruel in Castile 473
“ Urban V. returns from Avignon to Rome 162
“ Meeting of Hanseatic League at Cologne 437
declares war against Denmark
1368. Charles IV. visits Urban V. in Rome 162
“ Death of Cardinal Albornoz 162,
177
“ Triumph of the Hanseatic fleet: capture of 438
Copenhagen
1369. Battle of Montiel. Death of Peter the Cruel. 94,
Accession of Henry of Trastamara (Henry II.) in 474
Castile
“ Renewal of war between France and England 94
“ The eastern Emperor John V. visits Rome, and 503
agrees to a union between the Greek and Latin
Churches
1370. Partition of Hapsburg territories between 137,
Albert III. and Leopold 398
“ Massacre at Limoges by order of the Black 95
Prince
“ Urban V. returns from Rome to Avignon 162
“ Treaty of Stralsund. Hanseatic League at the 438
zenith of its power
“ Death of Casimir the Great of Poland. 459
Succeeded by Lewis of Hungary
1372. Defeat of the English fleet by Spaniards and 95
French off La Rochelle
1373. Disastrous expedition of John of Gaunt to 95
France
“ The Emperor Charles IV. acquires Brandenburg 441
1375. Truce between England and France, leaving 96
England in occupation of Calais, Bordeaux, and
Bayonne
“ Death of Waldemar III. of Denmark. Accession 442
of Olaf
1376. Death of the Black Prince (June 8) 96
“ Election of Wenzel as King of the Romans 121
1377. Death of Edward III. of England. Accession 96
of Richard II.
“ Gregory XI. leaves Avignon for Rome 162,
185
1378. Death of Gregory XI. in Rome. Election of 162,
Urban VI. 185
“ Rising of the ‘Ciompi’ in Florence 164
“ Outbreak of war between Venice and Genoa 172
“ Galeazzo Visconti dies and is succeeded by 177
Gian Galeazzo
“ Election of anti-pope Clement VII. (Sept. 20). 122,
Beginning of the great schism 162,
186
“ Death of the Emperor Charles IV. (Nov. 29). 123
Partition of his dominions
1379. The Genoese seize Chioggia and blockade 172
Venice
“ Death of Henry II. of Castile, and accession 474
of John I.
1380. Death of Charles V. of France, and accession 97,
of Charles VI. 315
“ Death of Hakon of Norway. Union of Norway and 442
Denmark under Olaf
“ The Genoese are forced to capitulate at 173
Chioggia. Triumph of Venice
“ Death of Lewis the Great, King of Hungary and 190,
Poland 459
1381. Rising of the lower classes in England 316
1382. Counter-revolution in Florence establishes 166
oligarchy
“ Rising of the _Maillotins_ in Paris 317
“ Rising of the Flemings under Philip van 317
Artevelde
“ French defeat of the Flemings at Roosebek 318
“ Suppression of the _Maillotins_ in Paris 318
“ Death of Joanna I. of Naples. Accession of 154
Charles III.
1383. Death of Lewis de Mâle. His son-in-law, 320
Philip of Burgundy, acquires Flanders, Artois,
Nevers, Rethel, and Franche-Comté
1385. Gian Galeazzo Visconti imprisons his uncle, 177
Bernabo, and reunites the Milanese dominions
“ Charles III. of Naples claims crown of Hungary 191
“ Portuguese victory at Aljubarrota over 474
Castilians
“ Death of Louis of Anjou, who had obtained 154
Provence but had been defeated by Charles III. as
a claimant to Naples
1386. Jagello of Lithuania marries Hedwig, younger 191,
daughter of Lewis the Great, becomes a Christian, 459
and is crowned King of Poland
1386. Valentina Visconti married to Louis of 178,
Orleans 321
“ Charles III. of Naples assassinated in Hungary 155,
191
“ Swiss victory at Sempach. Defeat and death of 138
Leopold of Hapsburg
“ John of Gaunt advances the claim of his wife, 474
Constance, in Castile
“ Schleswig ceded by Denmark to Count of 442
Holstein
1387. Sigismund of Luxemburg crowned King of 192
Hungary
“ Outbreak of town-war in Germany 189
“ Death of Peter IV. of Aragon. Accession of 482
John I.
“ John of Gaunt withdraws his wife’s claim and 475
makes peace with John I. of Castile
“ Gian Galeazzo seizes Verona and Vicenza, and 179
ruins the house of Scala
“ Death of Olaf of Denmark and Norway. Succeeded 443
by his mother, Margaret
1388. Padua subjected by Gian Galeazzo Visconti 179
“ Albert of Sweden deposed; crown offered to 443
Margaret of Denmark and Norway
1389. Peace of Eger closes the town-war in Germany 190
“ Hapsburgs recognise by treaty the independence 138
of the Swiss Confederation
“ Turkish victory at Kossova 503
“ Amurath I. succeeded by Bajazet I. 503
“ Death of Urban VI. Election of Boniface IX. 187
1390. Death of John I. of Castile, and accession 475
of Henry III.
1391. Mary of Sicily marries Martin the Younger, 482
son of Martin I. of Aragon
“ Death of Greek emperor, John V., and accession 504
of Manuel II.
1392. Charles VI. becomes insane. The Dukes of 319
Burgundy and Orleans dispute for the government of
France
1394. Death of Avignon Pope, Clement VII. Election 187
of Benedict XIII.
1395. Wenzel creates Gian Galeazzo Duke of Milan 178
1396. Genoa submits to France through fear of 180
Milan
“ Battle of Nicopolis 193,
322,
504
1397. The three Scandinavian kingdoms accept the 443
Union of Kalmar
1398. Meeting of Wenzel and Charles VI. of France 194
at Rheims
1399. Gian Galeazzo obtains rule in Pisa and Siena 181
“ Ladislas, son of Charles III., finally secures 155,
crown of Naples against Louis II. of Anjou 266
1399. Revolution in England. Accession of Henry 325
IV. (of Lancaster)
1400. A party of German princes depose Wenzel and 181,
elect a rival King of the Romans, Rupert III. 195
1401. Battle of Brescia (Oct. 24): Milanese troops 181,
rout the forces of Rupert III. 196
1402. Death of Gian Galeazzo Visconti (Sept. 3) 181,
241
“ Battle of Angora: Timour defeats the Turks and 505
captures Bajazet I. Constantinople saved for the
time
1404. Death of Philip the Bold of Burgundy. 322
Succeeded by John the Fearless
“ Death of Boniface IX. Election of Innocent 187
VII.
“ Venice allied with Milan against Francesco 245
Carrara
1405. Death of Innocent VII. Election of Gregory 187
XII.
“ Venice acquires Verona and Padua 245
“ Death of Timour or Tamerlane, the Tartar 505
leader
1406. Pisa subjected to Florence (Oct. 9) 244
“ Death of Henry III. of Castile, and accession 475
of John II.
1407. Assassination of Louis of Orleans in Paris 322
1408. Ladislas of Naples occupies Rome 266
1409. Council of Pisa. Election of a third Pope, 199
Alexander V.
“ Exodus of Germans from Prague 210
“ Death of Martin the Younger. Sicily passes to 482
his father, Martin I. of Aragon
1410. Outbreak of civil war between Burgundians 326
and Armagnacs in France
“ Death of Pope Alexander V. Election of John 201
XXIII.
“ Death of Rupert III., King of the Romans 201
“ Double election of Sigismund (Sept.) and Jobst 203
(Oct.)
“ Recovery of Rome from Ladislas of Naples 267
“ Battle of Tannenberg: defeat of the Teutonic 460
knights by the Poles
“ Death of Martin I., King of Aragon and Sicily. 483
Disputed succession
1411. Death of Jobst of Moravia (Jan. 12) 203
“ Sigismund again elected King of the Romans 204
“ The _Cabochiens_ supreme in Paris 327
“ Ladislas defeated by papal and Angevin forces 267
at Rocca-Secca
“ Peace of Thorn between Poland and the Teutonic 461
Order
1412. Assassination of Gian Maria Visconti. 246
Filippo Maria rules in Milan
1412. Death of Margaret, ‘the Union Queen.’ 444
Accession of Eric of Pomerania, in the
Scandinavian kingdoms
“ Crowns of Aragon and Sicily given to Ferdinand 483
I. (of Castilian house of Trastamara)
1413. The Armagnacs seize Paris and put down the 327
_Cabochiens_
“ Ladislas of Naples drives John XXIII. from 267
Rome
“ Mohammed I. reunites the Ottoman dominions 505
1414. Defeat of the Burgundians. Treaty of Arras 327
“ Death of Ladislas of Naples. Accession of 205,
Joanna II. 267
“ Meeting of the Council of Constance 205,
211
1415. Henry V. invades France. Capture of Harfleur 328
(Sept. 22). Battle of Agincourt
“ Deposition of John XXIII. at Constance (May 216
29)
“ Sigismund gives Brandenburg to Frederick of 216
Hohenzollern
“ John Hus put to death at Constance (July 6) 217
“ Sigismund leaves Constance to travel through 217
Europe
“ Spanish kings abandon Benedict XIII. and 218
adhere to the Council of Constance
1416. Death of Ferdinand I. of Aragon and Sicily. 484
Succeeded by Alfonso V.
1417. Sigismund returns to Constance 219
“ Election of Pope Martin V. ends the schism 220
“ Death of Louis II. of Anjou, unsuccessful 269
claimant to Naples
“ Death of Maso degli Albizzi, leader of the 289
Florentine oligarchs
“ Henry V. renews the invasion of Normandy 331
1418. Dissolution of the Council of Constance 220
“ Burgundians seize Paris from the Armagnacs 331
1419. Death of Wenzel. Vacancy of Bohemian throne 224
“ Fall of Rouen completes the English conquest 331
of Normandy
“ Assassination of John the Fearless at 332
Montereau (Sept. 10)
“ Philip the Good, who succeeds to the 332
Burgundian dominions, allies himself closely with
England
1420. Martin V. publishes a crusade against the 225
Hussites
“ Treaty of Troyes (May 21) gives the regency 332
and the succession in France to Henry V.
“ The Hussites in Bohemia formulate the ‘four 223
articles of Prag’
1421. Martin V. re-enters Rome with the help of 221
the Colonnas
“ Battle of Baugé: defeat and death of Thomas of 333
Clarence
“ Death of Mohammed I. Succeeded by Amurath II. 506
1422. Death of Albert III., the last Ascanian 226
Elector of Saxony
“ Establishment of the house of Wettin in Saxony 226
“ Death of Henry V. of England (Aug. 31), and 333
accession of Henry VI.
“ Death of Charles VI. of France. Succeeded in 333
the north by Henry VI., in the south by Charles
VII.
“ Attempted reform of military and financial 227
system in Germany
1423. English and Burgundian victory at Crevant 337
“ Francesco Foscari becomes Doge of Venice 249
1424. John, Duke of Bedford, defeats French and 337
Scots at Verneuil
“ Gloucester marries Jacqueline of Hainault and 337
quarrels with Philip of Burgundy
“ Death of the Hussite leader, John Ziska 225
1425. Death of Manuel II., and accession of John 506
VI. in Constantinople
“ Bedford recalled to England by quarrel of 338
Gloucester and Beaufort
“ League of Florence and Venice against Filippo 249
Maria Visconti
1426. Venice acquires Brescia from Milan 249
1427. Defeat of fourth crusade against the 227
Hussites. Proposed constitutional reforms in
Germany
1428. Siege of Orleans by English and Burgundians 340
“ Venice acquires Bergamo from Milan 249
1429. Jeanne Darc raises siege of Orleans (April 341
19)
“ Charles VI. crowned at Rheims 341
1430. Jeanne Darc captured at Compiègne 344
1431. Trial and execution (May 28) of Jeanne Darc 345
“ Death of Martin V., and election of Eugenius 229
IV.
“ Meeting of the Council of Basel 229
“ Utter failure of the fifth crusade against the 228
Hussites
“ Venetian reverses in the war with Milan 250
1432. Death of Bedford’s wife, Anne of Burgundy 346
“ Trial and execution of Carmagnola 250
“ Bedford marries Jacquetta of Luxemburg 346
“ Quarrel between Eugenius IV. and Council of 230
Basel
“ Sigismund crowned Emperor in Rome 230
1433. Eugenius IV., driven from Rome to Florence, 231
is compelled to recognise the Council of Basel
“ The _Compactata_ arranged between the Hussites 231
and the Council
1433. Exile of Cosimo de’ Medici from Florence 293
1434. Defeat of the Taborites at the battle of 233
Lipan
“ Fall of the Albizzi in Florence. Recall of 294
Cosimo de’ Medici, and establishment of Medicean
ascendency
1435. Treaty of Arras between Philip the Good and 347
Charles VII.
“ Death of Bedford 348
“ Death of Joanna II. of Naples. Disputed 271
succession between Alfonso V. of Aragon and Réné
of Provence
1436. Loss of Paris by the English 350
“ Sigismund at last obtains the Bohemian crown 233
1437. Renewed quarrel between Eugenius IV. and the 235
Council of Basel
“ Death of Sigismund. Albert V. of Austria 398
succeeds in Hungary and Bohemia
1438. Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges 237
“ Election of Albert II. (Albert V. of Austria) 399
as King of the Romans
“ Council at Ferrara, transferred to Florence 236
1439. States-General of Orleans issue the 352
_Ordonnance sur la Gendarmerie_
“ Pragmatic Sanction of Mainz 237
“ Death of Albert II. (Oct. 27) 401
“ Union of Greek and Latin Churches agreed to at 236
Florence
“ Deposition of Eugenius IV. by the Council of 238
Basel
“ Election of anti-pope Felix V. 238
1440. The _Praguerie_ in France 354
“ Election of Frederick III. as King of the 402
Romans
“ Ladislas Postumus becomes Duke of Austria and 409
King of Bohemia
“ The Hungarians elect Ladislas III. of Poland 409
“ ‘Prussian League’ formed in opposition to the 463
Teutonic Order
1441. Peace between Milan and Venice. Venice keeps 251
Brescia and Bergamo
“ Venice acquires possession of Ravenna 251
1442. Alfonso V. of Aragon finally secures the 271
crown of Naples
“ Death of Blanche of Navarre. Her husband, John 485
of Aragon, keeps the crown, excluding his son,
Charles of Viana
1443. Eugenius IV. returns to Rome 239
1444. Battle of Varna. Death of Ladislas of Poland 410,
and Hungary 508
1445. Organisation of standing army in France 354
“ Ladislas Postumus accepted as King of Hungary 410
“ Æneas Sylvius arranges terms between Frederick 240
III. and Eugenius IV.
“ Marriage of Henry VI. of England with Margaret 356
of Anjou
1446. Banishment of the dauphin Louis to Dauphiné 358
1447. Death of Eugenius IV. (Feb. 23), and 241,
election of Nicolas V. 272
“ Death of Filippo Maria Visconti. Republic in 252
Milan
1448. Nicolas V. approves concordat with Germany 241,
273
“ Death of John VI. Succeeded by Constantine 509
Palæologus
“ Death of Christopher vacates the three 446
Scandinavian crowns
“ Swedes elect Karl Knudson 446
“ Christian I. (of Oldenburg) becomes King of 446
Denmark
1449. Dissolution of the Council of Basel 241
“ Renewal of war in France. Invasion of Normandy 357
by the French
1450. Grand jubilee in Rome 242,
273
“ Francesco Sforza makes himself master of Milan 253
“ Disorder in England. Rising of Jack Cade 357
“ Loss of Normandy by the English 357
“ Christian I. of Denmark obtains crown of 446
Norway
1451. French conquest of Guienne 357
“ Death of Amurath II. Succeeded by Mohammed II. 508
1452. Frederick III. crowned Emperor in Rome 411
“ Ladislas Postumus released from tutelage by 411
Frederick III.
1453. Capture of Constantinople by Mohammed II. 509
(May 29)
“ Battle of Castillon (July 17). The English 358
retain only Calais
“ Civil war in Prussia leads to Polish invasion 464
1454. Peace of Lodi between Venice and Milan 253
“ Venice concludes a treaty with the Turks 254
“ Death of John II. of Castile. Succeeded by 476
Henry IV. (‘The Impotent’)
1455. Death of Nicolas V. Election of Calixtus 274
III.
“ Beginning of the Wars of the Roses in England 238
1456. Mohammed II. repulsed from Belgrade 411
“ Death of Hungarian leader, John Hunyadi 411
“ The dauphin Louis, driven from Dauphiné by his 359
father, takes refuge in the Burgundian dominions
1457. Compulsory abdication of Francesco Foscari 254
in Venice
“ Death of Ladislas Postumus. Austria passes to 414
the Styrian branch of the Hapsburgs
1457. Karl Knudson driven from Sweden. Coronation 447
of Christian I. reunites the three Scandinavian
kingdoms
1458. Death of Alfonso V. Aragon, Sicily, and 275,
Sardinia pass to his brother, John II.; Naples to 484
his natural son, Ferrante
“ Election of Mathias Corvinus in Hungary 414
“ Election of George Podiebrad in Bohemia 414
“ Death of Calixtus III. Election of Pius II. 276
“ Servia conquered by the Turks 511
1459. Futile congress at Mantua to arrange a 276
crusade against the Turks
“ Death of Adolf, Count of Holstein and Duke of 447
Schleswig
1460. John of Calabria revives the Angevin claim 277
to Naples
“ Pius II. issues the bull _Execrabilis_ 277,
407
“ Turkish conquest of the Morea 511
“ Death of Prince Henry the Navigator 491
“ Christian I., King of Denmark, etc., obtains 447
Schleswig and Holstein
1461. Death of Charles VII. of France, and 361
accession of Louis XI.
“ Death of Charles of Viana. Rising in Catalonia 486
against John II. of Aragon
“ Mohammed II. subdues the empire of Trebizond 513
“ Yorkist victory at Towton, and accession of 244
Edward IV. in England
1462. John II. of Aragon, hard pressed by 389,
Catalans, cedes Roussillon and Cerdagne to Louis 486
XI.
“ Conquest of Wallachia by the Turks 511
“ Turkish conquests in the Ægean 512
1463. Venice decides to go to war with the Turks 255,
512
1464. Genoa subjected to Milan 260
“ John of Calabria leaves Naples 278
“ Death of Pius II. at Ancona. Election of Paul 280
II.
“ Death of Cosimo de’ Medici 299
“ Conquest of Bosnia by the Turks 511
1465. War of the Public Weal in France 365
“ Louis XI. enters Paris after the battle of 366
Montlhéri
“ Conclusion of the Treaty of Conflans 367
1466. Death of Francesco Sforza. Succeeded by 261
Galeazzo Maria
“ Conspiracy in Florence against Piero de’ 300
Medici
“ Treaty of Thorn: West Prussia ceded to Poland, 465
and East Prussia retained by Teutonic Order as a
Polish fief
1467. Death of Scanderbeg, the defender of Albania 256
against the Turks
1467. Death of Philip the Good, and accession of 369
Charles the Bold
1468. Interview at Péronne between Louis XI. and 370
Charles the Bold
“ Rebellion in Liége forces Louis to make treaty 371
of Péronne
“ War between Hungary and Bohemia 415
1469. Death of Piero de’ Medici. Lorenzo becomes 302
practically lord of Florence
“ Charles the Bold acquires Alsace and the 377
Breisgau from Sigismund of Tyrol
“ Death of John of Calabria 486
“ Marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand 477
of Aragon
“ Margaret, daughter of Christian I., marries 448
James III. of Scotland
1470. Warwick and Clarence driven from England to 372
France. Reconciliation of Warwick with Margaret of
Anjou
“ Renewed war between Louis XI. and Charles the 374
Bold
1471. Edward IV. of England defeats his opponents 373
at Barnet (April 14) and Tewkesbury (May)
“ Death of George Podiebrad. Bohemians elect 416,
Ladislas, son of Casimir IV. of Poland 465
“ Death of Paul II. Election of Sixtus IV. 281
“ Constitutional changes in Florence strengthen 303
the Medici
1472. Death of Charles of Guienne (May 24) 376
“ Truce between Louis XI. and Charles the Bold 376
“ Altered policy of Charles the Bold 376
“ John II. takes Barcelona and puts down the 486
Catalan rebellion
1473. Death of Nicolas of Calabria. Charles the 378
Bold’s aggressions in Lorraine
“ Interview at Trier between Charles the Bold 378,
and Frederick III. 404
1474. Charles the Bold lays siege to Neuss 378
“ The Swiss stirred into hostility to Charles 379
the Bold
“ Death of Henry IV. of Castile. Accession of 477
Isabella
1475. Edward IV. invades France. Treaty of 381
Pecquigni
“ Charles the Bold overruns Lorraine 381
“ Execution of the Constable St. Pol 383
1476. Charles the Bold undertakes to chastise the 384
Swiss. Battles of Granson (March 2) and Morat
(June 22)
“ Murder of Gian Galeazzo Sforza in Milan 261
1477. Death of Charles the Bold before Nanci (Jan. 386
5)
“ Louis XI. occupies Burgundy, Franche-Comté and 387
Artois
1477. Mary of Burgundy married to Maximilian 388
1478. Conspiracy of the Pazzi in Florence 282,
305
“ Florence at war with Naples and the Papacy 282,
307
1479. Death of John II. of Aragon. Succeeded by 487
Ferdinand the Catholic, but Navarre passes to his
daughter Eleanor
“ Florentine reverses. Lorenzo de’ Medici goes 308
to Naples
“ Regency of Bona of Savoy in Milan overthrown 262
by Ludovico Sforza
“ Treaty of Constantinople ends the long war 256,
between Venice and the Turks 513
1480. Occupation of Otranto by the Turks 283,
310,
513
“ Florence makes peace with Naples and Sixtus 309
IV.
“ Important constitutional changes in Florence 310
“ Death of Réné le Bon, succeeded by Charles of 389
Maine
1481. Death of Mohammed II.. Evacuation of 513
Otranto. Temporary decline of Turkish power
“ Death of Charles of Maine enables Louis XI. to 389
acquire Anjou, Maine, and Provence
1482. Death of Mary of Burgundy 388
“ Treaty of Arras settles the Burgundian 388
succession
“ Venetian attack upon Ferrara 257,
283
“ Coalition of Milan, Naples, and Florence 257,
against Venice and the Papacy 283
1483. Death of Edward IV. of England 388
“ Death of Louis XI. Accession of Charles VIII. 390
Regency of Anne of Beaujeu
“ Sixtus IV. deserts Venice and joins the 284
hostile league
1484. Meeting of States-General at Tours 391
“ Treaty of Bagnolo ends the Ferrarese war 257,
284
“ Death of Sixtus IV., and election of Innocent 284
VIII.
“ War between Mathias Corvinus and Frederick 416
III.
1485. Henry VII. establishes the Tudor dynasty in 391
England
“ Rising of Neapolitan barons against Ferrante. 286
Offer of the crown to Réné of Lorraine
“ Mathias Corvinus seizes Vienna 417
1486. Bartholomew Diaz rounds the Cape of Good 492
Hope
“ Maximilian elected King of the Romans in his 417
father’s lifetime
1488. Death of Francis II. of Brittany. Succeeded 391
by daughter Anne
1490. Death of Mathias Corvinus. Succeeded by 417
Ladislas of Bohemia
1491. Anne of Brittany compelled to marry Charles 392
VIII.
“ Treaty of Pressburg, by which Maximilian 417
recovered the Austrian territories which had been
conquered by Mathias Corvinus
“ End of the regency of Anne of Beaujeu 392
1492. Columbus discovers the new world of America 492
“ Annexation of Moorish kingdom of Granada to 490
Spain
“ Death of Innocent VIII., and election of 287
Alexander VI.
“ Death of Lorenzo de’ Medici. Succeeded by 312
Piero II.
“ Henry VII. invades France, but is bought off 392
by treaty of Étaples
1493. Bull of Alexander VI. dividing the new world 493
between Spain and Portugal
“ Treaty of Barcelona restores Roussillon and 392
Cerdagne to Aragon
“ Treaty of Senlis cedes Artois and 393
Franche-Comté
“ Neapolitan exiles, advised by Venice, and 263,
supported by Ludovico Sforza, urge Charles VIII. 286,
to claim Naples as representing the house of Anjou 392
“ Death of Frederick III. Maximilian unites all 417
Hapsburg dominions
1494. Death of Ferrante of Naples. Succeeded by 287
Alfonso II.
“ Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and 493
Portugal
“ Charles VIII. sets out to assert his claim to 393
Naples
“ Expulsion of Piero de’ Medici, and restoration 314
of republican government in Florence
CHAPTER I
GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE AFTER THE INTERREGNUM, 1273-1313
The Empire—German divisions—The Interregnum—Rudolf of Hapsburg—His
War with Ottokar—Adolf of Nassau—His relations with France—His
fall—Albert I.—The Succession in Hungary and Bohemia—The Election of
Henry VII.—His Italian Expedition—His Concessions to the Princes—His
son John and the Bohemian Crown—The French seizure of Lyons—The
importance of the Period 1273-1313 in German History
Ever since A.D. 962 the German monarchy had been combined [Sidenote: The
Empire and the German monarchy.] with the Roman Empire, and the union
proved harmful to both offices. The universal authority of the Emperor
could hardly fail to become shadowy and unreal, but it was rendered more
distasteful to non-German princes and peoples by the immediate
association of the Empire with a distinct kingdom, with which they might
have causes of quarrel. And as the Empire became more and more
localised, so the German kingship became steadily weaker. The shadowy
character of the higher dignity tended to produce the same impression as
to the more real and practical office. The princes who held their lands
of the German king aimed more and more at the independence of the
external kings and rulers, who, in feudal theory, held of the Emperor.
The imperial claims brought the Empire into collision with the Papacy,
and the German monarchy suffered from the blows which the Emperor’s
power received in the great Contest of Investitures. Moreover, the
Empire carried with it the crown of Italy; and the constant waste of
money and men in the vain attempt to establish a real dominion in the
southern peninsula, not only weakened individual German rulers, but also
led to constant absences from Germany which gave occasion to their
northern vassals to acquire independence. Above all the Empire was, by
tradition and by the very conception of the office, elective. Thus the
German kings were deprived of all the advantages which normal hereditary
succession gave to the rulers of England and France. Not only did
disputed elections give rise to civil war with all its evils, but the
constant change from one family to another rendered impossible any
consistent policy of strengthening the central power. When at last the
Hapsburgs obtained quasi-hereditary possession of the imperial dignity,
disunion had made such progress that it was too late to apply a remedy.
The decline of the central power and the consequent rise [Sidenote:
German divisions.] of a large number of semi-independent political
units, each with a separate existence of its own, though held together
by certain common duties and interests, make German history in this
period peculiarly difficult and complicated. And the number of these
units was far greater in the thirteenth century than would have seemed
likely at an earlier date. The great duchies formed by the Karolings
had, by the policy of subsequent rulers, been broken up or allowed to
become extinct. The great duchy of Swabia, for instance, came to an end
with the Hohenstaufen, and was never revived. But the extinction of each
duchy brought with it an immense increase of the number of
tenants-in-chief. Every noble, town, and even village which had
previously held of the duke, now claimed to hold directly of the
Emperor; and though many of the weaker units fell victims to the greed
of powerful neighbours, yet some, like the original members of the Swiss
Confederation, succeeded in retaining the coveted position. In Germany,
too, primogeniture was in those days a rare exception, and the practice
of equal partition among brothers necessarily led to a great increase in
the number of princely tenants of the Emperor.
It is, of course, impossible in this volume to attempt to [Sidenote: The
lay princes.] trace the separate history of the various principalities
and states which fill the rather ill-defined territory known as Germany.
But it is necessary at starting to have a clear conception of some of
the chief families which play so important a part in subsequent history.
The four most prominent princely houses in the middle of the thirteenth
century were those of Ascania, Welf, Wittelsbach, and Wettin. The first
was sub-divided into two lines, descended from the two sons of Albert
the Bear. The elder son had held the marks of Brandenburg in the north,
which, since 1267, were split up among several brothers. The younger
son, Bernard, had in 1180 received from Frederick Barbarossa the
diminished duchy of Saxony, which was now held by his grandson, Albert
II. (1261-1298). The great family of Welf, so powerful in the previous
century, was now confined to the duchy of Brunswick, afterwards
sub-divided into Lüneburg (Hanover) and Wolfenbüttel (Brunswick). The
House of Wittelsbach was represented by two brothers, Lewis II., who
combined the duchy of Upper Bavaria with the Palatine county
(_Pfalzgrafschaft_) of the Rhine, and Henry, who held the duchy of Lower
Bavaria. Henry of Wettin, whose descendants acquired Saxony in the
fifteenth century and retain it to the present day, was at this time
Margrave of Meissen and Landgrave of Thuringia. But the most powerful
individual prince at this time was Ottokar, ruler of the Slav kingdom of
Bohemia, which was brought by geography and history into close
connection with Germany. To Bohemia, which he inherited in 1253 from his
father, Wenzel I., Ottokar had added by marriage and diplomacy Austria,
Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and thus held a secure predominance in
south-eastern Germany. There were also three lesser families, as yet
insignificant, and not regarded as belonging to the princely class,
which were destined within this period to rise to importance in Germany,
while two of them have taken a position among the greatest dynasties
Europe has ever seen. The House of Luxemburg, in the thirteenth century
the lords of a petty county near the western frontier, produced in the
next century four Emperors, and founded a territorial power which
survived the family which had created it. The Hapsburgs, hitherto known
only as active and successful nobles in Swabia, within this period built
up a considerable state in south-eastern Germany, and succeeded to the
position which the Luxemburgs had founded. Finally, the Hohenzollerns,
who in the thirteenth century combined scattered territories in
Franconia with the office of Burggraf of Nürnberg, acquired the
electorate of Brandenburg in the fifteenth century, and though their
power grew more slowly than that of the Luxemburgs and Hapsburgs, yet it
rested on a surer foundation, owed more to ability and policy than to
fortune, and may prove in the end both more brilliant and more durable.
Among the great territorial princes of Germany must be [Sidenote: The
Bishops.] reckoned the very numerous ecclesiastical tenants-in-chief of
the Empire. A large area of German soil, especially along the valleys of
the Rhine and the Main, was held by bishops and monasteries. Of these
clerical princes the most powerful and prominent were the Rhenish
archbishops of Mainz, Köln, and Trier. In former times the bishops had
been severed from the secular princes by class interests and traditions,
and the separation had been encouraged by many of the Emperors, whose
policy was to exalt themselves by playing one off against the other. But
after the middle of the thirteenth century this distinction tends to
become obscured. The rivalry between Emperors and Popes, though it does
not disappear, ceases to be the dominant factor in German relations; and
during the papal residence in Avignon (1305-1376) the German bishops
become to some extent alienated from the Papacy. The result is that the
German princes, both clerical and secular, come to form a fairly united
class; and the most obvious interest which binds them together is the
desire to strengthen their own independence, their ‘liberty,’ as they
call it, by weakening the central power. On the other hand, the lesser
tenants-in-chief below the princely rank, known in later history as the
_Ritterschaft_, or knights, are impelled to cling to the monarchy for
support against the constant danger of princely encroachments.
Besides the princes and knights, there is a very important [Sidenote:
The imperial cities.] body of tenants-in-chief—the _Reichstädte_, or
imperial cities. These had risen to importance, partly through the
economic conditions which gave them wealth, and partly through the
policy of several of the Emperors, who had encouraged the growth of
municipal life as a source of revenue and as a check upon the power of
the princes. German cities may be divided roughly into two great groups:
those in the south, like Augsburg, Nürnberg, Ratisbon, etc., which
obtained importance from their position on the great commercial routes
leading from Venice and Genoa to different parts of Europe; and those in
the north, on the Baltic and the German Ocean, whose function was to
carry on the trade between the east and the west of Northern Europe, and
to exchange at Bruges the products of the north for the commodities
brought by the southern merchants (see p. 422). The strength of the
towns lay in their wealth and their walls; their weakness in their
isolation and mutual jealousy. This weakness the southern cities never
overcame; their leagues for common objects were never durable, and
therefore never effectual. But the northern towns were left more to
themselves: they came into contact with less developed states, and they
were subject to the pressure of more constant and more immediate
political interests. The necessity of securing trade privileges in the
countries lying to the east and west of the Baltic, and the duty of
defending their commercial routes against the aggressive Scandinavian
state of Denmark, which commanded the outlets from the Baltic, forced
the northern towns into a semi-federal union, and the Hanseatic League
became for a time a great political power in the north. In the end the
northern cities also succumbed, owing mainly to a great change in trade
routes, and partly to the growing predominance of the princes. But at
the beginning of this period the future destiny of the German towns was
unknown, and to contemporaries it seemed quite possible that cities like
Nürnberg and Augsburg, or Lübeck and Hamburg, might obtain an
independence and a power not markedly inferior to that which was
actually acquired at this time by Venice and Florence, which were in
theory equally tenants-in-chief of the Empire, though further removed
from the exercise of imperial authority.
The decline of the German kingship had begun in the [Sidenote: The
Interregnum and its results.] eleventh century, but a partial revival
had been effected by the great Hohenstaufen Emperors, Frederick
Barbarossa, Henry VI., and Frederick II. With the fall of the
Hohenstaufen both Empire and monarchy sank lower than they had ever done
before. During the Great Interregnum (1256-1273), two rival kings, the
Englishman Richard of Cornwall, and the Castilian king, Alfonso X., had
secured the nominal adherence of conflicting parties in Germany, but
neither had attempted to rule the country. In these years not only did
the tenants-in-chief enjoy complete independence of any external
authority, but the imperial domains were either annexed by the princes,
or squandered by the two royal claimants in the attempt to purchase
adherents. This rendered it impossible to revive the old monarchy, and
produced changes which seemed to render German unity for ever hopeless.
Hitherto the elected Emperor had resigned his hereditary dominions, and
had supported himself on the domain-lands, travelling about from one
estate to another. This was no longer possible. The only way in which a
future king could hope to secure any respect or obedience was to acquire
such a territorial power as would make him formidable. Such a policy,
consistently pursued by a line of hereditary kings, might have resulted
in the gradual formation of a territorial monarchy like that of France.
But the princes made use of their right of election, at first to prevent
the kingship passing to successive members of the same family, and
always to impose conditions which should secure their own independence.
The evil results became abundantly plain in the century which followed
the Interregnum. Each successive Emperor set himself, not so much to
strengthen the monarchy, as to aggrandise his own family; and the more
successful he was, the more dangerous and objectionable did that family
become to his successor. The same conditions which produced nepotism in
the Papacy, led to the adoption of a consistent policy of dynastic
aggrandisement by all the Emperors from Rudolf of Hapsburg onwards.
In 1272 the death of Richard of Cornwall forced his [Sidenote: Election
of Rudolf I.] adherents to consider the question of a new election, and
at the same time Pope Gregory X., alarmed by the excessive power of the
House of Anjou in Italy, and afraid lest German disunion might give
occasion for French aggression north of the Alps, used all his influence
to urge on the unanimous choice of a new king in Germany. For a long
time the right of election had tended to fall into fewer hands. The
early German kings were selected by the chief men and approved by the
acclamations of a mass meeting of all freemen. Gradually the form of
popular approval disappeared, and the princely tenants-in-chief assumed
an absolute power of nomination. Since then the practice had grown up of
a preliminary choice by some of the chief princes, to be ratified by the
rest. But in the thirteenth century the idea arose that certain princes
could elect without any further ceremony. Superstition and custom seem
to have combined to suggest the number seven for these electors, as they
came to be called. But there were several contending claimants for the
right to be included in the favoured seven, and it was not till the next
century that these disputes were finally settled. On the present
occasion the lead was taken by the great Rhenish princes, the Count
Palatine with the three Archbishops. The only chance of securing a
general adhesion of the princes was to choose a king who was not so
strong as to excite either fear or jealousy. Mainly through the
exertions of Frederick III. of Hohenzollern, Burggraf of Nürnberg, the
choice of the electors fell upon his cousin Rudolf, Count of Hapsburg,
who was crowned at Aachen on October 24, 1273. It is not a little
curious that the election of the first Hapsburg was brought about by the
influence of a Hohenzollern.
Rudolf’s position was no easy one when, at the age of [Sidenote:
Rudolf’s policy.] fifty-five, he was called from his successful career
in the petty politics of Swabia[1] to assume the German kingship. He had
a large family of daughters, whose marriages served to gain him
adherents. At the coronation ceremony one had been married to Lewis of
Wittelsbach, and another to Albert of Saxony. But such a tie was
insufficient to secure the docile obedience of his sons-in-law if he
endeavoured to exercise any real authority over them. Alfonso of Castile
retained the title of king of the Romans, and though for the time he was
powerless, his pretensions might easily serve as a pretext for
malcontents. A more formidable opponent was Ottokar of Bohemia, whose
claim to a voice in the election had been disregarded, and who refused
to acknowledge the ‘pauper count’ of Hapsburg. In these circumstances
Rudolf showed all the prudence and foresight that had already won him a
reputation. He realised that it was no longer possible to revive the
pretensions of the Hohenstaufen. He could not afford to alienate the
Pope or to aim at the recovery of an Italian kingdom. He must content
himself with obtaining what reality he could for the royal power in
Germany, and must find a territorial basis for that power. The most
obvious method of doing this was the restoration of the duchy of Swabia
in his own family, which would enable him to achieve the aims which he
had hitherto pursued. But such a step would involve a quarrel with Lewis
of Wittelsbach, who claimed to be regarded the heir of the Hohenstaufen.
Rudolf could not venture on such a risk, and he fell back on the plan of
wresting from Ottokar the German fiefs in the south-east, which the
latter had seized during the Interregnum. Before attempting this, Rudolf
had to gain over the Pope, the close ally of the Bohemian king. Through
the agency of Frederick of Hohenzollern he concluded a concordat with
Gregory X., by which he confirmed all previous concessions of Italian
territory to the Papacy, and recognised the Angevin kingdom of Naples
and Sicily. These promises were subsequently confirmed in a personal
interview with Gregory at Lausanne (October, 1275). In March 1280 Rudolf
made a direct treaty with Charles of Anjou, by which he confirmed his
possession of Provence, and agreed to marry his daughter Clementia to
Charles’s grandson. Thus the policy of Frederick II. was finally
abandoned. To secure undisturbed freedom of action in Germany, Rudolf
resigned Italy to the Pope and the House of Anjou.
Rudolf’s alliance with the Pope made him strong enough [Sidenote: War
with Ottokar.] to take active measures against Ottokar, whose refusal to
recognise the election on the ground that his vote had been rejected
irritated the German princes. At successive diets, in 1274 and 1275, he
was summoned to justify his occupation of Austria, Styria, Carinthia,
and Carniola, and on his refusal was called upon to resign these fiefs.
In 1276 Rudolf collected an imperial army and advanced into Austria,
where he was welcomed by a general rising of the German nobles against
Slav rule. Vienna capitulated, and Ottokar, finding resistance hopeless,
made peace on November 21. On condition that Bohemia and Moravia should
be secured to him, he resigned the German provinces. The treaty was to
be confirmed by a double marriage of his daughter to Rudolf’s son
Hartmann, and of his son Wenzel to one of Rudolf’s numerous daughters.
Rudolf was so confident in the results of his victory, that he hastened
to disband his army. But Ottokar had no intention of carrying out the
treaty of Vienna, and he succeeded in gaining over many of the chief
German princes by representing the danger of allowing a strong Hapsburg
power to be established on the Danube. The result was a renewal of the
struggle in 1278 under widely altered conditions. The death of Gregory
X. (1276) had deprived Rudolf of much of the advantage gained by his
concordat with the Papacy. The Archbishops of Mainz and Köln turned
against him. Lewis of Wittelsbach remained obstinately neutral. Henry of
Lower Bavaria, whom Rudolf had gained over in 1276 by a politic
marriage, openly supported Ottokar, who was also aided by the Ascanian
margraves of Brandenburg. In place of the imposing army of 1276, the
only German princes who sent active aid to Rudolf were Frederick of
Hohenzollern and the Bishop of Basel. But the balance was turned in his
favour by the alliance of Ladislaus IV. of Hungary and by the support of
the Austrian and Styrian nobles, whom Ottokar had failed to conciliate.
In a great battle on the Marchfeld, the victory was decided by a charge
of the heavy-armed cavalry under Frederick of Hohenzollern, and Ottokar
himself perished on the field (August 26, 1278). His death made Rudolf’s
victory decisive. Otto of Brandenburg, who undertook the guardianship of
the young king of Bohemia, Wenzel II., negotiated a treaty in October
which renewed the stipulations of 1276 as to the cession of the Austrian
provinces and the double marriage between the Hapsburg and Bohemian
families. In December 1282 Rudolf formally invested his sons, Albert and
Rudolf, with the imperial fiefs of Austria, Styria, and Carniola. The
duchy of Carinthia was given to Meinhard, Count of Tyrol, whose daughter
was married to Albert of Austria.
The establishment of the Hapsburg dynasty in Austria is [Sidenote:
Rudolf in later years.] an important event in German history. It was the
great achievement of Rudolf’s reign, and it was his last notable
success. His later attempts to strengthen the central monarchy in
Germany were, in the main, fruitless. A series of edicts to secure the
public peace by restricting the practice of private war, gained the
grateful approval of the towns and the lesser nobles, but were rendered
ineffectual by the absence in Germany of an efficient system of
jurisdiction and police. An ordinance prohibiting the creation of any
new county (_Grafschaft_) without royal consent illustrates the general
aim of Rudolf’s government, but proved little more than a dead letter.
The recovery of the lost imperial domains, which Rudolf had pledged
himself to undertake at his election, was a task beyond his strength.
Even the towns, on whose support he reckoned, were alienated by his
attempt to raise an imperial revenue by their taxation; and the
appearance of a number of pretenders claiming to be Frederick II. showed
a tendency to contrast Rudolf’s government with that of his predecessor,
who had been enabled to spare his German subjects by the wealth which he
extracted from Italy. A still more serious difficulty was the obstinate
refusal of the electors to choose his son Albert as his successor during
his own lifetime. This was the most pressing object of Rudolf’s last
years, and it was unfulfilled when he died on July 15, 1291, at the age
of seventy-three. If he had lived two centuries earlier, he might have
ranked among the greatest of German kings; as it is, he will always be
remembered as the founder of the greatest of German dynasties.
The objection to Albert of Austria rested on the considerable [Sidenote:
Adolf of Nassau.] territories, both in the east and in Swabia, which he
inherited from his father. The same motives which had induced the
electors in 1273 to choose Rudolf, led them to look for a successor
whose position should be still more humble than Rudolf’s had been. The
influence of the Archbishop of Mainz, Gerhard von Eppenstein, secured
the election of another ‘poor count,’ Adolf of Nassau (May 5, 1292). He
had purchased votes by promises, which he could only fulfil by pawning
the scanty remnants of the imperial domains. But Adolf’s ambition was
greater than his material power, and he had no intention of reigning as
the submissive puppet of the electors. No sooner had he received the
crown at Aachen (June 24) than he led an army against Albert, and forced
him to do homage and to surrender the royal insignia which he had
retained on his father’s death. To repress the great princes, Adolf set
himself to conciliate the towns and the lesser nobles. Taking advantage
of the death of Frederick of Meissen and Thuringia, he claimed those
territories as vacant imperial fiefs, and prepared to found there a
hereditary principality as his predecessor had done on the Danube. Still
more noteworthy was the attitude which he assumed towards France. The
kingdom of Arles or Burgundy, [Sidenote: Relations with France.] founded
by Rudolf I. (888-912) and enlarged by Rudolf II. (912-937) had, after
the death of Rudolf III. (1032), fallen to the German king, Conrad II.
Since then the crown of Arles had been regarded as one of the three
crowns, with those of Germany and Italy, which passed on election to
successive kings of the Romans. But as the German monarchy declined, the
supremacy in Burgundy became more and more nominal, and many Emperors
neglected the ceremony of coronation at Arles altogether. The kingdom
split up into a number of quasi-independent provinces, of which the
chief were the free county of Burgundy (Franche-comté), Savoy, Dauphiné,
the Lyonnais, and Provence. These provinces, though in theory they were
held as fiefs of the Empire, were gradually subjected to systematic
aggressions from the side of France, and Philip IV. (1285-1314) pursued
this policy of absorption more boldly and openly than any of his
predecessors. Adolf sought to strengthen himself by posing as the
champion of the unity of the Empire, and in 1294 concluded a treaty with
Edward I. of England by which the two princes pledged themselves not to
lay down their arms until Philip had withdrawn from the territories he
was trying to wrest from both of them. But the war which followed only
brought out clearly the disunion and military impotence of Germany. The
German princes cared nothing for the border provinces as compared with
their own interests and independence. It was easy for Philip IV. to stir
up opposition to Adolf, and when peace was negotiated by Boniface VIII.
in 1298, no satisfaction was given to the imperial claims.
Meanwhile the electors and princes had been seriously [Sidenote: Adolf’s
fall.] alarmed by Adolf’s alliance with the lesser nobles and towns, and
by his temporary successes in Thuringia. To put down the prince whom
they had chosen, they turned to Albert of Austria whom they had
rejected. Albert, who had already formed a close alliance with Wenzel
II. of Bohemia, and had been in communication with the French king, was
eager to strike a blow for his father’s crown. The Archbishop of Mainz
summoned a meeting of princes to Frankfort on May 1, 1298, and Albert
set out to attend it with an army at his back. Adolf, however, collected
troops from his supporters among the lesser nobles, and prepared to
dispute his passage. By superior strategy Albert marched round his
opponent to the south, and succeeded in reaching Mainz, whither the
meeting was transferred. Here the electors formally declared Adolf’s
deposition (June 23), but the irregular proposal of Albert of Saxony to
elect Albert of Austria on the spot met with no support. The army of the
princes now advanced against the king, and after a desperate struggle
near Göllheim, Adolf was slain—struck from his horse, it was said, by
the hand of his rival (July 2). He had made a brief but creditable
attempt to rule as a German king, but was too weak to face the hostile
coalition of the princes. His schemes in Thuringia and Meissen perished
with him, and the House of Wettin recovered its territories.
After Albert’s victory as champion of the electors, the [Sidenote:
Albert I.] latter could no longer avoid choosing him to fill the vacant
throne; but they soon had ample reason to recognise the wisdom of their
previous refusal. Albert inherited his father’s policy, with more
restless energy and greater military capacity. What he might have done
for the Hapsburg dynasty and the German monarchy if his career had not
been prematurely cut short by assassination it is impossible to say, but
the ten years of his reign are full of great enterprises, most of which
promised successful results. The reputation for cruelty which he bears
in history is mainly due to the sternness of his manner and appearance,
increased by the loss of an eye, and to the fables which have grown up
round him in the more than dubious traditions of the Swiss.
To coerce Pope Boniface VIII., who refused to acknowledge [Sidenote:
Albert’s policy.] his election, Albert concluded a treaty with Philip
IV. of France, who had a quarrel of his own with the Papacy, and thus
abandoned the attempt of Adolf to defend the Burgundian frontiers. In
December, 1299, he had a personal interview with Philip, and arranged a
marriage between the French princess Blanche and his eldest son Rudolf.
In German politics he set himself to favour the towns against the
princes, and infuriated the latter by an edict abolishing all tolls on
the Rhine imposed since the death of Frederick II. in 1250. The death of
the Count of Holland and Zealand (October, 1299) gave him an opportunity
to claim these provinces as vacant imperial fiefs in opposition to John
of Hainault, who claimed the inheritance through his mother. This
scheme, however, proved a failure, and the House of Avesnes succeeded in
adding Holland and Zealand to Hainault. Encouraged by Albert’s check in
the north-west, the Rhenish archbishops and the Elector Palatine,
furious at the threatened loss of their tolls, formed a league against
the king whom they had voted for two years before. But Albert was not so
powerless as Adolf had been. Backed by the enthusiastic support of the
cities and aided by French auxiliaries, he took the aggressive against
his opponents, and compelled them not only to abolish the tolls, but to
recognise the right of the towns to receive burghers of the pale
(_Pfahlbürger_)—that is, to confer the privileges and immunities of
citizenship on residents in the suburbs outside the walls. Few German
kings since Henry III. had been so successful in coercing their powerful
vassals as was Albert in these campaigns of 1301 and 1302.
For the next few years Albert’s attention was mainly [Sidenote:
Succession in Hungary.] absorbed in eastern affairs. The death of Andrew
III., the last male of the Arpad dynasty in Hungary, left that kingdom
without any obvious heir. There were two candidates, who were descended
from the royal family through females—Otto of Lower Bavaria, and Charles
Robert or Carobert, the grandson of Charles II., the Angevin king of
Naples. But the Magyar nobles passed over both, and offered the crown to
WENZEL II. of Bohemia, who accepted it for his son Wenzel III. Such an
accession of power to the Premyslides was entirely opposed to Albert’s
interests, both as King of Germany and as Duke of Austria. As he had no
love for the Wittelsbachs in Lower Bavaria, he did not hesitate to
espouse the cause of Carobert, the son of his sister Clementia, and the
candidate supported by Boniface VIII., with whom Albert had reconciled
himself in 1302. For a time the Bohemian power proved too strong, but
the death of Wenzel II. (June, 1305) and the growing discontent in
Hungary with the conduct of the young king, enabled Carobert to secure
the crown, though his title was disputed for a time by Otto of
Wittelsbach.
In the next year (August, 1306) the murder of the young [Sidenote:
Succession in Bohemia.] Wenzel III. left the Bohemian crown itself
vacant. The sister of the late king had married Henry of Carinthia and
Tyrol, the brother of Albert’s wife.[2] In spite of this relationship
Albert claimed the kingdom as a vacant fief, and conferred it upon his
eldest son Rudolf. The consent of the Bohemian nobles was extorted or
purchased, and an agreement that Rudolf’s brothers should succeed if he
himself died childless, seemed to secure to the Hapsburgs the permanent
possession of a kingdom which, added to their Austrian territories,
would make them all-powerful on the eastern frontier of Germany. This
was the greatest of Albert’s achievements, and, if the acquisition had
been permanent, would have made his reign as important in Hapsburg
history as his father’s had been. But his last years were clouded with
disappointment. An attempt to renew his predecessor’s claims upon
Meissen and Thuringia was repulsed by Frederick of Wettin, who defeated
the royal army, under Frederick of Hohenzollern, near Altenburg (May 31,
1307). This defeat was followed by the sudden death, on July 4, of the
youthful Rudolf of Bohemia. The Bohemians had tired of Hapsburg rule,
and in spite of the agreement made at Rudolf’s election, they now
offered the crown to Henry of Carinthia. Albert had already made one
incursion into Bohemia, and was preparing another, [Sidenote: Albert’s
death.] when he was treacherously murdered by his nephew, John (May 1,
1308).
John was the son of Albert’s brother Rudolf and Agnes, daughter of
Ottokar, and seems to have resented his uncle’s refusal either to
support his candidature for the Bohemian crown, or to give him any share
of the Hapsburg territories. The assassination, therefore, was the
result of mere personal pique, but it was as important as if it had
arisen from a deep-laid political scheme. If Albert had lived longer he
would very probably have established his son Frederick in Bohemia, and
rendered his election to the German kingship inevitable. In that case
the Hapsburgs might have founded a territorial monarchy in Germany, and
the House of Luxemburg would never have risen from obscurity. The
complaint that Albert neglected to enforce imperial pretensions in Italy
is well founded, but should rather be set to the credit of his political
capacity. The Italian connection was fatal to the best interests of
Germany. A far more serious criticism is his failure to resist the
aggressions of France. He aided the House of Anjou to acquire the crown
of Hungary in addition to that of Naples, and although for the moment
Charles Robert’s candidature was opposed by Philip IV., it was certain
that in the long-run the Angevin and Capet interests would combine the
two families. He made no opposition to the transference of the papal
residence from Rome to Avignon, though the disadvantage to Germany was
obvious when Clement V. filled the Rhenish archbishoprics with partisans
of France.
It resulted from these changes that French influence was [Sidenote:
Election of Henry VII.] very prominent in the election of 1308, and was
strong enough to secure the exclusion of Albert’s heir, Frederick the
Handsome. Philip IV.’s brother, Charles of Valois, came forward as a
candidate and was openly supported by the Pope. But the secular princes
were strong enough to resist such a sacrifice of German interests to
ecclesiastical pressure, although their own interests prevented them
from supporting the Hapsburg. At this juncture, the Archbishop Baldwin
of Trier (appointed in 1307) suggested as a compromise the choice of his
brother, Henry of Luxemburg. He was the descendant of the counts of
Limburg and Arlon, who had acquired Luxemburg by marriage in 1214. His
territorial power was too small to inspire jealousy in Germany, while he
was connected with France by education and by military service in the
war against Edward I. As no other candidate had any chance of election,
Henry VII. was chosen without opposition on October 28, 1308. The
Hapsburgs found it necessary to acknowledge the new king on condition of
receiving confirmation of their fiefs.
The personal career of Henry VII. belongs rather to the [Sidenote:
Italian expedition.] history of Italy than that of Germany, and will be
considered in the following chapter. From the first he seems to have
looked on Germany as a foreigner, and abandoned the policy of his
predecessor for the wild dream of reviving the imperial power of the
Hohenstaufen in Italy at the head of the Ghibelline party. In 1310 he
set out on his southern expedition, which resulted in little beyond his
coronation in Rome (June 29, 1312). He never returned to Germany. But
before his departure he took some steps which were fraught with future
consequence. To conciliate the princes he withdrew the concessions by
which Albert had purchased the support of the towns. In 1310 [Sidenote:
Concessions to the princes.] he prohibited the creation of
_pfahlbürger_, and restored their tolls to the Rhenish princes. In the
same year he seized the opportunity to obtain a great acquisition for
his family. The Bohemians were in rebellion against Henry of Carinthia,
and offered the crown to Henry VII.’s son, John, on condition that he
should marry Elizabeth, [Sidenote: John of Bohemia.] daughter of Wenzel
II. The offer was accepted; but so little did Henry care even for his
family interests in comparison with his chimerical schemes, that he did
not delay his advance into Italy, and left the securing of his son’s
throne to the Archbishop of Mainz, Peter von Aspelt. Fortunately, the
enterprise did not require his presence. Henry of Carinthia was
expelled, and John of Luxemburg was firmly seated on the Bohemian
throne.
During the Italian expedition, which ended in Henry VII.’s [Sidenote:
France seizes Lyons.] death near Siena (August 24, 1313), the interests
of the German monarchy were neglected, the princes were left in complete
independence, and Philip IV. was enabled to carry on his aggressions
with impunity. In 1310 he took advantage of a dispute between the
archbishop and the citizens of Lyons to send French troops into the
city, and in 1312 the former was compelled to make a treaty by which he
acknowledged the suzerainty of France.
Forty years had now elapsed since the close of the Great [Sidenote:
Importance of period 1273-1313 in German history.] Interregnum. The
kingly office had been revived, and had been held by four princes, each
of whom had shown considerable vigour and capacity. But the absence of
hereditary succession had rendered impossible the pursuit of any
efficient scheme for the enforcement of central authority and the
repression of princely independence. The greatest successes in this
direction had been gained by Albert I., but they had been rendered
nugatory by his untimely death and by his successor’s absorption in
dreams of reviving the universal empire. Germany in 1313, as in 1273,
was a mere bundle of states under a nominal head, while its neighbours
England and France had been receiving a strong national organisation
under the capable rule of Edward I. and Philip IV. That Germany escaped
for a century from the worst consequences of her disunion was mainly due
to the jarring interests of the neighbouring states which led to the
Hundred Years’ War.
But it is misleading to regard the history of these forty years as a
mere chronicle of heroic efforts ending in hopeless failure. The very
divisions of Germany, while they weakened its nationality, gave greater
scope and variety to local development. From this period we date the
rise to greatness of the two vigorous dynasties of Luxemburg and
Hapsburg. To it we have also to look for the first origins of the Swiss
Confederation [see chap. vii.], for the rise of the Hanseatic League
[see chap. xviii.], and for the establishment of a great territorial
power in Prussia by the Teutonic Order [see chap. xix.]. It is necessary
to follow the fortunes of the monarchy in order to understand why German
development was so different from that of other contemporary states, but
the real interest of German history is to be found in the vigorous
growth of these political organisations on the extremities rather than
in the declining vitality of the central power.
Footnote 1:
For Rudolf’s position in Swabia see below, chap. vii.
Footnote 2:
See Genealogical Table A, in Appendix.