As regards literature, we find in Greece, besides what can be learned
incidentally from the historians _Herodotus_ and _Xenophon_ and from the
natural history of Aristotle, the first work on plant history and wood
technology, if not forestry, in 18 volumes by _Theophrastus_ (390-286
B.C.), a pupil of Aristotle and Plato.
Among the Romans, besides a number of historians, at least three writers
before Christ discussed in detail agriculture and, in connection with
it, tree culture; namely, _Cato_ (234-149 B.C.) who wrote an excellent
work _De re rustica_, in 162 chapters; _Varro_ (116-26 B.C.), also _De
re rustica_, in three books; and _Vergilius Maro_ (70-19 B.C.), who in
his _Georgica_ records in six books the state of knowledge at that time.
Of the many writers on these subjects who came in the Christian era
there are also three to be mentioned, namely, _Cajus Plinius Major_
(23-79 A.D.), who in his _Historia naturalis_, in 37 books, discusses
also the technique of silviculture; _Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella_
(about 50 A.D.), with 12 books, _De re rustica_, and one book _De
arboribus_, the former being the best work of the ancients on the
subject; and _Palladius_, writing about 350 A.D., 13 books, _De re
rustica_, which in the original and in translations was read until past
the middle ages.
Only a few references which exhibit the state of knowledge on
arboricultural subjects among the Romans as shown in this literature may
be cited, some of which knowledge was also developed in Greece and found
application, more or less, throughout the Roman empire from India to
Spain.
Nursery practice was already well known to Cato, while Varro knew,
besides sowing and planting, the art of grafting and layering, and
Columella discusses in addition pruning and pollarding (which latter was
practiced for securing fuelwood), and the propriety of leaving the
pruned trees two years to recuperate before applying the knife again.
The method of wintering acorns and chestnuts in sand, working them over
every 30 days and separating the poor seed by floating in water, was
known to Columella and, indeed, he discusses nursery management with
minute detail, even the advantages of transplants and of doubly
transplanted material. The question whether to plant or to sow, the
preference of fall or spring planting with distinction for different
species and localities are matters under his consideration; and
preference of sowing oak and chestnut instead of transplanting is
pointed out and supported by good reasons.
Pliny, the Humboldt of the ancients, recognizes tolerance of different
species, the need of different treatment for different species, the
desirability of transplanting to soil and climatic conditions similar to
those to which the tree was accustomed, and of placing the trees as they
stood with reference to the sun. But, to be sure, he also has many
curious notions, as for instance his counsel to set shallow rooted
trees deeper than they stood before, his advice not to plant during
rain, or windy weather and his laying much stress on the phases of the
moon as influencing results.
* * * * *
While then the ancients were not entirely without silvicultural
knowledge, indeed possessed much more than is usually credited to them,
the need of a forest policy and of a systematic forest management in the
modern sense had not arisen in their time; the mild climate reducing the
necessity of fuelwood and the accessibility by water to sources of
supply for naval and other construction delaying the need for forest
production at home.
There is little doubt, that some of the agricultural and silvicultural
knowledge and practice of the Romans found entrance among the German
tribes who, especially the Allemanni, came into contact with the Romans
in their civilized surroundings during the fourth century.