VERSAL LETTERS & COLOURED CAPITALS
Development of Versals — General Analysis of Versals — Notes on
Construction of Versals — Spacing & Arrangement of Versals.
DEVELOPMENT OF VERSALS
The earliest books consisted of a number of lines of continuous
writing in capital letters. There were seldom any divisions of the
text—into paragraphs, chapters, or the like—or even of one word from
another; nor were important words distinguished by larger initials.
The first division of paragraphs was made by a slight break in the
text and a mark; later, the first letter of the first complete line
of the new paragraph was placed in the margin and written larger.
When “small-letters” were evolved, capitals ceased to be used for the
body of the text, and became distinguishing letters for headings and
important words. [p113]
The capitals written at the beginnings of books, chapters, and
paragraphs grew larger and more ornamental, and at length were made
in colour and decorated with pen flourishes. Such letters, used
to mark the beginnings of verses, paragraphs, &c., were called
“Versals.”[23]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 78.›]
In modern printing and ordinary writing the first line of a paragraph
is generally _indented_ (_a_, fig. 78), but the earlier method of
employing a special mark or letter (_b_ or _c_) is more effective,
and it might very well be used, even in modern printed books, for
fine editions. Affording a legitimate opening for illumination and
book-ornament, it was (and _is_) the natural method for the penman,
who, starting with these useful capitals, by flourishing them—in
their [p114] own colour, or by dotting, outlining, or ornamenting
them, with a contrasting colour (see fig. 79, from an old MS.),
evolved the _Illuminated Initial_.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 79› (_13th century_).]
_Types of Versal Letters_ (examples: Plates IX., X., XI., XII., and
figs. 1, 78 to 94, 150, 161, 165, 166, 189).—The earlier Versals had
very simple and beautiful pen shapes, and are the best models for the
modern penman to follow. After the fourteenth century they were often
fattened and vulgarised and overdone with ornament. In this way they
not only lost their typical forms; but their “essential forms”—as
letters derived from the Roman Alphabet—became much disguised and
confounded (see fig. 128). [p115]
GENERAL ANALYSIS OF VERSALS
1. THE LETTERS (Pen-made), Built-up, Ornamental
(coloured), “Gothic” Capitals
(Round and Square forms).
2. HORIZONTALS—
_STRAIGHT:_ Medium—commonly the width of the nib.
_CURVED:_ Thin—the thin stroke of the pen.
3. PERPENDICULARS: Built-up, slightly curved in on
either side.
4. SERIFS: Long, thin, slightly curved.
5. LONG STEMS: Various (see p. 119, & figs. 84, 90).
6. SPACING—
_Letters & Words:_ Various (see figs. 89, 92, 166).
_Lines:_ Usually one or more of the _line-spaces_
apart (see pp. 126, 128).
7. ARRANGEMENT: _Singly:_ set in text or margin, or
part in both (fig. 86).
_Grouped:_ after large initials (fig. 92).
_In Lines:_ wide or close, often one
word to the line (fig. 89).
8. MEASUREMENTS: _Stem width:_ commonly two or
three widths-of-nib across thinnest
part (fig. 165).
«O» _height:_ commonly one, two, or
more of the line-spaces.
9. COMPONENT PARTS: «A» has approx. 10 strokes & filling.
«B» has approx. 8 strokes & filling.
«C» has approx. 7 strokes & filling.
and so on (see fig. 81).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 80.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 81.›]
[p118]
NOTES ON CONSTRUCTION OF VERSALS
(See figs. 80, 81, 85, 165)
_Versal Letters_ are properly _built-up_ (p. 291) with true
pen-strokes (_b_, fig. 81). Drawn or painted, they acquire a
different character (p. 292). Their office being to mark important
parts of the text, they are generally distinguished by colour and
freedom of form—tending to curves and flourishes.
The pen has an extra long slit (1/2 inch to 3/4 inch), and the
_writing-board_ may be lowered (see fig. 46, _b_) to permit of the
thick, liquid colour running out freely. The nib is of the ordinary
shape (but not too oblique), and generally rather less in width than
the nib used for the accompanying text (_a_, fig. 81).
The outlining strokes are quickly written and immediately filled in,
each letter being loaded well with the colour, which thereafter dries
evenly, with a slightly raised “flat” surface. The liquid colour
should be fairly thick (see _colour_, p. 176).
“_Gothic lettering_” is a term used for “Black-letter” and related
types, as distinguished from “Roman” types. “Gothic” capitals tend to
roundness, the small-letters to angularity, but in each the abrupt
change from thick to thin strokes, and the resulting contrast of
stroke, are characteristics—the result of pen work.[24] In Versals
this contrast is marked; _the ends of the thinner strokes spread_
(see _Addenda_, p. 25, & cross-bar of «A», fig. 71), _and the heavy
parts are crossed by thin serifs_. Versals may retain their pen
character and yet approach [p119] the “Roman Letter” (p. 294), or
be changed into the ornate “Lombardic” (p. 34). They are capable of
great variety, and the “round” or “square” «D», «E», «H», «M», and
«W» may be used at pleasure.
_The Stems_ curve in slightly on either side. When they are very tall
the mid part may be quite straight, imperceptibly curving out towards
the ends (_b_, fig. 82). This gives an effect of curvature throughout
the length, while keeping the letter graceful and straight. The head
of a stem (especially of an _ascender_) should be slightly wider than
the foot (fig. 83). _This applies generally to every sort of built-up
capitals._
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 82.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 83.›]
The _stem width_ may be nearly the same in Versals of different
heights (_a_, fig. 84): generally the letters tend to become _more
slender in proportion_ as the letters grow taller (_b_). Very large
Versals (or initials) are often made with a hollow stem to avoid a
heavy appearance («L», fig. 84). [p120]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 84.›]
_The Serifs_ are long and slightly curved in ornamental forms (fig.
79): shorter, and nearly straight in stiffer forms (fig. 166). In
many cases the serifs appear to have been written _first_, the stems
being added between them (_f_, fig. 81)—in old MSS. the stems often
show ragged ends crossing the serifs. Sometimes the serif appears
to have been _added to the stem in two pieces_, half on either side
springing from the corners of the stem (_g_). The safest way seems to
be the _complete finishing stroke added to, and forming sharp angles
with, the stem_ (_h_).
_Arms or Branches._—Width of nib at start, and built-up at free end.
(Pen horizontal, figs. 81, 165). [p121]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 85.›]
_The Bows or Curves of Versals_ (and of _built-up_ letters generally)
are begun with the _inside stroke_—a rather flat curve: and finished
with the outer stroke—a pronounced curve (_a_, fig. 85). This
preserves [p122] the continuity of the interior curve, together
with the clean contrast of the thick and thin strokes (see _inside
shapes_, p. 253). The normal form may be flattened or curved a little
(_b_), but _exaggeration_ in either direction produces a degraded
form. Part round letters, as «D», «P», and «q», may be begun with _a
complete inner oval_, or _a nearly completed_ «O» (to which the stem
is added); this preserves their interior symmetry (_c_).
The beauty and quality of Versal letters depends very much on their
freedom; _touching-up_ or trimming after they are made is apt to
spoil them; and when good letters are made with a free hand, minute
roughnesses, which are due to their quick construction, may be
regarded as shewing a _good_ rather than a bad form of _care-less_
workmanship (see (_c_) fig. 164).
SPACING & ARRANGEMENT OF VERSALS
(Allowing for the special treatment of Versals called for by the
extreme freedom and elasticity of their pen forms, the following
remarks apply _generally to the spacing and arrangement of coloured
capitals in written pages_)
_Versals accompanying Small Text_ are generally _dropped_ below the
writing-line, so that their tops are level with the tops of the small
letters (fig. 86).
_Sizes of Versals._—Letters which are of the same importance—_i.e._
serve the same purpose—are usually of like size and form throughout;
and the more important a letter, the more it tends to be elaborated
and decorated (see figs. 90, 92).
_Special words in Text marked by Versals._—Where coloured capitals
are used throughout the text (fig. 92), the colours are usually
varied (pp. 134, 185). [p123]
_Line beginnings marked by Versals._—Where every line on a page
begins with a coloured capital, the majority of the forms are kept
rather plain (see (5) p. 136). They may be effectively treated as
a _band_ of simple or variegated colour (p. 136). This is a common
treatment for a list of names or a poem; sometimes, especially if
there are many lines, _simple-written_ capitals (p. 297) may be used
instead of Versals.
_Verses or Paragraphs_ may be marked by Versals _set in the text_
(_a_), or _part in margin, part in text_ (_b_), or _wholly in the
margin_ (_c_, fig. 86). The marginal capital is the simplest, and
it has the advantage of leaving the page of text entire; it may,
however, sometimes be desirable _to break the continuity_ by an inset
capital, especially in cases of closely written text, or of _stanzas
not spaced apart_ (see p. 138).
The first word of a paragraph, which is begun with a Versal, is often
completed in _simple-written_ capitals of the same colour as the text
(_a_, fig. 86).
_Various ways of marking Paragraphs._—(_a_) The paragraph marks @, ¶,
preferably coloured, may be used instead of (or even _with_) Versals
(_comp._ fig. 95); (_b_) by one word or line (or several words or
lines) of _simple-written_ (or built-up) capitals in black or colour
(see fig. 93); (_c_) by some suitable _ornament_ (see fig. 87); (_d_)
in many cases it is well to have spaces between the paragraphs or
verses (see p. 138).
_Line-Finishings at the ends of Verses, &c._ (pp. 205, 425), _may be
made with the Versal pens and colours._ [p124]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 86.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 87.›]
[p125]
_To mark Chapters_ (or even Books), extra large Versals (fig. 88) may
be used, in lieu of more elaborate initials. Smaller Versals may be
grouped round about, beside or inside initials (p. 208 & fig. 92).
_Headings and Pages in Capitals_ (see also pp. 128, 132).—Each line
of capitals is generally kept uniform throughout its length,[25]
though different lines vary in size and colour (see fig. 89). If it
be possible it is well to keep the individual word entire [p126] and
to let the heading or page contain the complete _initial phrase or
sentence_ (see fig. 91).
Generally the greater the number of capitals the _plainer_ their
forms are kept, and the closer their spacing. It is best to keep
to the regular method of _spacing the lines of Versals one of the
writing-line spaces (or more) apart_—though in special cases the
Versals may be independent of the writing-lines.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 88.›]
_Spacing Out._—Coloured letters and ornaments are usually put in
after the plain MS. has been written. A very little practice enables
the scribe accurately to guess the amount of space which he should
leave for the Versals, &c., whether it is designed to have several
lines of them, or a single letter only on the page. A few pencil
marks may be used to settle a doubtful point, but an elaborate
sketching or setting out in pencil spoils the freedom of the work.
[p127]