MANUSCRIPT BOOKS[16]
MS. Books: Tools & Materials — Methods & Proportions — The Size &
Shape of the Book — The Widths of the Margins — The Size of the
Writing, &c. — Ruling — MS. Books: General Remarks.
MS. BOOKS: TOOLS & MATERIALS
_The making of manuscript books_, based on a study of the early MSS.,
offers the best training to the scribe and illuminator in _writing_,
_lettering_, _rubricating_, _gilding_, _illuminating initials
and borders_, _and miniature painting_, and is the best means of
mastering the foundations of Book Typography and Decoration.
_Materials, &c. for MS. Books_; _Paper_ (see pp. 51, 103, 111, 317);
_Vellum and Parchment_ and _Pounce_ [p099] (see pp. 110, 167,
173–5).—Cut a small sheet the size of a page of the book, and clip
the long edge between two flat pieces of wood (holding it as it would
be if bound). If the page will bend over and stay down by its own
weight, it is thin enough («R» fig. 68); if it stands up («W»), it is
too stiff.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 68.›]
_Cutting Sheets._—A frame or template (the size of the sheet desired)
is used by parchment makers. It is useful for cutting out the sheets
for a common size of parchment book. They are cut on the end-grain of
wood, or on card or glass.
_Folding._—A _Folder_, as used by bookbinders (or a bone
paper-knife), is useful, and also a _Set or T-Square_ for testing
right angles, &c. The fold and the top edge of each book-sheet are
commonly squared by proper folding.
_Ruling_, _&c._ (see p. 343).—For marking distances of lines, a
carefully prepared paper[17] scale or pattern (p. 25) and an awl (p.
109), or a [p100] “_star-wheel_”—having regular intervals between
the spikes—may be used. Or the ruling—of the writing lines—may be
simplified by using a stout card frame (internally the size of the
text-column) with strips glued across it: for a common size of
book this might be made in stout tin or other metal. The lines are
commonly ruled with a _ruling stylus_ (see figs. 72, 77), or a sort
of “_rake_” may be made to rule six lines at once.
_Writing_, _Colouring_, _Gilding_, _Binding_ (Chaps. II., X., IX.,
XVI.).
METHODS & PROPORTIONS
Having to make a manuscript book for a specific purpose, the scribe
formulates in his mind a general plan of the work, and decides
approximately the respective sizes of page and of writing which seem
most suitable.
He endeavours to fashion the book in accord with its use, and
therefore allows the (most suitable) material, the subject-matter
and the office of the book, and the way in which it will be read and
handled, to determine as far as is possible the proportions of its
parts, and its treatment as a whole.
Its _material_ may be vellum, parchment, or paper, on which a variety
of pens, brushes, and other tools, with inks, colours, and metal
foils, may be employed. Its _office_ may be “useful” or “ornamental”;
its contents may be long or short, weighty or light, and of greater
or less worth; it may be for public or for private use; and the book
may be intended to be placed on a lectern, to be held in the hand, or
to be carried in a coat pocket.
In following out such natural indications, the [p101] practised
craftsman relies greatly on his working methods, preferring a
direct mode of treatment to one which is too ingenious or subtle.
In deciding a doubtful point, a common-sense of proportion is a
sufficient guide, and one may generally assume that great works are
best “writ large,” and that large letters look best on an ample page,
and _vice versâ_.
The main proportions which have to be considered are interdependent,
and follow one another in their natural order (see p. 256), thus—
1. _The size and shape of the book._
2. _The widths of the margins._
3. _The size of the writing_, &c.
And the methodical scribe makes his books of certain definite and
regular sizes, each size having corresponding and regular proportions
of margins and writing. Though these may greatly depend on individual
taste and experience, it is suggested that—like all good designs—they
should be allowed as far as possible to _settle and arrange
themselves_.
THE SIZE & SHAPE OF THE BOOK
A book is thought of by the scribe chiefly as an open book, and
the width and height of its pages are chosen with a view to its
convenient shape and pleasant appearance when open. The most
economical sizes into which a suitable sheet of paper can be folded
(or a skin of parchment can be cut) may commonly be allowed to decide
these proportions.
When a printer is about to print a book he chooses a sheet of paper
which will fold into a suitable shape and size. If the sheet be
folded [p102] once to form two leaves, the book is called a _folio_
(fig. 69); folded again to form a “_section_” of four leaves—a
_quarto_ (4to); or folded a third time to form a _section_ of eight
leaves—an _octavo_ (8vo).[18] [p103] The book is made up of a number
of sections sewn on to strings or tapes (see p. 347).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 69.›]
The penman will find that, besides saving time and labour, it
conduces to good work if he keep to certain regular sizes for
“large,” “medium,” and “small” books; and, if the ordinary sheets of
paper which he uses will fold in convenient _folio_, _quarto_, and
_octavo_ sizes, it is well that he make these his standards for paper
books.
Paper being made in sheets of various dimensions, by folding a large
or a small sheet, a “large” or “small” folio—4to, 8vo—can be obtained.
It may be noted that the length and the width of sheets of paper[19]
are very commonly _about as 9 is to 7_. And therefore, when the sheet
is folded for _folio_ or _octavo_, the proportions are roughly about
7: 4-1/2, which are very good proportions for a page of a book. It is
obvious that a narrow (“_upright_”) book is easier to handle and more
pleasant in appearance (when open) than an album or “_oblong_” shape
of book (_b_ and _c_, fig. 70).
THE WIDTHS OF THE MARGINS
Margins are necessary in order to isolate and frame a text: thus
they contribute to its legibility and beauty. It is better that
they be wide rather than narrow (see p. 106, & ‹Note›, p. 265); but
_excessively_ wide margins are often neither convenient nor pleasing
(see p. 222).
The “page” or column of text should be in such proportion to the page
of the book, and be placed on it in such a way as to leave adequate
[p104] margins on every side. A narrow column of text is generally
best, for short lines are easiest to write and to read, and do not
tire the hand, _or the eye_, in passing from one line to the next.
For this reason the text is often divided into two or more columns
when the page is wide, or the writing is very small _in comparison_.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 70.›]
The exact proportion of margin to text in a given page depends
on circumstances, and is largely a matter of taste (ex. fig. 71
& note 2, _b_, p. 256). But just as it is advantageous generally
to keep to certain [p106] sizes of pages, it is well to keep to
certain—_corresponding_—sizes of margins for regular use.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 71.›—Diagram showing the ruling of a (_Recto_)
page 4-3/4 inches × 7-1/4 inches as for a manuscript book (allowing
five or six words to the _Writing-line_). There are fifteen
Writing-lines, the _Line-space_ being 5/16 inch.
The proportions of large CAPITALS, shown above, are set by the
Line-space (_footnote_, p. 221).
The Foot margin is 1-7/8 inch.]
_The proportions of the margins to each other_ follow a sort of
tradition (see fig. 70), the foot margin (4) usually being twice
as wide as that at the top (2), the side margins generally greater
than the top and less than the foot. The two pages of an _opening_
may be viewed as one sheet having two columns of text; and the two
inner margins, which combine to form an interspace, are therefore
made narrow (about 1-1/2 each), so that together they are about equal
to one side margin (fig. 70). These proportions (1-1/2: 2: 3: 4)
approximate to the proportions common in early MSS.
Sufficient and proportional margins add greatly to the usefulness
and beauty of a book. That the writers and illuminators used them
when books were read and valued in a way we can scarcely realise now,
shows that such things are not, as some might suppose, a matter of
affectation. Besides the natural fitness of the common proportions
commends them: a deep foot margin is a foundation to the whole, and
gives a spare piece for the reader to hold,[20] and wide side margins
rest the eyes and keep the text from “_running off the page_” at the
end of each line; and (the _two_) narrow inner margins combine to
separate the pages sufficiently, but not too far, so that they form
two “columns” together, _framed_ by the outer margins of the open
book.
When books are meant to be bound, from 1/16 inch to 1/8 inch extra
margin should be allowed _all round_ the page for the cutting down
and binding. The [p107] binding is apt to encroach on the inner
margins, especially in vellum books, which do not open fully; in
order, therefore, that the inner margins may keep their proper width,
an extra width of 1/8 to 1/4 inch (according to the stiffness of the
material) is allowed.
THE SIZE OF THE WRITING, &C.
The shape, size, and margins of the page (already settled) together
determine the length of the _writing-line_ (see fig. 71); and the
_size of the writing_ should be such as will allow a reasonable
number of words to that line.[21]
Eight or nine words to the line is a common proportion in ordinary
printed books, and may be taken by the scribe as his ordinary
_maximum_. Lines having very many words are difficult to read.
On the other hand, lines of only two or three words each are
generally tiresome, though they may be allowed in special cases of
_fine writing_ (see p. 262), where it is less necessary to economise
space or time, and the effect of an even mass is not desired. But in
any case where there is an attempt to make the right-hand edge of the
text approximately even, at least four or five words to the line are
necessary; the scribe may therefore take four words per line as his
ordinary _minimum_.
We may say generally, then, that _an ordinary manuscript book
should contain between four and eight words (or between 25 and 50
letter-spaces) to the line_. [p108]
The exact size of the writing allowed in a given case may be found by
a process of guess and trial, but this is seldom necessary for the
practical scribe who uses regular sizes for regular occasions.
_The line spacing._—The size of the letter determines approximately
the distance apart of the writing-lines (see pp. 79, 327). Much
depends on whether the _ascending_ and _descending_ letters are long
or short (see fig. 154).
_The number of writing-lines to the page_ equals the number of times
that the _line-space_ is contained in the _text-column_ (_i.e._ the
height of the page less the top and foot margins)—allowing for the
top line not requiring a full space (see fig. 71). Any fractional
space left over may be added to the foot margin, or, if nearly equal
to one line-space, a little may be taken from the margins to complete
it.
_The Large Capitals_ are commonly _one_, _two_, or _more_ of the
line-spaces in height (fig. 71, & p. 128).
RULING
Having folded and cut the large sheet of paper into small (book)
sheets of the size determined on, take one of these as a pattern and
rule it throughout as if it were to be used in the book.
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 72.›]
The ruling stylus has a blunt point, which indents the paper, but
does not scratch it. A stout pin bent to a claw shape and held in a
piece of wood does very well (fig. 72). [p109]
Under the writing paper there should be a “pad” of ordinary paper (or
blotting paper).
The marginal lines are ruled from head to foot of each leaf (_a_,
fig. 73). Besides being a guide for the writing, they give an
appearance of straightness and strength to the written page.[22]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 73.›]
The writing lines are ruled across, between the marginal lines, their
places having been indicated by equidistant dots (_b_, fig. 73).
A dozen or more of the small sheets of the book are piled together on
a board _with their top edges exactly coinciding_, and the pattern
sheet is accurately placed on the top of the pile. The pile of sheets
may be fixed by a narrow piece of wood placed across and screwed down
(fig. 74). (See _Addenda_, p. 25.)
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 74.›]
The writing line dots are [p110] pricked through all the sheets by
means of a fine awl or needle set in a wooden handle (fig. 75).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 75.›]
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 76.›]
The writing lines are ruled as in fig. 76 (sometimes across the
narrow inner margins).
[Illustration: ‹Fig. 77.›]
For double writing lines a double-ruling stylus may be made of two
pins fixed in a wooden handle at the exact width of the _writing
gauge_ (fig. 77).
MS. BOOKS—GENERAL REMARKS
_Sections_ (p. 102).—A _section_, or “_gathering_,” commonly consists
of four book-sheets, folded in half into eight leaves (_i.e._ sixteen
_pages_), but _three_ or even _two_ sheets are sufficient when they
are extra thick, and _five_ or _six_ may be used when extra thin.
Parchment sheets should have their smooth sides so placed together
that each “opening” of the book has both its pages rough or both
smooth and the pages are _pounced_ after they are ruled (see p. 174).
Before the writing is begun the pages of the section are numbered
on the inner marginal line, [p111] about 1/2 inch or so below the
footline. This will prevent mistakes.
_Fly-leaves._—One or more leaves of the first and last sections in
a book are left blank (besides the extra sheet or section (p. 346)
which is used in the binding—attached to the cover). A book of any
size or importance ought to have at least three fly-leaves at the
beginning, and three or four at the end. These extra leaves protect
the manuscript, and, in a sense, constitute _margins_ for the whole
body of the text. They may also be used to make thin books thicker,
for the sake of the binding. At the end of Service books, or other
books likely to be of permanent interest, additional fly-leaves
should be provided for notes and annotations (see pp. 344, 346).
_Rough or Smooth Edges._—The rough “_Deckle_” edges of hand-made
paper are inconvenient in a book of any thickness, and should be
trimmed off after folding, though they may be left in the case of
very thin books. The deckle edge should not occur at the top of
the page, as it would there be a trap for dust, and because it is
important that the tops of pages should all be level. The top edge
or head of a book is often cut and gilt in order to keep out the
dust—this is called “_Library gilt_.” It is more suitable, however,
that _all_ the edges be gilt.
_The Top Margins_ throughout the book are kept quite level. Any
irregularity at the top of a page catches the eye at once, while
slight differences at the side, or considerable differences at the
foot, may occur without spoiling the appearance of the margins. All
measurements for marginal and writing lines, &c., are therefore made
from the [p112] _fold_ of the book-sheet and from the top edge,
which is cut at right angles to the fold.
_Regular Writing._—In writing one page it is a good plan to have its
fellow page, or a similarly written one, fixed on the desk beside
it as a pattern. This will save the beginner from a very common
error—writing larger or smaller (which of course spoils the look of
the pages).
_Initial Page._—The text of a book commonly begins on a _recto_, or
right hand, page (see p. 365).