[1] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Mir Padshah, Tahsildar
of Bilaspur, and Kanhya Lal, clerk in the Gazetteer office.
[2] _Basi_ or rice boiled in water the previous day.
[3] A measure containing about 2 1/2 lbs. of grain.
[4] This article is mainly compiled from papers by the late
Mr. Baikunth Nath Pujari, Extra Assistant Commissioner, Sambalpur;
Sitaram, Head Master of the Raigarh English School, and Kanhya Lal,
clerk in the Gazetteer office.
[5] Now transferred to Bengal.
[6] Dalton's _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 322.
[7] This article is mainly based on a paper on _Aghoris
and Aghorpanthis_, by Mr. H. W. Barrow, in the _Journal
Anthr. Soc. Bombay_, iii. p. 197.
[8] Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 392.
[9] _Aghoris and Aghorpanthis_, pp. 224, 226.
[10] Page 208.
[11] _The Tribune_ (Lahore), November 29, 1898, quoted in Oman's
_Mystics, Ascetics and Saints of India_, pp. 164, 165.
[12] _Studies of Indian Life and Sentiment_, p. 44.
[13] The information about birth customs in this article is from a
paper by Mr. Kalika Prasad, Tahsildar, Raj-Nandgaon State.
[14] _Go_, _gau_ or _gai_, an ox or cow, and _pal_ or _palak_,
guardian.
[15] _Ind. Ant._ (Jan. 1911), 'Foreign Elements in the Hindu
Population,' by Mr. D. R. Bhandarkar.
[16] Elliot, _Supplemental Glossary_, _s.v._ Ahir.
[17] _Early History of India_, 3rd ed. p. 286.
[18] Elliot, _ibidem._
[19] _Bombay Monograph on Ahir._
[20] Elliot, _ibidem._
[21] _Central Provinces Gazetteer_ (1871), Introduction.
[22] _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. ix. part ii. p. 50.
[23] _Bombay Ethnographic Survey._
[24] Quoted in _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Goala.
[25] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 639.
[26] Gokul was the place where Krishna was brought up, and the
Gokulastha Gosains are his special devotees.
[27] _Behind the Bungalow._
[28] _Eastern India_, ii. p. 467.
[29] Buchanan, _Eastern India_, ii. pp. 924, 943.
[30] This article is mainly based on a paper by Mr. W. S. Slaney,
E.A.C., Akola.
[31] _Berar Census Report_ (1881).
[32] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Arakh.
[33] _Cajanus indicus._
[34] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 157.
[35] Based on papers by Mr. Bijai Bahadur Royzada, Naib-Tahsildar
Hinganghat, and Munshi Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer office.
[36] A preparation of raisins and other fruits and rice.
[37] The ordinary tola is a rupee weight or two-fifths of an ounce.
[38] _Jasminum zambac._
[39] _Michelia champaca._
[40] _Phyllanthus emblica._
[41] _Report on the Badhak or Bagri Dacoits and the Measures adopted
by the Government of India for their Suppression_, printed in 1849.
[42] Sleeman, p. 10.
[43] Sleeman, p. 10.
[44] Sleeman, p. 57.
[45] Sleeman, p. 95.
[46] Sleeman, p. 231.
[47] Sleeman, p. 217.
[48] Sleeman, p. 20.
[49] Sleeman, p. 21.
[50] Sleeman, p. 81.
[51] Sleeman, p. 82.
[52] Sleeman, p. 152.
[53] Sleeman, p. 127. This passage is from a letter written by a
magistrate, Mr. Ramsay.
[54] Sleeman, p. 129.
[55] Sleeman, p. 112.
[56] Sleeman, p. 124.
[57] Sleeman, p. 125.
[58] Sleeman, p. 147.
[59] Sleeman, p. 104.
[60] Sleeman, p. 110.
[61] Sleeman, p. 131.
[62] Sleeman, p. 205.
[63] Sleeman, p. 106.
[64] Malcolm's _Memoir of Central India_, ii. p. 479.
[65] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bawaria.
[66] _Sirsa Settlement Report._
[67] It would appear that the Gujarat Vaghris are a distinct class
from the criminal section of the tribe.
[68] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Gujarat Hindus_, p. 514.
[69] Art. Bawaria, quoting from _North Indian Notes and Queries_,
i. 51.
[70] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 574.
[71] Gunthorpe's _Criminal Tribes_.
[72] _Criminal Classes in the Bombay Presidency_, p. 151.
[73] Gunthorpe's _Criminal Tribes_, art. Badhak.
[74] _C. P. Police Lectures_, art. Badhak.
[75] Art. Bawaria, para. 12.
[76] _Criminal Classes in the Bombay Presidency_, p. 179.
[77] Kennedy, _loc. cit._ p. 208.
[78] Kennedy, _loc. cit._ p. 185.
[79] This article is partly based on a paper by Munshi Kanhya Lal of
the Gazetteer office.
[80] Sir B. Robertson's _C.P. Census Report_ (1891), p. 203.
[81] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), paras. 646, 647.
[82] _Nasik Gazetteer_, pp. 84, 85.
[83] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bahna.
[84] The word Achera is merely a jingle put in to make the rhyme
complete.
Kachera is a maker of glass bangles.
[85] This article is based largely on a monograph by the
Rev. J. Lampard, missionary, Baihar, and also on papers by Muhammad
Hanif Siddiqi, forest ranger, Bilaspur, and Mr. Muhammad Ali Haqqani,
B.A., Tahsildar, Dindori. Some extracts have been made from Colonel
Ward's _Mandla Settlement Report_ (1869), and from Colonel Bloomfield's
_Notes on the Baigas_.
[86] In Bengal the Bhumia or Bhumij are an important tribe.
[87] Colonel Ward's _Mandla Settlement Report_ (1868-69), p. 153.
[88] _Shorea robusta._
[89] Jarrett's _Ain-i-Akbari_, vol. ii. p. 196.
[90] Colonel Ward gives the bride's house as among the Gonds. But
inquiry in Mandla shows that if this custom formerly existed it has
been abandoned.
[91] Forsyth's _Highlands of Central India_, p. 377.
[92] The Great God. The Gonds also worship Bura Deo, resident in a
_saj_ tree.
[93] Opened in 1905.
[94] _Mandla Settlement Report_ (1868-69), p. 153.
[95] _Notes on the Baigas_, p. 4.
[96] Mr. Lampard's monograph.
[97] Farthings.
[98] This article contains material from Sir E. Maclagan's _Punjab
Census Report_ (1891), and Dr. J. N. Bhattacharya's _Hindu Castes
and Sects_ (Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta).
[99] _Dictionary_, s.v.
[100] Sir E. Maclagan's _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), p. 122.
[101] _Memoir of Mathura._
[102] _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 449.
[103] Lit. the birth on the eighth day, as Krishna was born on the
8th of dark Bhadon.
[104] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Vallabhacharya.
[105] _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 457.
[106] From _laskkar_, an army.
[107] This paragraph is taken from Professor Wilson's _Account of
Hindu Sects in the Asiatic Researches_.
[108] This article is based on papers by Mr. Habib Ullah, Pleader,
Burhanpur, Mr. W. Bagley, Subdivisional Officer, and Munsh Kanhya Lal,
of the Gazetteer office.
[109] This legend is probably a vague reminiscence of the historical
fact that a Malwa army was misled by a Gond guide in the Nimar forests
and cut up by the local Muhammadan ruler. The well-known Raja Man of
Jodhpur was, it is believed, never in Nimar.
[110] The _ghat_ or river-bank for the disposal of corpses.
[111] _Madras Census Report_ (1891), p. 277.
[112] _Ibidem_ (1891), p. 226.
[113] _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, p. 16.
[114] _Madras Census Report_ (1891), p. 277.
[115] See para. 19 below.
[116] See commencement of article.
[117] _C.P. Census Report_ (1911), Occupation Chapter, Subsidiary
Table I. p. 234.
[118] For examples, the subordinate articles on Agarwal, Oswal,
Maheshri, Khandelwal, Lad, Agrahari, Ajudhiabasi, and Srimali may be
consulted. The census lists contain numerous other territorial names.
[119] _Rajasthan_, i. pp. 76, 109.
[120] That is Marwar. But perhaps the term here is used in the wider
sense of Rajputana.
[121] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 145.
[122] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), p. 293.
[123] _Supplemental Glossary_, p. 110.
[124] _Rasmala_, i. pp. 240, 243.
[125] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 360.
[126] _Ibid._ ii. p. 240.
[127] The Parwars probably belonged originally to Rajputana; see
subordinate article.
[128] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 491.
[129] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 80.
[130] The common brass drinking-vessel.
[131] Sir H. H. Risley's _Peoples of India_, p. 127, and Appendix
I. p. 8.
[132] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), p. 291.
[133] _Nagpur Settlement Report_ (1900), para. 54.
[134] _Nagpur Settlement Report_ (1900), para. 54.
[135] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Agarwala.
[136] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Agarwala.
[137] The information on this subcaste is taken from Mr. Crooke's
article on it in his _Tribes and Castes_.
[138] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Audhia.
[139] Kennedy's _Criminal Classes of the Bombay Presidency_,
art. Audhia.
[140] Kennedy, _ibidem._
[141] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Audhia.
[142] _United Provinces Census Report_ (1901), p. 220.
[143] Atkinson, _Himalayan Gazetteer_, ii. p. 473, quoted in
Mr. Crooke's article Dhusar.
[144] Sherring, _Hindu Castes_, i. p. 293.
[145] This account is based on a paper furnished by Mr. Jeorakhan Lal,
Deputy Inspector of Schools, Bilaspur.
[146] Kashyap was a Brahman saint, but the name is perhaps derived
from Kachhap, a tortoise.
[147] This article is mainly based on a paper by Mr. Pancham Lal,
Naib-Tahsildar Sihora.
[148] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Gahoi.
[149] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Golahre.
[150] The above notice is partly based on a paper by Mr. Sant Prasad,
schoolmaster, Nandgaon.
[151] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Kasaundhan.
[152] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Khandelwal.
[153] _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 209.
[154] See article Bairagi for some notice of the sect.
[155] See separate article on Jangam.
[156] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 70.
[157] A town near Jhalor in Marwar, now called Bhinmal.
[158] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 97.
[159] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 210, footnote.
[160] _Hindus of Gujarat_, _loc. cit._, and _Bombay Gazetteer_,
xvi. 45.
[161] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Oswal.
[162] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xvii. p. 51.
[163] _Ibidem._
[164] Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 207.
[165] This article is based on papers by Mr. Pancham Lal,
Naib-Tahsildar Sihora, and Munshi Kanhya Lal, of the Gazetteer office.
[166] See also notice of Benaikias in article on Vidur.
[167] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xvii. p. 81.
[168] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 99.
[169] _Ibidem._
[170] _Ibidem._ p. 98.
[171] _Merinda citrifolia_, see art. Alia.
[172] See article.
[173] This article is based principally on a _Monograph on the Banjara
Clan_, by Mr. N. F. Cumberlege of the Berar Police, believed to have
been first written in 1869 and reprinted in 1882; notes on the Banjaras
written by Colonel Mackenzie and printed in the _Berar Census Report_
(1881) and the _Pioneer_ newspaper (communicated by Mrs. Horsburgh);
Major Gunthorpe's _Criminal Tribes_; papers by Mr. M. E. Khare,
Extra-Assistant Commissioner, Chanda; Mr. Narayan Rao, Tahr., Betul;
Mr. Mukund Rao, Manager, Pachmarhi Estate; and information on the
caste collected in Yeotmal and Nimar.
[174] Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Banjara, para. 1.
[175] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 150.
[176] _Ibidem_, para. 2, quoting Dowson's Elliot, v. 100.
[177] Khan Bahadur Fazalullah Lutfullah Faridi in the _Bombay
Gazetteer_ (_Muhammadans of Gujarat_, p. 86) quoting from General
Briggs (_Transactions Bombay Literary Society_, vol. i. 183) says
that "as carriers of grain for Muhammadan armies the Banjaras have
figured in history from the days of Muhammad Tughlak (A.D. 1340)
to those of Aurangzeb."
[178] Sir H. M. Elliot's _Supplemental Glossary_.
[179] _Monograph on the Banjara Clan_, p. 8.
[180] _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 214 _et seq._
[181] _Rajasthan_, i. 602.
[182] _Ibidem_, ii. 570, 573.
[183] This custom does not necessarily indicate a special connection
between the Banjaras and Charans, as it is common to several
castes in Rajputana; but it indicates that the Banjaras came from
Rajputana. Banjara men also frequently wear the hair long, down to
the neck, which is another custom of Rajputana.
[184] _Jungle Life in India_, p. 517.
[185] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 152.
[186] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat._
[187] _Letter on the Marathas_ (1798), p. 67, _India Office Tracts._
[188] _Army of the Indian Mughals_, p. 192.
[189] _Monograph_, p. 14, and _Berar Census Report_ (1881) (Kitts),
p. 151.
[190] These are held to have been descendants of the Bhika Rathor
referred to by Colonel Mackenzie above.
[191] See note 3, p. 168.
[192] General Briggs quoted by Mr. Faridi in _Bombay Gazetteer,
Muhammadans of Gujarat_, p. 86.
[193] A. Wellesley (1800), quoted in Mr. Crooke's edition of
_Hobson-Jobson_, art. Brinjarry.
[194] Cumberlege, _loc. cit._
[195] Cumberlege, pp. 28, 29.
[196] Elliot's _Races_, quoted by Mr. Crooke, _ibidem._
[197] Cumberlege, pp. 4, 5.
[198] Cumberlege, _l.c._
[199] This custom is noticed in the article on Khairwar.
[200] Cumberlege, p. 18.
[201] Mr. Hira Lal suggests that this custom may have something to
do with the phrase _Athara jat ke gayi_, or 'She has gone to the
eighteen castes,' used of a woman who has been turned out of the
community. This phrase seems, however, to be a euphemism, eighteen
castes being a term of indefinite multitude for any or no caste. The
number eighteen may be selected from the same unknown association
which causes the goat to be cut into eighteen pieces.
[202] _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, p. 344, quoting from
Moor's _Narrative of Little's Detachment_.
[203] Cumberlege, p. 35.
[204] _Berar Census Report_, 1881.
[205] Cumberlege, p. 21.
[206] The following instance is taken from Mr. Balfour's article,
'Migratory Tribes of Central India,' in _J. A. S. B._, new series,
vol. xiii., quoted in Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_.
[207] From the Sanskrit Hatya-adhya, meaning 'That which it is most
sinful to slay' (Balfour).
[208] _Monograph_, p. 12.
[209] _Asiatic Studies_, i. p. 118 (ed. 1899).
[210] Cumberlege, p. 23 _et seq._ The description of witchcraft is
wholly reproduced from his _Monograph_.
[211] His motive being the fine inflicted on the witch's family.
[212] The fruit of _Buchanania latifolia_.
[213] _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, p. 507, quoting from
the Rev. J. Cain, _Ind. Ant._ viii. (1879).
[214] _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, p. 70.
[215] _Monograph_, p. 19.
[216] The Patwas are weavers of silk thread and the Nunias are masons
and navvies.
[217] An impure caste of weavers, ranking with the Mahars.
[218] _Semecarpus Anacardium._
[219] Malcolm, _Memoir of Central India_, ii. p. 296.
[220] Cumberlege, p. 16.
[221] Small double shells which are still used to a slight extent as
a currency in backward tracts. This would seem an impossibly cumbrous
method of carrying money about nowadays, but I have been informed by
a comparatively young official that in his father's time, change for
a rupee could not be had in Chhattisgarh outside the two principal
towns. As the cowries were a form of currency they were probably
held sacred, and hence sewn on to clothes as a charm, just as gold
and silver are used for ornaments.
[222] _Jungle Life in India_, p. 516.
[223] Brewer's _Dictionary of Phrase and Fable_ contains the following
notice of horns as an article of dress: "Mr. Buckingham says of a
Tyrian lady, 'She wore on her head a hollow silver horn rearing itself
up obliquely from the forehead. It was some four inches in diameter at
the root and pointed at the extremity. This peculiarity reminded me
forcibly of the expression of the Psalmist: "Lift not up your horn on
high; speak not with a stiff neck. All the horns of the wicked also
will I cut off, but the horns of the righteous shall be exalted"
(Ps. lxxv. 5, 10).' Bruce found in Abyssinia the silver horns of
warriors and distinguished men. In the reign of Henry V. the horned
headgear was introduced into England and from the effigy of Beatrice,
Countess of Arundel, at Arundel Church, who is represented with the
horns outspread to a great extent, we may infer that the length of
the head-horn, like the length of the shoe-point in the reign of Henry
VI., etc., marked the degree of rank. To cut off such horns would be
to degrade; and to exalt and extend such horns would be to add honour
and dignity to the wearer." Webb (_Heritage of Dress_, p. 117) writes:
"Mr. Elworthy in a paper to the British Association at Ipswich in
1865 considered the crown to be a development from horns of honour. He
maintained that the symbols found in the head of the god Serapis were
the elements from which were formed the composite head-dress called
the crown into which horns entered to a very great extent." This
seems a doubtful speculation, but still it may be quite possible
that the idea of distinguishing by a crown the leader of the tribe
was originally taken from the antlers of the leader of the herd. The
helmets of the Vikings were also, I believe, decorated with horns.
[224] _Monograph_, p. 40.
[225] _Melia indica._
[226] Author of the _Nimar Settlement Report_.
[227] _Sesamum._
[228] _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, p. 21.
[229] _Report on the Badhak or Bagri Dacoits_, p. 310.
[230] Colonel Mackenzie's notes.
[231] Mr. W. F. Sinclair, C.S., in _Ind. Ant._ iii. p. 184 (1874).
[232] _Notes on Criminal Tribes frequenting Bombay, Berar and the
Central Provinces_ (Bombay, 1882).
[233] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 151.
[234] This notice is compiled principally from a good paper
by Mr. M. C. Chatterji, retired Extra Assistant Commissioner,
Jubbulpore, and from papers by Professor Sada Shiva Jai Ram, M.A.,
Government College, Jubbulpore, and Mr. Bhaskar Baji Rao Deshmukh,
Deputy Inspector of Schools, Nagpur.
[235] Sherring, _Hindu Tribes and Castes_, i. p. 330. Nesfield,
_Brief View_, p. 15. _N.W.P. Census Report_ (1891), p 317.
[236] The name of a superior revenue office; under the Marathas,
now borne as a courtesy title by certain families.
[237] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Agarwal.
[238] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Barui.
[239] Blochmann, _Ain-i-Akbari_, i. p. 72, quoted in Crooke's _Tribes
and Castes_, art. Tamboli.
[240] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 210.
[241] _Ficus glomerata._
[242] _Hindu Castes_, i. p. 316.
[243] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Bari.
[244] Vishnu.
[245] Sherring, _Tribes and Castes_, i. pp. 403, 404.
[246] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. W. N. Maw, Deputy
Commissioner, Damoh, and Murlidhar, Munsiff of Khurai in Saugor.
[247] _Bombay Gazetteer_, xvii. p. 108.
[248] About 100 lbs.
[249] Compiled from papers by Mr. Ram Lal, B. A., Deputy Inspector of
Schools, Saugor; Mr. Vishnu Gangadhar Gadgil, Tahsildar, Narsinghpur;
Mr. Devi Dayal, Tahsildar, Hatta; Mr. Kanhya Lal, B. A., Deputy
Inspector of Schools, Betul; Mr. Keshava Rao, Headmaster, Middle
School, Seoni; and Bapu Gulab Singh, Superintendent, Land Records,
Betul.
[250] Chapter x. 37, and Shudra Kamlakar, p. 284.
[251] A Vaideha was the child of a Vaishya father and a Brahman mother.
[252] Based on a paper by Rao Sahib Dhonduji, retired Inspector of
Police, Akola, and information collected by Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of
the Gazetteer office.
[253] Mr. Marten's _C. P. Census Report_ (1911), p. 212.
[254] This article is based on papers by Mr. A. K. Smith, C.S.,
Mr. Khande Rao, Superintendent of Land Records, Raipur, and Munshi
Kanhiya Lal, of the Gazetteer office.
[255] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Beldar.
[256] _The Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, art. Odde.
[257] _Akola District Gazetteer_ (Mr. C. Brown), pp. 132, 133.
[258] _Amraoti District Gazetteer_ (Messrs. Nelson and Fitzgerald),
p. 146.
[259] See article on Badhak.
[260] Kennedy, p. 247.
[261] Crooke, art. Beria.
[262] The following particulars are taken from a note by
Mr. K. N. Date, Deputy Superintendent, Reformatory School, Jubbulpore.
[263] This article is based principally on a paper by Panna Lal,
Revenue Inspector, Bilaspur, and also on papers by Mr. Syed Sher Ali,
Naib-Tahsildar, Mr. Hira Lal and Mr. Aduram Chaudhri of the Gazetteer
office.
[264] For the meaning of the term Baiga and its application to the
tribe, see also article on Bhuiya.
[265] It is or was, of course, a common practice for a husband to
cut off his wife's nose if he suspected her of being unfaithful to
him. But whether the application of the epithet to the goddess should
be taken to imply anything against her moral character is not known.
[266] This article is mainly compiled from a paper by Pyare Lal Misra,
Ethnographic Clerk.
[267] _Bombay Gazetteer_ (Campbell), xviii. p. 464.
[268] The following particulars are taken from Colonel Portman's
_Report on the Bhamtas of the Deccan_ (Bombay, 1887).
[269] Portman, _loc. cit._
[270] _Bombay Gazetteer_ (Campbell), xviii. p. 465.
[271] This article contains some information from a paper by Mr. Gopal
Parmanand, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Saugor.
[272] _Memoirs of the Races of the N.W.P._ vol. i. p. 35.
[273] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bharbhunja.
[274] See article on Kurmi. The remainder of this section is taken
from Mr. Gopal Parmanand's notes.
[275] _Ibidem._
[276] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Kandu.
[277] This article is compiled from notes taken by Mr. Hira Lal,
Assistant Gazetteer Superintendent in Jubbulpore, and from a paper
by Ram Lal Sharma, schoolmaster, Bilaspur.
[278] _Tribes and Castes of the N.W.P._, art. Bhar.
[279] _C.P. Census Report_, 1881, p. 188.
[280] _Dhaya_ means the system of shifting cultivation, which until
prohibited was so injurious to the forests.
[281] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Brahman.
[282] Art. Bhat.
[283] Malcolm, _Central India_, ii. p. 132.
[284] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 406.
[285] Malcolm, ii. p. 135.
[286] _Rajasthan_, ii. pp. 133, 134.
[287] Great King, the ordinary method of address to Brahmans.
[288] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 175.
[289] _Rasmala_, ii. pp. 261, 262.
[290] See later in this article.
[291] This present of a lakh of rupees is known as Lakh Pasaru,
and it is not usually given in cash but in kind. It is made up of
grain, land, carriages, jewellery, horses, camels and elephants,
and varies in value from Rs. 30,000 to Rs. 70,000. A living bard,
Mahamahopadhyaya Murar Das, has received three Lakh Pasarus from the
Rajas of Jodhpur and has refused one from the Rana of Udaipur in view
of the fact that he was made _ayachaka_ by the Jodhpur Raja. _Ayachaka_
means literally 'not a beggar,' and when a bard has once been made
_ayachaka_ he cannot accept gifts from any person other than his own
patron. An _ayachaka_ was formerly known as _polpat_, as it became
his bounden duty to sing the praises of his patron constantly from
the gate (_pol_) of the donor's fort or castle. (Mr. Hira Lal.)
[292] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 548.
[293] _Viserva_, lit. poison.
[294] From _dhol_, a drum.
[295] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 184.
[296] Lit. _putli_ or doll.
[297] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhat.
[298] _Ibidem._ Veiling the face is a sign of modesty.
[299] Postans. _Cutch_, p. 172.
[300] Vol. ii. pp. 392-394.
[301] _Rasmala_, ii. pp. 143, 144.
[302] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, Mr. Bhimbhai Kirparam,
pp. 217, 219.
[303] In Broach.
[304] Westermarck, _Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas_,
ii. p. 242.
[305] Westermarck, _ibidem_, p. 246.
[306] Westermarck, _ibidem_, p. 248.
[307] The above account of _Dharna_ is taken from Colonel Tone's
_Letter on the Marathas_ (India Office Tracts).
[308] This article is compiled from papers drawn up by Rai Bahadur
Panda Baijnath, Superintendent, Bastar State; Mr. Ravi Shankar,
Settlement Officer, Bastar; and Mr. Gopal Krishna, Assistant
Superintendent, Bastar.
[309] _Bassia latifolia_.
[310] The principal authorities on the Bhils are: _An Account of the
Mewar Bhils_, by Major P. H. Hendley, _J.A.S.B._ vol. xliv., 1875,
pp. 347-385; the _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. ix., _Hindus of Gujarat_;
and notices in Colonel Tod's _Rajasthan_, Mr. A. L. Forbes's _Rasmala_,
and _The Khandesh Bhil Corps_, by Mr. A. H. A. Simcox, C.S.
[311] The old name of the Sesodia clan, Gahlot, is held to be derived
from this Goha. See the article Rajput Sesodia for a notice of the
real origin of the clan.
[312] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 184.
[313] _Ibidem_, p. 186.
[314] Reference may be made to _The Golden Bough_ for the full
explanation and illustration of this superstition.
[315] _Rajasthan_, ii. pp. 320, 321.
[316] _History of the Marathas_, i. p. 28.
[317] See article.
[318] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 466.
[319] Malcolm, _Memoir of Central India_, i. p. 518.
[320] _An Account of the Bhils, J.A.S.B._ (1875), p. 369.
[321] _Hyderabad Census Report_ (1891), p. 218.
[322] _The Khandesh Bhil Corps_, by Mr A. H. A. Simcox.
[323] Forbes, _Rasmala_, i. p. 104.
[324] _Memoir of Central India_, i. pp. 525, 526.
[325] _Ibidem_, i. p. 550.
[326] _Hobson-Jobson_, art. Bhil.
[327] _An Account of the Bhils_, p. 369.
[328] _The Khandesh Bhil Corps_, p. 71.
[329] _Ibidem_, p. 275.
[330] _Eugenia jambolana._
[331] _Soymida febrifuga._
[332] _Phyllanthus emblica._
[333] _Terminalia belerica._
[334] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 309.
[335] See article Kunbi.
[336] _Sorghum vulgare._
[337] _Loc. cit._ p. 347.
[338] _Western India._
[339] _Asiatic Studies_, 1st series, p. 174.
[340] _Asiatic Studies_, 1st series, p. 352.
[341] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 302.
[342] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xii. p. 87.
[343] _An Account of the Bhils_, pp. 362, 363.
[344] _Account of the Mewar Bhils_, pp. 357, 358.
[345] Forbes, _Rasmala_, i. p. 113.
[346] _Nimar Settlement Report_, pp. 246, 247.
[347] Sir G. Grierson, _Linguistic Survey of India_, vol. ix. part
iii. pp. 6-9.
[348] This article is based mainly on Captain Forsyth's _Nimar
Settlement Report_, and a paper by Mr. T. T. Korke, Pleader, Khandwa.
[349] _Eugenia jambolana._
[350] _Bauhinia racemosa._
[351] _Settlement Report_ (1869), para. 411.
[352] Mr. Montgomerie's _Nimar Settlement Report_.
[353] _Memoir of Central India_, ii. p. 156.
[354] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhishti.
[355] Elliott's _Memoirs of the North-Western Provinces_, i. p. 191.
[356] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, ii. p. 100.
[357] Rudyard Kipling, _Barrack-Room Ballads_, 'Gunga Din.'
[358] Thacker and Co., London.
[359] This article is mainly compiled from papers by Mr. Pandurang
Lakshman Bakre, pleader, Betul, and Munshi Pyare Lal, ethnographic
clerk.
[360] This article is compiled partly from Colonel Dalton's _Ethnology
of Bengal_ and Sir H. Risley's _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_; a
monograph has also been furnished by Mr. B. C. Mazumdar, pleader,
Sambalpur, and papers by Mr. A. B. Napier, Deputy Commissioner,
Raipur, and Mr. Hira Lal.
[361] _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 140.
[362] _Linguistic Survey_, vol. xiv. _Munda and Dravidian Languages_,
p. 217.
[363] Page 142.
[364] _Ibidem_, p. 141.
[365] In the article on Binjhwar, it was supposed that the Baigas
migrated east from the Satpura hills into Chhattisgarh. But the
evidence adduced above appears to show that this view is incorrect.
[366] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Binjhia.
[367] Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, art. Bhuiya, para. 4.
[368] _Ibidem_, para. 3.
[369] _Ibidem_, art. Bhuiyar, para. 1.
[370] _Ibidem_, para. 16.
[371] Dalton, p. 147.
[372] Page 142.
[373] The question of the relation of the Baiga tribe to Mr. Crooke's
Bhuiyars was first raised by Mr. E. A. H. Blunt, Census Superintendent,
United Provinces.
[374] Mr. Mazumdar's monograph.
[375] From Mr. Mazumdar's monograph.
[376] This article is compiled from a paper taken by Mr. Hira Lal
at Sonpur.
[377] This article is based on papers by Mr. Hira Lal, Mr. Gokul
Prasad, Tahsildar, Dhamtari, Mr. Pyare Lal Misra of the Gazetteer
office, and Munshi Ganpati Giri, Superintendent, Bindranawagarh estate.
[378] From the _Index of Languages and Dialects_, furnished by Sir
G. Grierson for the census.
[379] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Binjhia.
[380] _Early History of Mankind_, p. 341.
[381] This article is based on a paper by Mr. Mian Bhai Abdul Hussain,
Extra Assistant Commissioner, Sambalpur.
[382] _Bassia latifolia_.
[383] This article is compiled from Mr. Wilson's account of the
Bishnois as reproduced in Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, and from
notes taken by Mr. Aduram Chaudhri in the Hoshangabad District.
[384] The total number of precepts as given above is only twenty-five,
but can be raised to twenty-nine by counting the prohibition of opium,
tobacco, _bhang_, blue clothing, spirits and flesh separately.
[385] Jhuria may be Jharia, jungly; Sain is a term applied to beggars;
the Ahir or herdsman sept may be descended from a man of this caste
who became a Bishnoi.
[386] The day when the sun passes from one zodiacal sign into another.
[387] The New Moon day or the day before.
[388] This article is largely based on Mr. F. L. Faridi's full
description of the sect in the _Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of
Gujarat_, and on a paper by Mr. Habib Ullah, pleader, Burhanpur.
[389] _Bombay Gazetteer, Muhammadans of Gujarat_, p. 30. Sir
H. T. Colebrooke and Mr. Conolly thought that the Bohras were true
Shias and not Ismailias.
[390] _Ibidem_, pp. 30-32.
[391] _J.A.S.B._ vol. vi. (1837), part ii. p. 847.
[392] _Berar Census Report_ (1818), p. 70.
[393] _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_, art. Bohra.
[394] Crooke's edition of _Hobson-Jobson_, art. Bohra.
[395] Moor's _Hindu Infanticide_, p. 168.
[396] _Memoir of Central India_, ii. p. 111.
[397] This article is mainly compiled from a full and excellent account
of the caste by Mr. Gopal Datta Joshi, Civil Judge, Saugor, C.P., to
whom the writer is much indebted. Extracts have also been taken from
Mr. W. Crooke's and Sir H. Risley's articles on the caste in their
works on the _Tribes and Castes_ of the United Provinces and Bengal
respectively; from Mr. J. N. Bhattacharya's _Hindu Castes and Sects_
(Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta, 1896), and from the Rev. W. Ward's
_View of the History, Literature and Religion of the Hindus_ (London,
1817).
[398] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Brahman, quoting Professor
Eggeling in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, s.v. Brahmanism.
[399] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Brahman.
[400] _Hindu Manners, Customs, and Ceremonies_, 3rd ed. p. 172.
[401] Muir, _Ancient Sanskrit Texts_, i. 282 _sq._
[402] Quoted in Mr. Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Brahman.
[403] Quoted by Mr. Crooke.
[404] _Tribes and Castes of the Punjab_, by Mr. H. A. Rose,
vol. ii. p. 123.
[405] See also article Rajput-Gaur.
[406] See subordinate articles.
[407] A section of the Kanaujia. See above.
[408] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Brahman.
[409] Chap. ix. v. 173.
[410] Ward's _Hindus_, vol. ii. p. 97.
[411] _Ibidem_, pp. 98, 100.
[412] _Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies_, by the Abbé Dubois,
3rd ed. p. 499.
[413] _Ibidem_, p. 500.
[414] London, Heinemann (1897), pp. 84-91.
[415] This is the famous Gayatri.
[416] It is not known how a slip-knot and a garland are connected
with any incarnation of Vishnu. For the incarnations see articles
Vaishnava sect.
[417] In the Central Provinces Ganpati is represented by a round
red stone, Surya by a rock crystal or the Swastik sign, Devi by an
image in brass or by a stone brought from her famous temple at Mahur,
and Vishnu by the round black stone or Saligram. Besides these every
Brahman will have a special family god, who may be one of the above
or another deity, as Rama or Krishna.
[418] _Bipracharanamrita._
[419] _Hindu Castes and Sects_, pp. 19-21.
[420] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 487.
[421] _Rajasthan_, i. p. 698.
[422] At that time £12,500 or more, now about £8000.
[423] _Tribes and Castes of the North-West Provinces and Oudh_, s.v.
[424] _Early History of India_, 3rd ed. p. 376.
[425] _Ibidem_, p. 385.
[426] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Kanaujia.
[427] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 11.
[428] _Bombay Gazetteer, Satara_, p. 54.
[429] Bhattacharya, _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 47.
[430] _Ibidem_, p. 48.
[431] From Mr. Gopal Datta Joshi's paper.
[432] _Rasmala_, ii. p. 233.
[433] _Rasmala_, ii. p. 259.
[434] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Sanadhya.
[435] Crooke, _ibidem_, paras. 3 and 6.
[436] _Eastern India_, ii. 472, quoted in Mr. Crooke's art. Sarwaria.
[437] Stirling's description of Orissa in _As. Res_. vol. xv. p. 199,
quoted in _Hindu Castes and Sects_.
[438] _Hindu Castes and Sects_, p. 63.
[439] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Wali Muhammad,
Tahsildar of Khurai, and Kanhya Lal, clerk in the Gazetteer office.
[440] This article is based on the Rev. E. M. Gordon's _Indian
Folk-Tales_ (London, Elliott & Stock, 1908), and the Central
Provinces _Monograph on the Leather Industry_, by Mr. C. G. Chenevix
Trench, C.S.; with extracts from Sir H. H. Risley's and Mr. Crooke's
descriptions of the caste, and from the _Berar Census Report_ (1881);
on information collected for the District Gazetteers; and papers
by Messrs. Durga Prasad Pande, Tahsildar, Raipur; Ram Lal, Deputy
Inspector of Schools, Saugor; Govind Vithal Kane, Naib-Tahsildar,
Wardha; Balkrishna Ramchandra Bakhle, Tahsildar, Mandla; Sitaram,
schoolmaster, Balaghat; and Kanhya Lal of the Gazetteer office. Some
of the material found in Mr. Gordon's book was obtained independently
by the writer in Bilaspur before its publication and is therefore
not specially acknowledged.
[441] There are other genealogies showing the Chamar as the offspring
of various mixed unions.
[442] _Bombay Gazetteer_, vol. xv. Kanara, p. 355.
[443] The Hindus say that there are five classes of women, Padmini,
Hastini, Chitrani and Shunkhini being the first four, and of these
Padmini is the most perfect. No details of the other classes are
given. _Rasmala_, i. p. 160.
[444] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), p. 320.
[445] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Chamar.
[446] _Loc. cit._
[447] From Mr. Gordon's paper.
[448] _Monograph on Leather Industries_, p. 9.
[449] _Ibidem._
[450] See articles on these castes.
[451] _Monograph on Leather Industries_, p. 3.
[452] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 149.
[453] From _mangna_, to beg.
[454] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Chamar.
[455] _Indian Folk-Tales._
[456] _Indian Folk-Tales_, pp. 49, 50.
[457] Shells which were formerly used as money.
[458] _Indian Folk-Tales_, pp. 49, 50.
[459] _Monograph_, p. 3.
[460] _Monograph on Leather Industries_, p. 5.
[461] _Zizyphus xylopera._
[462] _Butea frondosa._
[463] _Anogeissus latifolia._
[464] The above is an abridgment of the description in Mr. Trench's
_Monograph_, to which reference may be made for further details.
[465] _Monograph on the Leather Industries_, pp. 10, 11.
[466] _Melia indica._
[467] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 149.
[468] _Rasmala_, i. 395, quoting from the _Ain-i-Akbari_.
[469] From papers by Mr. Parmeshwar Misra, Settlement Superintendent,
Rairakhol, and Mr. Rasanand, Sireshtedar, Bamra.
[470] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Chasa.
[471] This article is based principally on notes taken by Mr. Hira
Lal at Bhatgaon.
[472] _Bombay Gazetteer_, _Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 178.
[473] A corruption for Viswakarma, the divine artificer and architect.
[474] The story, however, really belongs to northern India. Usha is
the goddess of dawn.
[475] Krishna's mother.
[476] Little white flowers like jasmine. This simile would be unlikely
to occur to the ordinary observer who sees a Hindu child crying.
[477] _Tori balayan leun._ For explanation see above.
[478] Commencement of the agricultural year.
[479] This article is partly based on a paper by Mr. Bijai Bahadur,
Naib-Tahsildar, Balaghat.
[480] _Bombay Ethnographic Survey_, draft article on Chitrakathi.
[481] May-June. The Akhatij is the beginning of the agricultural year.
[482] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), paragraph 206. The passage is
slightly altered and abridged in reproduction.
[483] Vol. ix. part. ii. _Muhammadans of Gujarat_, p. 57.
[484] _Rajasthan_, ii. p. 292.
[485] _Bombay Gazetteer, l.c._
[486] In recording this point Mr. Faridi gives the following note:
"In 1847 a case occurred which shows how firmly the Memans cling
to their original tribal customs. The widow of Haji Nur Muhammad
of the Lakariya family demanded a share of her deceased husband's
property according to Muhammadan law. The _jama-at_ or community
decided that a widow had no claim to share her husband's estates
under the Hindu law. Before the High Court, in spite of the ridicule
of other Sunnis, the elders of the Cutchi Memans declared that their
caste rules denied the widow's claim. The matter caused and is still
(1896) causing agitation, as the doctors of the Sunni law at Mecca
have decided that as the law of inheritance is laid down by the holy
Koran, a wilful departure from it is little short of apostasy. The
Memans are contemplating a change, but so far they have not found
themselves able to depart from their tribal practices."
[487] This article is based on papers by Mr. Vithal Rao,
Naib-Tahsildar, Bilaspur, and Messrs. Kanhya Lal and Pyare Lal Misra
of the Gazetteer office.
[488] Crooke, _Tribes and Castes_, art. Kol.
[489] _Aegle Marmelos._
[490] _Butea frondosa._
[491] _Nag_, a cobra.
[492] Kept woman, a term applied to a widow.
[493] Moor's _Hindu Infanticide_, p. 133.
[494] James Forbes, _Oriental Memoirs_, i. p. 313.
[495] Rajendra Lal Mitra, _Indo-Aryans_, i. p. 263.
[496] _Journal of Indian Art and Industry_, xvi., April 1912, p. 3.
[497] Dr. Jevons, _Introduction to the History of Religion_, p. 60.
[498] _Private Life of an Eastern King_, p. 294.
[499] _Hobson-Jobson, s.v._ 'Roundel.'
[500] Old English manuscript quoted by Sir R. Temple in _Ind. Ant._
(December 1904), p. 316.
[501] _Hobson-Jobson, s.v._ 'Kittysol.'
[502] _Hobson-Jobson, s.v._ 'Roundel.'
[503] _Hobson-Jobson, ibidem._
[504] W. W. Skeat, _The Past at our Doors_.
[505] Skeat, _ibidem_, p. 95.
[506] This article is compiled from papers by Mr. Bahmanji Muncherji,
Extra Assistant Commissioner; Mr. Jeorakhan Lal, Deputy Inspector of
Schools, and Pandit Pyare Lal Misra, ethnographic clerk. The historical
notice is mainly supplied by Mr. Hira Lal.
[507] Tod's _Rajasthan_, i. p. 128.
[508] This article is based on notes taken by Pandit Pyare Lal Misra
in Wardha, and Mr. Hira Lal in Bhandara.
[509] _Proper Names of the Punjabis_, p. 74.
[510] _Punjab Census Report_ (1881), para. 645.
[511] Crooke's _Tribes and Castes_, art. Darzi.
[512] Buchanan's _Eastern India_, Martin's edition, ii. pp. 417, 699.
[513] _Ibidem_, p. 977.
[514] Vol. i. pp. 178-184.
[515] Webb's _Heritage of Dress_, p. 33.
[516] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 180, quoting from
Ovington, _Voyage to Surat_, p. 280.
[517] _Bombay Gazetteer, Hindus of Gujarat_, p. 180.
[518] _Bombay Gazetteer, Nasik_, p. 50.
[519] According to another account Namdeo belonged to
Marwar. Mr. Maclagan's _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), p. 144.
[520] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), para. 231.
[521] This article is partly based on a note by Mr. Gokul Prasad,
Tahsildar, Dhamtari.
[522] This article is based entirely on a paper by Rai Bahadur Panda
Baijnath, Superintendent, Bastar State.
[523] Compiled mainly from a paper by Kanhya Lal, clerk in the
Gazetteer office.
[524] Cf. the two meanings of the word 'stock' in English.
[525] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Dhanuk.
[526] _Eastern India_, i. 166, as quoted in Crooke's _Tribes and
Castes_.
[527] Cf. the two perfectly distinct groups of Paiks or foot-soldiers
found in Jubbulpore and the Uriya country.
[528] _Tribes and Castes of the N. W. P. and Oudh_, art. Basor.
[529] The following particulars are from a paper by Kanhya Lal, a
clerk in the Gazetteer office belonging to the Educational Department.
[530] This article is based almost entirely on a monograph by
Mr. Jeorakhan Lal, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Bilaspur.
[531] _Grewia vestita._
[532] The term brother's brother-in-law is abusive in the same sense
as brother-in-law (_sala_) said by a man.
[533] See commencement of this article.
[534] _Cynodon dactylon._
[535] _Shorea robusta._
[536] This article is based partly on papers by Mr. Govind Moreshwar,
Head Clerk, Mandla, and Mr. Pancham Lal, Naib-Tahsildar, Sihora. Much
of the interesting information about the occupations of the caste
was given to the writer by Babu Kali Prasanna Mukerji, Pleader, Saugor.
[537] As a rule a husband and wife never address each other by name.
[538] Among Hindus it is customary to give a little more than the
proper sum on ceremonial occasions in order to show that there is no
stint. Thus Rs. 1-4 is paid instead of a rupee.
[539] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 133.
[540] _Ibidem_, _l.c._
[541] _Ibidem_, _l.c._
[542] _Anthocephalus kadamba._
[543] From _ghat_, a steep hillside or slope; hence a river-crossing
because of the banks sloping down to it.
[544] _Trapa bispinosa._
[545] _Jungle Life in India_, p. 137.
[546] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 132.
[547] The following notice of caste offences is from Mr. Govind
Moreshwar's paper.
[548] Not probably on account of the commission of a crime, but because
being sentenced to imprisonment involves the eating of ceremonially
impure food. These rules are common to most Hindu castes, and the
Dhimars are taken only as a typical example. They seem to have little
or no connection with ordinary morality. But in Jhansi Mr. Crooke
remarks that a Kahar is put out of caste for theft in his master's
house. This again, however, might be considered as an offence against
the community, tending to lower their corporate character in their
business, and as such deserving of social punishment.
[549] This article is partly based on an account of the caste
furnished by Mr. H. F. E. Bell and drawn up by Mr. F. R. R. Rudman
in the _Mandla District Gazetteer_.
[550] _Folklore of Northern India_, vol. ii. p. 8.
[551] Sherring's _Hindu Castes_, i. 342-3.
[552] _Tribes and Castes_, art. Dhobi.
[553] _Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan._
[554] _Berar Census Report_ (1881), p. 155.
[555] _Central Provinces Census Report_ (1891), p. 202.
[556] _Loc. cit._
[557] _Bihar Peasant Life, s.v._ Dhobi.
[558] _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_, p. 226.
[559] _Behind the Bungalow._
[560] This article is mainly compiled from papers by Mr. Gokul
Prasad, Naib-Tahsildar, Dhamtari, and Pyare Lal Misra, a clerk in
the Gazetteer office.
[561] _Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, art. Kandu.
[562] This article is taken almost entirely from a paper drawn up by
Mr. Hira Lal, Extra Assistant Commissioner.
[563] This article is mainly compiled from Sir E. D. Maclagan's
_Punjab Census Report_ (1891), pp. 192-196, the article on Fakir
in the Rev. T. P. Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_, and the volume on
_Muhammadans of Gujarat_ in the _Bombay Gazetteer_, pp. 20-24.
[564] Hughes, p. 116.
[565] _Punjab Census Report_ (1891), p. 196.
[566] Hughes' _Dictionary of Islam_, art. Fakir.