produce presently, from the tremendous lessons of history, an effective
will for a world peace--that is to say, an effective will _for a world
law under a world government_--for in no other fashion is a secure world
peace conceivable--in what manner may we expect things to move towards
this end? That movement will certainly not go on equally in every
country, nor is it likely to take at first one uniform mode of
expression. Here it will find a congenial and stimulating atmosphere,
here it will find itself antagonistic to deep tradition or racial
idiosyncrasy or well-organized base oppositions. In some cases those to
whom the call of the new order has come will be living in a state almost
ready to serve the ends of the greater political synthesis, in others
they will have to fight like conspirators against the rule of evil laws.
There is little in the political constitution of such countries as the
United States or Switzerland that would impede their coalescence upon
terms of frank give and take with other equally civilized
confederations; political systems involving dependent areas and “subject
peoples” such as the Turkish Empire was before the Great War, seem to
require something in the nature of a breaking up before they can be
adapted to a federal world system. Any state obsessed by traditions of
an aggressive foreign policy will be difficult to assimilate into a
world combination. But though here the government may be helpful, and
here dark and hostile, the essential task of men of goodwill in all
states and countries remains the same; it is an educational task, and
its very essence is to bring to the minds of all men everywhere, as a
necessary basis for world coöperation, _a new telling and
interpretation, a common interpretation, of history_.
Does this League of Nations which has been created by the covenant of
1919 contain within it the germ of any permanent federation of human
effort? Will it grow into something for which, as Stallybrass says, men
will be ready to “work whole-heartedly and, if necessary, _fight_”--as
hitherto they have been willing to fight for their country and their own
people? There are few intimations of any such enthusiasm for the League
at the present time. The League does not even seem to know how to talk
to common men. It has gone into official buildings, and comparatively
few people in the world understand or care what it is doing there. It
may be that the League is no more than a first project of union,
exemplary only in its insufficiencies and dangers, destined to be
superseded by something closer and completer as were the United States
Articles of Confederation by the Federal Constitution (see chapter
xxxvii, § 5). The League is at present a mere partial league of
governments and states. It emphasizes nationality; it defers to
sovereignty. What the world needs is no such league of nations as this
nor even a mere league of peoples, but _a world league of men_. The
world perishes unless sovereignty is merged and nationality
subordinated. And for that the minds of men must first be prepared by
experience and knowledge and thought. The supreme task before men at the
present time is political education.
It may be that several partial leagues may precede any world league. The
common misfortunes and urgent common needs of Europe and Asia may be
more efficacious in bringing the European and Asiatic states to reason
and a sort of unity, than the mere intellectual and sentimental ties of
the United States and Great Britain and France. A United States of the
Old World is a possibility to set against the possibility of an Atlantic
union. Moreover, there is much to be said for an American experiment, a
Pan-American league, in which the New World European colonies would play
an in-and-out part as Luxembourg did for a time in the German
confederation.
We will not attempt to weigh here what share may be taken in the
recasting and consolidation of human affairs by the teachings and
propaganda of labour internationalism, by the studies and needs of
international finance, or by such boundary-destroying powers as science
and art and historical teaching. All these things may exert a combined
pressure, in which it may never be possible to apportion the exact
shares. Opposition may dissolve, antagonistic cults flatten out to a
common culture, almost imperceptibly. The bold idealism of to-day may
seem mere common sense to-morrow. And the problem of a forecast is
complicated by the possibilities of interludes and backwaters. History
has never gone simply forward. More particularly are the years after a
great war apt to be years of apparent retrocession; men are too weary to
see what has been done, what has been cleared away, and what has been
made possible.
Among the things that seem to move commandingly towards an adequate
world control at the present time are these:--
(1) The increasing destructiveness and intolerableness of war waged with
the new powers of science.
(2) The inevitable fusion of the world’s economic affairs into one
system, leading necessarily, it would seem, to some common control of
currency, and demanding safe and uninterrupted communications, and a
free movement of goods and people by sea and land throughout the whole
world. The satisfaction of these needs will require a world control of
very considerable authority and powers of enforcement.
(3) The need, because of the increasing mobility of peoples, of
effectual controls of health everywhere.
(4) The urgent need of some equalization of labour conditions, and of
the minimum standard of life throughout the world. This seems to carry
with it, as a necessary corollary, the establishment of some minimum
standard of education for everyone.
(5) The impossibility of developing the enormous benefits of flying
without a world control of the air-ways.
The necessity and logic of such diverse considerations as these push the
mind irresistibly, in spite of the clashes of race and tradition and the
huge difficulties created by differences in language, towards the belief
that a conscious struggle to establish or prevent a political world
community will be the next stage in human history. The things that
require that world community are permanent _needs_, one or other of
these needs appeals to nearly everyone, and against their continuing
persistence are only mortal difficulties, great no doubt, but mortal;
prejudices, passions, animosities, delusions about race and country,
egotisms, and such-like fluctuating and evanescent things, set up in
men’s minds by education and suggestion; none of them things that make
now for the welfare and survival of the individuals who are under their
sway nor of the states and towns and associations in which they prevail.
§ 3
Our _Outline of History_ has been ill written if it has failed to convey
our conviction of the character of the state towards which the world is
moving. Let us summarize here, very briefly, the main lines to which the
developments of history seem to point as the necessary lines of that
world organization. The attainment of this world state may be impeded
and may be opposed to-day by many apparently vast forces; but it has,
urging it on, a much more powerful force, that of the free and growing
common intelligence of mankind. To-day there is in the world a small but
increasing number of men, historians, archæologists, ethnologists,
economists, sociologists, psychologists, educationists, and the like,
who are doing for human institutions that same task of creative analysis
which the scientific men of the seventeenth and eighteenth century did
for the materials and mechanism of human life; and just as these latter,
almost unaware of what they were doing, made telegraphy, swift transit
on sea and land, flying and a thousand hitherto impossible things
possible, so the former may be doing more than the world suspects, or
than they themselves suspect, to clear up and make plain the thing to do
and the way to do it, in the greater and more urgent human affairs.
Let us ape Roger Bacon in his prophetic mood, and set down what we
believe will be the broad fundamentals of the coming world state.
(i) It will be based upon a common world religion, very much simplified
and universalized and better understood. This will not be Christianity
nor Islam nor Buddhism nor any such specialized form of religion, but
religion itself pure and undefiled; the Eightfold Way, the Kingdom of
Heaven, brotherhood, creative service, and self-forgetfulness.
Throughout the world men’s thoughts and motives will be turned by
education, example, and the circle of ideas about them, from the
obsession of self to the cheerful service of human knowledge, human
power, and human unity.
(ii) And this world state will be sustained by a universal education,
organized upon a scale and of a penetration and quality beyond all
present experience. The whole race, and not simply classes and peoples,
will be _educated_. Most parents will have a technical knowledge of
teaching. Quite apart from the duties of parentage, perhaps ten per
cent. or more of the adult population will, at some time or other in
their lives, be workers in the world’s educational organization. And
education, as the new age will conceive it, will go on throughout life;
it will not cease at any particular age. Men and women will simply
become self-educators and individual students and student teachers as
they grow older.
(iii) There will be no armies, no navies, and no classes of unemployed
people, wealthy or poor.
(iv) The world-state’s organization of scientific research and record
compared with that of to-day will be like an ocean liner beside the
dug-out canoe of some early heliolithic wanderer.
(v) There will be a vast free literature of criticism and discussion.
(vi) The world’s political organization will be democratic, that is to
say, the government and direction of affairs will be in immediate touch
with and responsive to the general thought of the educated whole
population.
(vii) Its economic organization will be an exploitation of all natural
wealth and every fresh possibility science reveals, by the agents and
servants of the common government for the common good. Private
enterprise will be the servant--a useful, valued, and well-rewarded
servant--and no longer the robber master of the commonweal.
(viii) And this implies two achievements that seem very difficult to us
to-day. They are matters of mechanism, but they are as essential to the
world’s well-being as it is to a soldier’s, no matter how brave he may
be, that his machine gun should not jam, and to an aeronaut’s that his
steering-gear should not fail him in mid-air. Political well-being
demands that electoral methods shall be used, and economic well-being
requires that a currency shall be used, safeguarded or proof against the
contrivances and manipulations of clever, dishonest men.
§ 4
There can be little question that the attainment of a federation of all
humanity, together with a sufficient measure of social justice, to
insure health, education, and a rough equality of opportunity to most of
the children born into the world, would mean such a release and increase
of human energy as to open a new phase in human history. The enormous
waste caused by military preparation and the mutual annoyance of
competing great powers, and the still more enormous waste due to the
under-productiveness of great masses of people, either because they are
too wealthy for stimulus or too poor for efficiency, would cease. There
would be a vast increase in the supply of human necessities, a rise in
the standard of life and in what is considered a necessity, a
development of transport and every kind of convenience; and a multitude
of people would be transferred from low-grade production to such higher
work as art of all kinds, teaching, scientific research, and the like.
All over the world there would be a setting free of human capacity, such
as has occurred hitherto only in small places and through precious
limited phases of prosperity and security. Unless we are to suppose that
spontaneous outbreaks of super-men have occurred in the past, it is
reasonable to conclude that the Athens of Pericles, the Florence of the
Medici, Elizabethan England, the great deeds of Asoka, the Tang and Ming
periods in art, are but samples of what a whole world of sustained
security would yield continuously and cumulatively. Without supposing
any change in human quality, but merely its release from the present
system of inordinate waste, history justifies this expectation.
We have seen how, since the liberation of human thought in the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries, a comparatively few curious and intelligent
men, chiefly in western Europe, have produced a vision of the world and
a body of science that is now, on the material side, revolutionizing
life. Mostly these men have worked against great discouragement, with
insufficient funds and small help or support from the mass of mankind.
It is impossible to believe that these men were the maximum intellectual
harvest of their generation. England alone in the last three centuries
must have produced scores of Newtons who never learnt to read, hundreds
of Daltons, Darwins, Bacons, and Huxleys, who died stunted in hovels, or
never got a chance of proving their quality. All the world over, there
must have been myriads of potential first-class investigators, splendid
artists, creative minds, who never caught a gleam of inspiration or
opportunity, for every one of that kind who has left his mark upon the
world. In the trenches of the Western front alone during the late war
thousands of potential great men died unfulfilled. But a world with
something like a secure international peace and something like social
justice, will fish for capacity with the fine net of universal
education, and may expect a yield beyond comparison greater than any
yield of able and brilliant men that the world has known hitherto.
It is such considerations as this indeed which justify the concentration
of effort in the near future upon the making of a new world state of
righteousness out of our present confusions. War is a horrible thing,
and constantly more horrible and dreadful, so that unless it is ended it
will certainly end human society; social injustice, and the sight of the
limited and cramped human beings it produces, torment the soul; but the
strongest incentive to constructive political and social work for an
imaginative spirit lies not so much in the mere hope of escaping evils
as in the opportunity for great adventures that their suppression will
open to our race. We want to get rid of the militarist not simply
because he hurts and kills, but because he is an intolerable
thick-voiced blockhead who stands hectoring and blustering in our way to
achievement. We want to abolish many extravagances of private ownership
just as we should want to abolish some idiot guardian who refused us
admission to a studio in which there were fine things to do.
There are people who seem to imagine that a world order and one
universal law of justice would end human adventure. It would but begin
it. But instead of the adventure of the past, the “romance” of the
cinematograph world, the perpetual reiterated harping upon the trite
reactions of sex and combat and the hunt for gold, it would be an
unending exploration upon the edge of experience. Hitherto man has been
living in a slum, amidst quarrels, revenges, vanities, shames and
taints, hot desires, and urgent appetites. He has scarcely tasted sweet
air yet and the great freedoms of the world that science has enlarged
for him.
To picture to ourselves something of the wider life that world unity
would open to men is a very attractive speculation. Life will certainly
go with a stronger pulse, it will breathe a deeper breath, because it
will have dispelled and conquered a hundred infections of body and mind
that now reduce it to invalidism and squalor. We have already laid
stress on the vast elimination of drudgery from human life through the
creation of a new race of slaves, the machines. This--and the
disappearance of war and the smoothing out of endless restraints and
contentions by juster social and economic arrangements--will lift the
burthen of toilsome work and routine work, that has been the price of
human security since the dawn of the first civilizations, from the
shoulders of our children. Which does not mean that they will cease to
work, but that they will cease to do irksome work under pressure, and
will work freely, planning, making, creating, according to their gifts
and instincts. They will fight nature no longer as dull conscripts of
the pick and plough, but for a splendid conquest. Only the
spiritlessness of our present depression blinds us to the clear
intimations of our reason that in the course of a few generations every
little country town could become an Athens, every human being could be
gentle in breeding and healthy in body and mind, the whole solid earth
man’s mine and its uttermost regions his playground.
In this _Outline_ we have sought to show two great systems of
development interacting in the story of human society. We have seen,
growing out of that later special neolithic culture, the heliolithic
culture, and arising out of this in the warmer alluvial parts of the
world, the great primordial civilizations, fecund systems of subjugation
and obedience, vast multiplications of industrious and subservient men.
We have shown the necessary relationship of these early civilizations to
the early temples and to king-gods and god-kings. At the same time we
have traced the development from a simpler neolithic level of the
wanderer peoples, who became the nomadic peoples, in those great groups
the Aryans and the Hun-Mongol peoples of the north-west and the
north-east and (from a heliolithic phase) the Semites of the Arabian
deserts. Our history has told of a repeated overrunning and refreshment
of the originally brunet civilizations by these hardier, bolder,
free-spirited peoples of the steppes and desert. We have pointed out
how these constantly recurring nomadic injections have steadily altered
the primordial civilizations both in blood and in spirit; and how the
world religions of to-day, and what we now call democracy, the boldness
of modern scientific inquiry and a universal restlessness, are due to
this “nomadization” of civilization. The old civilizations created
tradition, and lived by tradition. To-day the power of tradition is
destroyed.[529] The body of our state is civilization still, but its
spirit is the spirit of the nomadic world. It is the spirit of the great
plains and the high seas.
So that it is difficult to resist the persuasion that so soon as one law
runs in the earth and the fierceness of frontiers ceases to distress us,
that urgency in our nature that stirs us in spring and autumn to be up
and travelling, will have its way with us. We shall obey the call of the
summer pastures and the winter pastures in our blood, the call of the
mountains, the desert, and the sea. For some of us also, who may be of a
different lineage, there is the call of the forest, and there are those
who would hunt in the summer and return to the fields for the harvest
and the plough. But this does not mean that men will have become
homeless and all adrift. The normal nomadic life is not a homeless one,
but a movement between homes. The Kalmucks to-day, like the swallows, go
yearly a thousand miles from one home to another. The beautiful and
convenient cities of the coming age, we conclude, will have their
seasons when they will be full of life and seasons when they will seem
asleep. Life will ebb and flow to and from every region seasonally as
the interest of that region rises or declines.
There will be little drudgery in this better-ordered world. Natural
power harnessed in machines will be the general drudge. What drudgery is
inevitable will be done as a service and duty for a few years or months
out of each life; it will not consume nor degrade the whole life of
anyone. And not only drudges, but many other sorts of men and ways of
living which loom large in the current social scheme will necessarily
have dwindled in importance or passed away altogether. There will be few
professional fighting men or none at all, no custom-house officers; the
increased multitude of teachers will have abolished large police forces
and large jail staffs, mad-houses will be rare or non-existent; a
worldwide sanitation will have diminished the proportion of hospitals,
nurses, sick-room attendants, and the like; a world-wide economic
justice, the floating population of cheats, sharpers, gamblers,
forestallers, parasites, and speculators generally. But there will be no
diminution of adventure or romance in this world of the days to come.
Sea fisheries and the incessant insurrection of the sea, for example,
will call for their own stalwart types of men; the high air will clamour
for manhood, the deep and dangerous secret places of nature. Men will
turn again with renewed interest to the animal world. In these
disordered days a stupid, uncontrollable massacre of animal species goes
on--from certain angles of vision it is a thing almost more tragic than
human miseries; in the nineteenth century dozens of animal species, and
some of them very interesting species, were exterminated; but one of the
first fruits of an effective world state would be the better protection
of what are now wild beasts. It is a strange thing in human history to
note how little has been done since the Bronze Age in taming, using,
befriending, and appreciating the animal life about us. But that mere
witless killing which is called sport to-day, would inevitably give
place in a better educated world community to a modification of the
primitive instincts that find expression in this way, changing them into
an interest not in the deaths, but in the lives of beasts, and leading
to fresh and perhaps very strange and beautiful attempts to befriend
these pathetic, kindred lower creatures we no longer fear as enemies,
hate as rivals, or need as slaves. And a world state and universal
justice does not mean the imprisonment of our race in any bleak
institutional orderliness. There will still be mountains and the sea,
there will be jungles and great forests, cared for indeed and treasured
and protected; the great plains will still spread before us and the wild
winds blow. But men will not hate so much, fear so much, nor cheat so
desperately--and they will keep their minds and bodies cleaner.
There are unhopeful prophets who see in the gathering together of men
into one community the possibility of violent race conflicts, conflicts
for “ascendancy,” but that is to suppose that civilization is incapable
of adjustments by which men of different qualities and temperaments and
appearances will live side by side, following different rôles and
contributing diverse gifts. The weaving of mankind into one community
does not imply the creation of a homogeneous community, but rather the
reverse; the welcome and the adequate utilization of distinctive quality
in an atmosphere of understanding. It is the almost universal bad
manners of the present age which make race intolerable to race. The
community to which we may be moving will be more mixed--which does not
necessarily mean more interbred--more various and more interesting than
any existing community. Communities all to one pattern, like boxes of
toy soldiers, are things of the past rather than the future.
But one of the hardest, most impossible tasks a writer can set himself,
is to picture the life of people better educated, happier in their
circumstances, more free and more healthy than he is himself. We know
enough to-day to know that there is infinite room for betterment in
every human concern. Nothing is needed but collective effort. Our
poverty, our restraints, our infections and indigestions, our quarrels
and misunderstandings, are all things controllable and removable by
concerted human action, but we know as little how life would feel
without them as some poor dirty, ill-treated, fierce-souled creature
born and bred amidst the cruel and dingy surroundings of a European back
street can know what it is to bathe every day, always to be clad
beautifully, to climb mountains for pleasure, to fly, to meet none but
agreeable, well-mannered people, to conduct researches or make
delightful things. Yet a time when all such good things will be for all
men may be coming more nearly than we think. Each one who believes that
brings the good time nearer; each heart that fails delays it.
One cannot foretell the surprises or disappointments the future has in
store. Before this chapter of the World State can begin fairly in our
histories, other chapters as yet unsuspected may still need to be
written, as long and as full of conflict as our account of the growth
and rivalries of the Great Powers. There may be tragic economic
struggles, grim grapplings of race with race and class with class. We do
not know; we cannot tell. These are unnecessary disasters, but they may
be unavoidable disasters. Human history becomes more and more a race
between education and catastrophe. Against the unifying effort of
Christendom and against the unifying influence of the mechanical
revolution, catastrophe won. New falsities may arise and hold men in
some unrighteous and fated scheme of order for a time, before they
collapse amidst the misery and slaughter of generations. Yet, clumsily
or smoothly, the world, it seems, progresses and will progress. In this
_Outline_, in our account of Palæolithic men, we have borrowed a
description from Mr. Worthington Smith of the very highest life in the
world some fifty thousand years ago. It was a bestial life. We have
sketched too the gathering for a human sacrifice, some fifteen thousand
years ago. That scene again is almost incredibly cruel to a modern
civilized reader. Yet it is not more than five hundred years since the
great empire of the Aztecs still believed that it could live only by the
shedding of blood. Every year in Mexico hundreds of human victims died
in this fashion: the body was bent like a bow over the curved stone of
sacrifice, the breast was slashed open with a knife of obsidian, and the
priest tore out the beating heart of the still living victim. The day
may be close at hand when we shall no longer tear out the hearts of men,
even for the sake of our national gods. Let the reader but refer to the
earlier time charts we have given in this history, and he will see the
true measure and transitoriness of all the conflicts, deprivations, and
miseries of this present period of painful and yet hopeful change.
§ 5
History is and must always be no more than an account of beginnings. We
can venture to prophesy that the next chapters to be written will tell,
though perhaps with long interludes of set-back and disaster, of the
final achievement of world-wide political and social unity. But when
that is attained, it will mean no resting stage, nor even a breathing
stage, before the development of a new struggle and of new and vaster
efforts. Men will unify only to intensify the search for knowledge and
power, and live as ever for new occasions. Animal and vegetable life,
the obscure processes of psychology, the intimate structure of matter
and the interior of our earth, will yield their secrets and endow their
conqueror. Life begins perpetually. Gathered together at last under the
leadership of man, the student-teacher of the universe, unified,
disciplined, armed with the secret powers of the atom and with knowledge
as yet beyond dreaming, Life, for ever dying to be born afresh, for ever
young and eager, will presently stand upon this earth as upon a
footstool, and stretch out its realm amidst the stars.
TIME CHARTS
AND
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
[Illustration: TIME CHART]
[Illustration: TIME CHART]
[Illustration: TIME CHART]
[Illustration: TIME CHART]
[Illustration: TIME CHART]
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
To conclude this _Outline_, we give here a Table of Leading Events from
the year 800 B.C. to 1920 A.D. With it we give five time diagrams
covering the period from 1000 B.C. onward, which present the trend of
events in a graphic form.
It is well that the reader should keep in mind an idea of the true
proportions of historical to geological time. The scale of these five
diagrams is such that by it the time diagram on page 196, vol. i, would
be about 8½ times as long, that is to say about 4 feet; that on page
97, showing the length of time since the first true men, about 55 feet
long; that on page 60, showing the interval since the Eoliths, 555 feet;
and that on page 14, representing the whole of geological time, would be
somewhere between 12 and, at the longest and most probable estimate, 260
miles! Let the reader therefore take one of these chronological tables
we give, and imagine it extended upon a long strip of paper to a
distance of 55 feet. He would have to get up and walk about that
distance to note the date of the painting of the Altamira caves, and he
would have to go ten times that distance by the side of the same narrow
strip to reach the earlier Neanderthalers. A mile or so from home, but
probably much further away, the strip might be recording the last of the
dinosaurs. And this on a scale which represents the time from Columbus
to ourselves by three inches of space!
Chronology only begins to be precise enough to specify the exact year of
any event after the establishment of the eras of the First Olympiad and
the building of Rome.
About the year 1000 B.C. the Aryan peoples were establishing themselves
in the peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and the Balkans, and they were
established in North India, Cnossos was already destroyed and the
spacious times of Egypt, of Thothmes III, Amenophis III, and Rameses II
were three or four centuries away. Weak monarchs of the XXIst Dynasty
were ruling in the Nile Valley. Israel was united under her early
kings; Saul or David or possibly even Solomon may have been reigning.
Sargon I (2750 B.C.) of the Akkadian Sumerian Empire was a remote memory
in Babylonian history, more remote than is Constantine the Great from
the world of the present day. Hammurabi had been dead a thousand years.
The Assyrians were already dominating the less military Babylonians. In
1100 B.C. Tiglath Pileser I had taken Babylon. But there was no
permanent conquest; Assyria and Babylonia were still separate empires.
In China the new Chow Dynasty was flourishing. Stonehenge in England was
already a thousand years old.
The next two centuries saw a renascence of Egypt under the XXIInd
Dynasty, the splitting up of the brief little Hebrew kingdom of Solomon,
the spreading of the Greeks in the Balkans, South Italy, and Asia Minor,
and the days of Etruscan predominance in Central Italy. We may begin our
list of ascertainable dates with--
B.C.
800. The building of Carthage.
790. The Ethiopian conquest of Egypt (founding the XXVth
Dynasty).
776. First Olympiad.
753. Rome built.
745. Tiglath Pileser III conquered Babylonia and founded the
New Assyrian Empire.
738. Menahem, king of Israel, bought off Tiglath Pileser III.
735. Greeks settling in Sicily.
722. Sargon II armed the Assyrians with iron weapons.
721. He deported the Israelites.
704. Sennacherib.
701. His army destroyed by pestilence on its way to Egypt.
680. Esarhaddon took Thebes in Egypt (overthrowing the Ethiopian
XXVth Dynasty).
667. Sardanapalus.
664. Psammetichus I restored the freedom of Egypt and founded
the XXVIth Dynasty (to 610). He was assisted against
Assyria by Lydian troops sent by Gyges.
608. Necho of Egypt defeated Josiah, king of Judah, at the Battle
of Megiddo.
606. Capture of Nineveh by the Chaldeans and Medes. Foundation
of the Chaldean Empire.
604. Necho pushed to the Euphrates and was overthrown by
Nebuchadnezzar II. Josiah fell with him.
586. Nebuchadnezzar carried off the Jews to Babylon. Many
fled to Egypt and settled there.
550. Cyrus the Persian succeeded Cyaxares the Mede.
Cyrus conquered Crœsus.
Buddha lived about this time. So also did Confucius and
Lao Tse.
539. Cyrus took Babylon and founded the Persian Empire.
527. Peisistratus died.
525. Cambyses conquered Egypt.
521. Darius I, the son of Hystaspes, ruled from the Hellespont to
the Indus.
His expedition to Scythia.
490. Battle of Marathon.
484. Herodotus born. Æschylus won his first prize for tragedy.
480. Battles of Thermopylæ and Salamis.
479. The Battles of Platæa and Mycale completed the repulse of
Persia.
474. Etruscan fleet destroyed by the Sicilian Greeks.
470. Voyage of Hanno.
466. Pericles.
465. Xerxes murdered.
438. Herodotus recited his History in Athens.
431. Peloponnesian War began (to 404).
428. Pericles died. Herodotus died.
427. Aristophanes began his career. Plato born. He lived to 347.
401. Retreat of the Ten Thousand.
390. Brennus sacked Rome.
366. Camillus built the Temple of Concord.
359. Philip became king of Macedonia.
338. Battle of Chæronea.
336. Macedonian troops crossed into Asia. Philip murdered.
334. Battle of the Granicus.
333. Battle of Issus.
332. Alexander in Egypt.
331. Battle of Arbela.
330. Darius III killed.
323. Death of Alexander the Great.
321. Rise of Chandragupta in the Punjab. The Romans completely
beaten by the Samnites at the battle of the
Caudine Forks.
303. Chandragupta repulsed Seleucus.
285. Ptolemy Soter died.
281. Pyrrhus invaded Italy.
280. Battle of Heraclea.
279. Battle of Ausculum.
278. Gauls’ raid into Asia Minor and settlement in Galatia.
275. Pyrrhus left Italy.
264. First Punic War. (Asoka began to reign in Behar--to
227.) First gladiatorial games in Rome.
260. Battle of Mylæ.
256. Battle of Ecnomus.
246. Shi-Hwang-ti became king of Ch’in.
242. Battle of Ægatian Isles.
241. End of First Punic War.
225. Battle of Telamon. Roman armies in Illyria.
220. Shi-Hwang-ti became emperor of China.
219. Second Punic War.
216. Battle of Cannæ.
214. Great Wall of China begun.
210. Death of Shi-Hwang-ti.
202. Battle of Zama.
201. End of Second Punic War.
200-197. Rome at war with Macedonia.
192. War with the Seleucids.
190. Battle of Magnesia.
149. Third Punic War. (The Yueh-Chi came into Western
Turkestan.)
146. Carthage destroyed. Corinth destroyed.
133. Attalus bequeathed Pergamum to Rome. Tiberius Gracchus
killed.
121. Caius Gracchus killed.
118. War with Jugurtha.
106. War with Jugurtha ended.
102. Marius drove back Germans.
100. Triumph of Marius. (Wu-ti conquering the Tarim Valley.)
91. Social war.
89. All Italians became Roman citizens.
86. Death of Marius.
78. Death of Sulla.
73. The revolt of the slaves under Spartacus.
71. Defeat and end of Spartacus.
66. Pompey led Roman troops to the Caspian and Euphrates.
He encountered the Alani.
64. Mithridates of Pontus died.
53. Crassus killed at Carrhæ. Mongolian elements with Parthians.
48. Julius Cæsar defeated Pompey at Pharsalos.
44. Julius Cæsar assassinated.
31. Battle of Actium.
27. Augustus Cæsar princeps (until 14 A.D.).
4. True date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth.
A.D. Christian Era began.
6. Province of Mœsia established.
9. Province of Pannonia established. Imperial boundary
carried to the Danube.
14. Augustus died. Tiberius emperor.
30. Jesus of Nazareth crucified.
37. Caligula succeeded Tiberius.
41. Claudius (the first emperor of the legions) made emperor by
pretorian guard after murder of Caligula.
54. Nero succeeded Claudius.
61. Boadicea massacred Roman garrison in Britain.
68. Suicide of Nero. (Galba, Otho, Vitellus, emperors in succession.)
69. Vespasian began the so-called Flavian dynasty.
79. Titus succeeded Vespasian.
81. Domitian.
84. North Britain annexed.
96. Nerva began the so-called dynasty of the Antonines.
98. Trajan succeeded Nerva.
102. Pan Chau on the Caspian Sea. (Indo-Scythians invading
North India.)
117. Hadrian succeeded Trajan. Roman Empire at its greatest
extent.
138. Antoninus Pius succeeded Hadrian.
(The Indo-Scythians at this time were destroying the
last traces of Hellenic rule in India.)
150. [About this time Kanishka reigned in India, Kashgar, Yarkand,
and Kotan.]
161. Marcus Aurelius succeeded Antoninus Pius.
164. Great plague began, and lasted to the death of M. Aurelius
(180). This also devastated all Asia.
180. Death of Marcus Aurelius.
(Nearly a century of war and disorder began in the Roman
Empire.)
220. End of the Han dynasty. Beginning of four hundred years
of division in China.
227. Ardashir I (first Sassanid shah) put an end to Arsacid line
in Persia.
242. Mani began his teaching.
247. Goths crossed Danube in a great raid.
251. Great victory of Goths. Emperor Decius killed.
260. Sapor I, the second Sassanid shah, took Antioch, captured
the Emperor Valerian, and was cut up on his return from
Asia Minor by Odenathus of Palmyra.
269. The Emperor Claudius defeated the Goths at Nish.
270. Aurelian became emperor.
272. Zenobia carried captive to Rome. End of the brief glories
of Palmyra.
275. Probus succeeded Aurelian.
276. Goths in Pontus. The Emperor Probus forced back Franks
and Alemanni.
277. Mani crucified in Persia.
284. Diocletian became emperor.
303. Diocletian persecuted the Christians.
311. Galerius abandoned the persecution of the Christians.
312. Constantine the Great became emperor.
313. Constantine presided over a Christian Council at Arles.
321. Fresh Gothic raids driven back.
323. Constantine presided over the Council of Nicæa.
337. Vandals driven by Goths obtained leave to settle in
Pannonia. Constantine baptized on his death-bed.
354. St. Augustine born.
361-3. Julian the Apostate attempted to substitute Mithraism
for Christianity.
379. Theodosius the Great (a Spaniard) emperor.
390. The statue of Serapis at Alexandria broken up.
392. Theodosius the Great, emperor of east and west.
395. Theodosius the Great died. Honorius and Arcadius redivided
the empire with Stilicho and Alaric as their masters
and protectors.
410. The Visigoths under Alaric captured Rome.
425. Vandals settling in south of Spain. Huns in Pannonia,
Goths in Dalmatia. Visigoths and Suevi in Portugal and
North Spain. English invading Britain.
429. Vandals under Genseric invaded Africa.
439. Vandals took Carthage.
448. Priscus visited Attila.
451. Attila raided Gaul and was defeated by Franks, Alemanni,
and Romans at Troyes.
453. Death of Attila.
455. Vandals sacked Rome.
470. Ephthalites’ raid into India.
476. Odoacer, king of a medley of Teutonic tribes, informed Constantinople
that there was no emperor in the West. End
of the Western Empire.
480. St. Benedict born.
481. Clovis in France. The Merovingians.
483. Nestorian church broke away from the Orthodox Christian
church.
493. Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, conquered Italy and became King
of Italy, but was nominally subject to Constantinople.
(Gothic kings in Italy. Goths settled on special confiscated
lands as a garrison.)
527. Justinian emperor.
528. Mihiragula, the (Ephthalite) Attila of India, overthrown.
529. Justinian closed the schools at Athens, which had flourished
nearly a thousand years. Belisarius (Justinian’s general)
took Naples.
531. Chosroes I began to reign.
543. Great plague in Constantinople.
544. St. Benedict died.
553. Goths expelled from Italy by Justinian. Cassiodorus
founded his monastery.
565. Justinian died. The Lombards conquered most of North
Italy (leaving Ravenna and Rome Byzantine). The
Turks broke up the Ephthalites in Western Turkestan.
570. Muhammad born.
579. Chosroes I died.
(The Lombards dominant in Italy.)
590. Plague raged in Rome. (Gregory the Great--Gregory I--and
the vision of St. Angelo.) Chosroes II began to
reign.
610. Heraclius began to reign.
619. Chosroes II held Egypt, Jerusalem, Damascus, and had
armies on Hellespont. Tang dynasty began in China.
622. The Hegira.
623. Battle of Badr.
627. Great Persian defeat at Nineveh by Heraclius. The Meccan
Allies besieged Medina. Tai-tsung became Emperor of
China.
628. Kavadh II murdered and succeeded his father, Chosroes II.
Muhammad wrote letters to all the rulers of the earth.
629. Yuan Chwang started for India. Muhammad entered
Mecca.
631. Tai-tsung received Nestorian missionaries.
632. Muhammad died. Abu Bekr Caliph.
634. Battle of the Yarmuk. Moslems took Syria. Omar second
Caliph.
637. Battle of Kadessia.
638. Jerusalem surrendered to Omar.
642. Heraclius died.
643. Othman third Caliph.
645. Yuan Chwang returned to Singan.
655. Defeat of the Byzantine fleet by the Moslems.
656. Othman murdered at Medina.
661. Ali murdered.
662. Moawija Caliph. (First of the Omayyad caliphs.)
668. The Caliph Moawija attacked Constantinople by sea--Theodore
of Tarsus became Archbishop of Canterbury.
675. Last of the sea attacks by Moawija on Constantinople.
687. Pepin of Heristhal, mayor of the palace, reunited Austrasia
and Neustria.
711. Moslem army invaded Spain from Africa.
714. Charles Martel mayor of the palace.
715. The domains of the Caliph Walid I extended from the
Pyrenees to China.
717-18. Suleiman, son and successor of Walid, failed to take
Constantinople. The Omayyad line passed its climax.
732. Charles Martel defeated the Moslems near Poitiers.
735. Death of the Venerable Bede.
743. Walid II Caliph,--the unbelieving Caliph.
749. Overthrow of the Omayyads. Abdul Abbas, the first Abbasid
Caliph. Spain remained Omayyad. Beginning
of the break-up of the Arab Empire.
751. Pepin crowned King of the French.
755. Martyrdom of St. Boniface.
768. Pepin died.
771. Charlemagne sole king.
774. Charlemagne conquered Lombardy.
776. Charlemagne in Dalmatia.
786. Haroun al Raschid Abbasid Caliph in Bagdad (to 809).
795. Leo III became Pope (to 816).
800. Leo crowned Charlemagne Emperor of the West.
802. Egbert, formerly an English refugee at the court of Charlemagne,
established himself as King of Wessex.
810. Krum of Bulgaria defeated and killed the Emperor Nicephorus.
814. Charlemagne died, Louis the Pious succeeds him.
828. Egbert became first King of England.
843. Louis the Pious died, and the Carlovingian Empire went to
pieces. Until 962 there was no regular succession of Holy
Roman Emperors, though the title appeared intermittently.
850. About this time Rurik (a Northman) became ruler of Novgorod
and Kieff.
852. Boris first Christian King of Bulgaria (to 884).
865. The fleet of the Russians (Northmen) threatened Constantinople.
886. The Treaty of Alfred of England and Guthrum the Dane,
establishing the Danes in the Danelaw.
904. Russian (Northmen) fleet off Constantinople.
912. Rolf the Ganger established himself in Normandy.
919. Henry the Fowler elected King of Germany.
928. Marozia imprisoned Pope John X.
931. John XI Pope (to 936).
936. Otto I became King of Germany in succession to his father,
Henry the Fowler.
941. Russian fleet again threatened Constantinople.
955. John XII Pope.
960. Northern Sung Dynasty began in China.
962. Otto I, King of Germany, crowned Emperor (first Saxon
Emperor) by John XII.
963. Otto deposed John XII.
969. Separate Fatimite Caliphate set up in Egypt.
973. Otto II.
983. Otto III.
987. Hugh Capet became King of France. End of the Carlovingian
line of French kings.
1013. Canute became King of England, Denmark, and Norway.
1037. Avicenna of Bokhara, the Prince of Physicians, died.
1043. Russian fleet threatened Constantinople.
1066. Conquest of England by William, Duke of Normandy.
1071. Revival of Islam under the Seljuk Turks. Battle of
Melasgird.
1073. Hildebrand became Pope (Gregory VII) to 1085.
1082. Robert Guiscard captured Durazzo.
1084. Robert Guiscard sacked Rome.
1087-99. Urban II Pope.
1094. Pestilence.
1095. Urban II at Clermont summoned the First Crusade.
1096. Massacre of the People’s Crusade.
1099. Godfrey of Bouillon captured Jerusalem. Paschal II
Pope (to 1118).
1138. Kin Empire flourished. The Sung capital shifted from
Nanking to Hang Chau.
1147. The Second Crusade. Foundation of the Christian Kingdom
of Portugal.
1169. Saladin Sultan of Egypt.
1176. Frederick Barbarossa acknowledged supremacy of the
Pope (Alexander III) at Venice.
1187. Saladin captured Jerusalem.
1189. The Third Crusade.
1198. Averroes of Cordoba, the Arab philosopher, died. Innocent
III Pope (to 1216). Frederick II (aged four), King
of Sicily, became his ward.
1202. The Fourth Crusade attacked the Eastern Empire.
1204. Capture of Constantinople by the Latins.
1206. Kutub founded Moslem state at Delhi.
1212. The Children’s Crusade.
1214. Jengis Khan took Peking.
1215. Magna Carta signed.
1216. Honorius III Pope.
1218. Jengis Khan invaded Kharismia.
1221. Failure and return of the Fifth Crusade. St. Dominic died.
(The Dominicans.)
1226. St. Francis of Assisi died. (The Franciscans.)
1227. Jengis Khan died, Khan from the Caspian to the Pacific,
and was succeeded by Ogdai Khan.
1227. Gregory IX Pope.
1228. Frederick II embarked upon the Sixth Crusade, and acquired
Jerusalem.
1234. Mongols completed conquest of the Kin Empire with the
help of the Sung Empire.
1239. Frederick II excommunicated for the second time.
1240. Mongols destroyed Kieff. Russia tributary to the Mongols.
1241. Mongol victory at Liegnitz in Silesia.
1244. The Egyptian Sultan recaptured Jerusalem. This led to
the Seventh Crusade.
1245. Frederick II re-excommunicated. The men of Schwyz
burnt the castle of New Habsburg.
1250. St. Louis of France ransomed. Frederick II, the last
Hohenstaufen Emperor, died. German interregnum until
1273.
1251. Mangu Khan became Great Khan. Kublai Khan governor
of China.
1258. Hulagu Khan took and destroyed Bagdad.
1260. Kublai Khan became Great Khan. Ketboga defeated in
Palestine.
1261. The Greeks recaptured Constantinople from the Latins.
1269. Kublai Khan sent a message of inquiry to the Pope by the
older Polos.
1271. Marco Polo started upon his travels.
1273. Rudolf of Habsburg elected Emperor. The Swiss formed
their Everlasting League.
1280. Kublai Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty in China.
1292. Death of Kublai Khan.
1293. Roger Bacon, the prophet of experimental science, died.
1294. Boniface VIII Pope (to 1303).
1295. Marco Polo returned to Venice.
1303. Death of Pope Boniface VIII after the outrage of Anagni
by Guillaume de Nogaret.
1305. Clement V Pope. The papal court set up at Avignon.
1308. Duns Scotus died.
1318. Four Franciscans burnt for heresy at Marseilles.
1347. Occam died.
1348. The Great Plague, the Black Death.
1358. The Jacquerie in France.
1360. In China the Mongol (Yuan) Dynasty fell, and was succeeded
by the Ming Dynasty (to 1644).
1367. Timurlane assumed the title of Great Khan.
1377. Pope Gregory XI returned to Rome.
1378. The Great Schism. Urban VI in Rome, Clement VII at
Avignon.
1381. Peasant revolt in England. Wat Tyler murdered in the
presence of King Richard II.
1384. Wycliffe died.
1398. Huss preached Wycliffism at Prague.
1405. Death of Timurlane.
1414-18. The Council of Constance. Huss burnt (1415).
1417. The Great Schism ended, Martin V Pope.
1420. The Hussites revolted. Martin V preached a crusade
against them.
1431. The Catholic Crusaders dissolved before the Hussites at
Domazlice. The Council of Basle met.
1436. The Hussites came to terms with the church.
1439. Council of Basle created a fresh schism in the church.
1445. Discovery of Cape Verde by the Portuguese.
1446. First printed books (Coster in Haarlem).
1449. End of the Council of Basle.
1453. Ottoman Turks under Muhammad II took Constantinople.
1480. Ivan III, Grand-duke of Moscow, threw off the Mongol
allegiance.
1481. Death of the Sultan Muhammad II while preparing for the
conquest of Italy. Bayazid II Turkish Sultan (to 1512).
1486. Diaz rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
1492. Columbus crossed the Atlantic to America. Rodrigo Borgia,
Alexander VI, Pope (to 1503).
1493. Maximilian I became Emperor.
1498. Vasco da Gama sailed round the Cape to India.
1499. Switzerland became an independent republic.
1500. Charles V born.
1509. Henry VIII King of England.
1512. Selim Sultan (to 1520). He bought the title of Caliph.
Fall of Soderini (and Machiavelli) in Florence.
1513. Leo X Pope.
1515. Francis I King of France.
1517. Selim annexed Egypt. Luther propounded his theses at
Wittenberg.
1519. Leonardo da Vinci died. Magellan’s expedition started to
sail round the world. Cortez entered Mexico city.
1520. Suleiman the Magnificent, Sultan (to 1566), who ruled from
Bagdad to Hungary. Charles V Emperor.
1521. Luther at the Diet of Worms. Loyola wounded at Pampeluna.
1525. Baber won the battle of Panipat, captured Delhi, and
founded the Mogul Empire.
1527. The German troops in Italy, under the Constable of Bourbon,
took and pillaged Rome.
1529. Suleiman besieged Vienna.
1530. Pizarro invaded Peru. Charles V crowned by the Pope.
Henry VIII began his quarrel with the Papacy.
1532. The Anabaptists seized Münster.
1535. Fall of the Anabaptist rule in Münster.
1539. The Company of Jesus founded.
1543. Copernicus died.
1545. The Council of Trent (to 1563) assembled to put the
church in order.
1546. Martin Luther died.
1547. Ivan IV (the Terrible) took the title of Tsar of Russia.
Francis I died.
1549. First Jesuit missions arrived in South America.
1552. Treaty of Passau. Temporary pacification of Germany.
1556. Charles V abdicated. Akbar Great Mogul (to 1605).
Ignatius of Loyola died.
1558. Death of Charles V.
1563. End of the Council of Trent and the reform of the Catholic
Church.
1564. Galileo born.
1566. Suleiman the Magnificent died.
1567. Revolt of the Netherlands.
1568. Execution of Counts Egmont and Horn.
1571. Kepler born.
1573. Siege of Alkmaar.
1578. Harvey born.
1583. Sir Walter Raleigh’s expedition to Virginia.
1601. Tycho Brahe died.
1603. James I King of England and Scotland. Dr. Gilbert died.
1605. Jehangir Great Mogul.
1606. Virginia Company founded.
1609. Holland independent.
1618. Thirty Years War began.
1620. Mayflower expedition founded New Plymouth. First negro
slaves landed at Jamestown (Va.).
1625. Charles I of England.
1626. Sir Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam) died.
1628. Shah Jehan Great Mogul. The English Petition of Right.
1629. Charles I of England began his eleven years of rule without
a parliament.
1630. Kepler died.
1632. Leeuwenhoek born. Gustavus Adolphus killed at the
Battle of Lützen.
1634. Wallenstein murdered.
1638. Japan closed to Europeans (until 1865).
1640. Charles I of England summoned the Long Parliament.
1641. Massacre of the English in Ireland.
1642. Galileo died. Newton born.
1643. Louis XIV began his reign of seventy-two years.
1644. The Manchus ended the Ming dynasty.
1645. Swine pens in the inner town of Leipzig pulled down.
1648. Treaty of Westphalia. Thereby Holland and Switzerland
were recognized as free republics and Prussia became
important. The treaty gave a complete victory neither to
the Imperial Crown nor to the Princes.
War of the Fronde; it ended in the complete victory
of the French crown.
1649. Execution of Charles I of England.
1658. Aurungzeb Great Mogul. Cromwell died.
1660. Charles II of England.
1674. Nieuw Amsterdam finally became British by treaty and
was renamed New York.
1683. The last Turkish attack on Vienna defeated by John III
of Poland.
1688. The British Revolution. Flight of James II. William
and Mary began to reign.
1689. Peter the Great of Russia (to 1725).
1690. Battle of the Boyne in Ireland.
1694. Voltaire born.
1701. Frederick I first King of Prussia.
1704. John Locke, the father of modern democratic theory, died.
1707. Death of Aurungzeb. The empire of the Great Mogul
disintegrated.
1713. Frederick the Great of Prussia born.
1714. George I of Britain.
1715. Louis XV of France.
1727. Newton died. George II of Britain.
1732. Oglethorpe founded Georgia.
1736. Nadir Shah raided India. (The beginning of twenty years
of raiding and disorder in India.)
1740. Maria-Theresa began to reign. (Being a woman, she
could not be empress. Her husband, Francis I, was emperor
until his death in 1765, when her son, Joseph II,
succeeded him.)
1740. Accession of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia.
1741. The Empress Elizabeth of Russia began to reign.
1755-63. Britain and France struggled for America and India.
France in alliance with Austria and Russia against Prussia
and Britain (1756-63); the Seven Years’ War.
1757. Battle of Plassey.
1759. The British general Wolfe took Quebec.
1760. George III of Britain.
1762. The Empress Elizabeth of Russia died. Murder of the
Tsar Paul, and accession of Catherine the Great of Russia
(to 1796).
1763. Peace of Paris; Canada ceded to Britain. British dominant
in India.
1764. Battle of Buxar.
1769. Napoleon Bonaparte born.
1774. Louis XVI began his reign. Suicide of Clive. The
American revolutionary drama began.
1775. Battle of Lexington.
1776. Declaration of Independence by the United States of
America.
1778. J. J. Rousseau, the creator of modern democratic sentiment,
died.
1780. End of the reign of Maria-Theresa. The Emperor Joseph
(1765 to 1790) succeeded her in the hereditary Habsburg
dominions.
1783. Treaty of Peace between Britain and the new United States
of America. Quaco set free in Massachusetts.
1787. The Constitutional Convention of Philadelphia set up the
Federal Government of the United States. France discovered
to be bankrupt. The Assembly of the Notables.
1788. First Federal Congress of the United States at New York.
1789. The French States-General assembled. Storming of the
Bastille.
1791. The Jacobin Revolution. Flight to Varennes.
1792. France declared war on Austria; Prussia declared war on
France. Battle of Valmy. France became a republic.
1793. Louis XVI beheaded.
1794. Execution of Robespierre and end of the Jacobin republic.
Rule of the Convention.
1795. The Directory. Bonaparte suppressed a revolt and went
to Italy as commander-in-chief.
1797. By the Peace of Campo Formio Bonaparte destroyed the
Republic of Venice.
1798. Bonaparte went to Egypt. Battle of the Nile.
1799. Bonaparte returned. He became First Consul with enormous
powers.
1800. Legislative union of Ireland and England enacted January
1st, 1801.
1800. Napoleon’s campaign against Austria. Battles of Marengo
(in Italy) and Hohenlinden (Moreau’s victory).
1801. Preliminaries of peace between France, England, and Austria
signed.
1803. Bonaparte occupied Switzerland, and so precipitated war.
1804. Bonaparte became Emperor. Francis II took the title of
Emperor of Austria in 1805, and in 1806 he dropped the
title of Holy Roman Emperor. So the “Holy Roman
Empire” came to an end.
1805. Battle of Trafalgar. Battles of Ulm and Austerlitz.
1806. Prussia overthrown at Jena.
1807. Battles of Eylau and Friedland and Treaty of Tilsit.
1808. Napoleon made his brother Joseph King of Spain.
1810. Spanish America became republican.
1811. Alexander withdrew from the “Continental System.”
1812. Moscow.
1814. Abdication of Napoleon. Louis XVIII.
1815. The Waterloo campaign. The Treaty of Vienna.
1819. The First Factory Act passed through the efforts of Robert
Owen.
1821. The Greek revolt.
1824. Charles X of France.
1825. Nicholas I of Russia.
1827. Battle of Navarino.
1829. Greece independent.
1830. A year of disturbance. Louis Philippe ousted Charles X.
Belgium broke away from Holland. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
became king of this new country, Belgium.
Russian Poland revolted ineffectually. First
railway (Liverpool to Manchester).
1832. The First Reform Bill in Britain restored the democratic
character of the British Parliament.
1835. The word socialism first used.
1837. Queen Victoria.
1840. Queen Victoria married Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.
1848. Another year of disturbance. Republics in France and
Rome. The Pan-slavic conference at Prague. All Germany
united in a parliament at Frankfort. German unity
destroyed by the King of Prussia.
1851. The Great Exhibition of London.
1852. Napoleon III Emperor of the French.
1854. Perry (second expedition) landed in Japan. Nicholas I
occupied the Danubian provinces of Turkey.
1854-56. Crimean War.
1856. Alexander II of Russia.
1857. The Indian Mutiny.
1858. Robert Owen died.
1859. Franco-Austrian war. Battles of Magenta and Solferino.
1861. Victor Emmanuel First King of Italy. Abraham Lincoln
became President U.S.A. The American Civil War began.
1863. British bombarded a Japanese town.
1864. Maximilian became Emperor of Mexico.
1865. Surrender of Appomattox Court House. Japan opened to
the world.
1866. Prussia and Italy attacked Austria (and the south German
states in alliance with her). Battle of Sadowa.
1867. The Emperor Maximilian shot.
1870. Napoleon III declared war against Prussia.
1871. Paris surrendered (January). The King of Prussia became
William I, “German Emperor.” The Hohenzollern Peace
of Frankfort.
1875. The “Bulgarian atrocities.”
1877. Russo-Turkish War. Treaty of San Stefano. Queen Victoria
became Empress of India.
1878. The Treaty of Berlin. The Armed Peace of forty-six years
began in western Europe.
1881. The Battle of Majuba Hill. The Transvaal free.
1883. Britain occupied Egypt.
1886. Gladstone’s first Irish Home Rule Bill.
1888. Frederick II (March), William II (June), German
Emperors.
1890. Bismarck dismissed. Heligoland ceded to Germany by
Lord Salisbury.
1894-95. Japanese war with China.
1895. “Unionist” (Imperialist) government in Britain.
1896. Battle of Adowa.
1898. The Fashoda quarrel between France and Britain. Germany
acquired Kiau-Chau.
1899. The war in South Africa began (Boer war).
1900. The Boxer risings in China. Siege of the Legations at Peking.
1904. The British invaded Tibet.
1904-5. Russo-Japanese war.
1906. The “Unionist” (Imperialist) party in Great Britain defeated
by the Liberals upon the question of tariffs.
1907. The Confederation of South Africa established.
1908. Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina.
1909. M. Bleriot flew in an aeroplane from France to England.
1911. Italy made war on Turkey and seized Tripoli.
1912. China became a republic.
1913. The Balkan league made war on Turkey. Bloodshed at
Londonderry in Ireland caused by “Unionist” gun
running.
1914. The Great War in Europe began (for which see special time
chart on pp. 528-29).
1917. The two Russian revolutions. Establishment of the Bolshevik
régime in Russia.
1919-20. The Clemenceau Peace of Versailles.
1920. First meeting of the League of Nations, from which Germany,
Austria, Russia, and Turkey were excluded, and
at which the United States was not represented.
And here our _Outline_ breaks off.
INDEX
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
VOWELS
ä as in far (fär), father (fä’ thũr), mikado (mi kä’ dō).
ă “ “ fat (făt), ample (ămpl), abstinence (ăb’ stin ens).
ā “ “ fate (fāt), wait (wāt), deign (dān), jade (jād).
aw “ “ fall (fawl), appal (a pawl’), broad (brawd).
â “ “ fair (fâr), bear (bâr), where (hwâr).
e “ “ bell (bel), bury (ber’ i).
ē “ “ beef (bēf), thief (thēf), idea (ī dē’ ă), beer (bēr),
casino (kă sē’ nō).
i “ “ bit (bit), lily (lil’ ī), nymph (nimf), build (bild).
ī “ “ bite (bīt), analyze (ăn’ ă līz), light (līt).
o “ “ not (not), watch (woch), cough (kof), sorry (sor’ i).
ō “ “ no (nō), blow (blō), brooch (brōch).
ô “ “ north (nôrth), absorb (ăb sôrb’).
oo “ “ food (food), do (doo), prove (proov), blue (bloo), strew (stroo).
u “ “ bull (bul), good (gud), would (wud).
ŭ “ “ sun (sŭn), love (lŭv), enough (ē nŭf’).
ū “ “ muse (mūs), stew (stū), cure (kūr).
ũ “ “ her (hũr), search (sũrch), word (wũrd), bird (bũrd).
ou “ “ bout (bout), bough (bou), crowd (kroud).
oi “ “ join (join), joy (joi), buoy (boi).
A short mark placed over italic a, e, o, or u (_ă_, _ĕ_,
_ŏ_, _ŭ_), signifies that the vowel has an obscure,
indeterminate, or slurred sound, as in:--
advice (_ă_d vīs, current (kŭr’ _ĕ_nt), notion (nō’ sh_ŭ_n),
breakable (brā’ k_ă_ bl), sailor (sā’ l_ŏ_r), pleasure (plezh’ _ŭ_r).
CONSONANTS
“s” is used only for the sibilant “s” (as in “toast,” tōst,
“place,” plās); the sonant “s” (as in “toes,” “plays”) is
printed “z” (tōz, plāz).
“c” (except in the combinations “ch” and “_ch_”), “q” and “x” are
not used.
b, d, f, h (but see the combinations below), k, l, m, n (see _n_
below), p, r, t, v, z, and w and y when used as consonants have
their usual values.
ch as in church (chũrch), batch (băch), capriccio (kä prē’ chō).
_ch_ “ “ loch (lo_ch_), coronach (kor’ o nä_ch_), clachan (klă_ch_’ än).
g “ “ get (get), finger (fing’ gũr).
j “ “ join (join), judge (jŭj), germ (jũrm), ginger (jin’ jĕr).
gh (in List of Proper Names only) as in Ludwig (lut’ vigh).
hl ( “ “ “ “ ) “ “ Llandeilo (hlăn dī’ lō).
hw as in white (hwīt), nowhere (nō’ hwâr).
_n_ “ “ cabochon (kä bō sho_n_’), congé (ko_n_’ shā).
sh “ “ shawl (shawl), mention (men’ shŭn).
zh “ “ measure (mezh’ _ŭ_r), vision (vizh’ _ŏ_n).
th “ “ thin (thin), breath (breth).
_th_ “ “ thine (_th_īn), breathe (brē_th_).
The accent (’) _follows_ the syllable to be stressed.
Aar (ār) VALLEY, ii, 199
Aaronson, Aaron, i, 184
Abbasids (_ă_ băs’ īdz), ii, 30-36, 61, 64, 70, 106, 126, 613
Abbott, E., i, 6
Abbott, W. J. Lewis, i, 68
Abd Manif (äbd män ēf’), ii, 5
Abdal Malik (äbd äl mä’ lik), ii, 28
Abelard, P., ii, 171
Aboukir (ä boo kēr’), ii, 352, 353
_Aboukir_, cruiser, ii, 520
Abraham the Patriarch, i, 196, 278, 282, 293-94, 576, ii, 6
Absolution, ii, 216
Abu Bekr (ä’ boo bek’ _ĕ_r), ii, 6, 7, 8, 13-22, 34, 612
Abul Abbas, ii, 30, 31, 613
Abul Fazl (ā’ bool fā’ zl), ii, 135
Abydos (_ă_ bī’ dos), i, 335, 340
Abyssinia, i, 156, 160, 359, ii, 461
Abyssinian Christians, i, 603, 618, ii, 3, 8;
language, i, 154
Académie des Sciences, ii, 239
Academy, Greek, i, 351, 354-57
Academy of Inscriptions, ii, 312
Achilles (ä kil’ ēz), i, 177
Acre, i, 212, ii, 353
Acropolis (ă krop’ ŏ lis), i, 306, 337
Act of Union, ii, 492
Actium (ăk’ ti _ŭ_m), battle of, i, 514, ii, 609
Acts of the Apostles, i, 587, 589
Adam and Eve, ii, 418
Adams, Prof. G. B., ii, 46
Adams, John, ii, 300, 303
Adams, Samuel, ii, 290, 303
Adams, W. P., ii, 532
Adams, William, ii, 465
Addington, ii, 359
Aden, i, 160, 197, ii, 32, 471
Adowa (ă’ dō wă), battle of, ii, 461, 469, 500, 624
Adrianople, i, 554, ii, 122, 502;
Treaty of, ii, 382
Adriatic, i, 274, 389, 452, 461, 471, 540, 561, 606, 616, ii, 54, 80, 364, 509
Adriatic river, i, 119, 120
Ægatian Isles, i, 471, ii, 608
Ægean (ē jē’ _ă_n), cities, i, 234;
civilization, i, 213-16, 281, 300;
Dark Whites, i, 447;
hunters, i, 317
Ægina (ē jī’ n_ă_), i, 337
Æneid (ē’ nē id), the, i, 448
Æolic dialect, i, 300
Aeroplanes, i, 5, ii, 392, 519, 523
Æschylus (ēs’ ki l_ŭ_s), i, 221, 355, ii, 607
Afghanistan, i, 153, 201, 396, 431, 433, 627-28, 643, ii, 133, 257
Africa, i, 57, 74, 109, 120, 145, 154-56, 162, 281, 489, 509,
ii, 114, 139, 153;
peoples of, i, 86, 109, 138, 141, 149, 158-60, 195-201, 206, 234;
languages of, i, 161-62;
early trade with, i, 217, 273;
Moslems in, i, 217, 565, ii, 22, 24, 30, 31, 41, 51, 64, 65, 613;
voyages and travels in, i, 218, 509, ii, 185-88, 252;
Phœnicians in, i, 448, 482-84, 513, 570, 640;
Roman, i, 470, 478-79, 498, 540, 560, 606;
Vandals in, i, 556, 606, 615, ii, 611;
slavery in, ii, 193, 225, 306;
modern exploitation of, ii, 451, 458-60, 484
Africa, Central, i, 158, 558;
East, i, 42, 178;
South (_see_ South Africa);
West, i, 219, ii, 193
African lung fish, i, 25
Aga Khan (ä’ gä kän’), ii, 473
Agincourt, ii, 179
Agriculture, early, i, 104, 108, 113-14, 116, 133, 137, 158,
171, 190, 254, 317;
slaves in, i, 259;
Arab knowledge of, ii, 38;
in Great Britain, ii, 272, 273
Agriculturists, i, 264, 267, 271
Agrigentum (ăg ri gen’ t_ŭ_m), i, 469
Agrippina (ăg ri pī’ n_ă_), i, 525
Ahriman (ă’ ri män), i, 625, 626
Ainu (ī’ noo), i, 139, 148, ii, 262, 464
Air, the, i, 5, 23, 36
Air Force, ii, 570
Aisne (ān), ii, 515;
battle of the, ii, 48
Aix-la-Chapelle, ii, 60, 63
Akbar (äk’ bũr), ii, 133-37, 256, 618
Akhnaton (äk nä’ ton). (_See_ Amenophis IV)
Akkadia (and Akkadians), i, 191, 245
Akkadian-Sumerian Empire, i, 196, 279, ii, 606
Akki, i, 279
_Alabama_, the, ii, 443-44
Alamanni, i, 553, ii, 48, 610
Alans, i, 549-54, 627-28, ii, 609
Alaric (ăl’ _ă_ rik), i, 554, 561, ii, 611
Alaska, ii, 505
Alban, St., ii, 50
Alban Mount, i, 448
Albania, ii, 522
Albert, Prince Consort, ii, 436, 486, 622
Albertus Magnus, ii, 171
Albigenses (ăl bi jen’ sēz), ii, 92, 95, 219
Alcarez (ăl cär’ ez), ii, 208
Alchemists, ii, 174
Alcibiades (ăl si bī’ _ă_ dēz), i, 351
Alcmæonidæ (ălk mē on’ i dē), i, 314
Alcohol, discovery of, ii, 38
Alcuin (ăl’ kwin), ii, 59
Alemanni. (_See_ Alamanni)
Aleppo, ii, 76
Alexander the Great, i, 133, 195, 198, 200, 205, 217,
252, 253, 277, 345, 352, 357-59, 366-99, 412, 428,
430, 445, 452, 467, 484, 507, 510,
512, 522, 542, 546, 562, 597, 615-16, 643,
ii, 20, 51, 78, 114, 145, 199, 303, 608;
empire of (maps), i, 393, 398;
mother of, i, 452
Alexander, son of Alexander the Great, i, 394
Alexander II, king of Egypt, i, 500
Alexander I, tsar of Russia, ii, 362-66, 370-76, 382, 405, 411, 476-77, 622
Alexander II, tsar of Russia, ii, 623
Alexander III (pope), ii, 97, 615
Alexander VI (pope), ii, 195, 617
Alexandretta, i, 379, 383
Alexandria, i, 13, 383, 389, 395-96, 428, 463
497, 515, 532, 538, 562, 587, 601, 602, 604, ii, 36, 91, 168, 351, 611;
museum at, i, 359, 402-13, 476, 490, 636;
culture and religion of, i, 401-14,
590-91, 602, ii, 37;
library at, i, 405, 411;
Serapeum, i, 413, 414
Alexandrian cities, i, 273
Alexius Comnenus (ă lek’ si ŭs kom nē’n_ŭ_s), ii, 72-80
Alfred, king, ii, 54, 148, 614
Algæ, i, 10
Algebra (ăl’ je br_ă_), i, 219, ii, 37, 88
Algeria, i, 102, 217, 565, ii, 501
Algiers, ii, 126, 225, 470
Ali (ā’ lē), nephew of Muhammad, ii, 6-8, 13, 26-31, 64, 613
Alkmaar (älk mär’), siege of, ii, 230-32
Allah, ii, 9-20, 24, 26
Alleghany mountains, ii, 280
Allen, Grant, i, 131
Allen, W. A. C., i, 294
Alp Arslan (älp ärs län’), ii. 72
Alphabets, i, 228, 304, 422, 627, 638-40
Alpine race, i, 146
Alps, the, i, 35, 52, 75, 471, 475, 508, 606, ii, 58, 63, 69, 194
Alsace, i, 553, ii, 200, 236, 244, 446
Alstadt, ii, 180
Altai (äl’ tī), the, i, 546, 633
Altamira (al tă mër’ ă), cave of, i, 93, ii, 605
Aluminium, ii, 389
Alva, General, ii, 229-32
Alyattes (ă li ăt’ ēz), i, 316
Amadis (ăm’ _ă_ dis) de Gaul, ii, 165, 166
Ambar, ii, 136
Amber, i, 105, 532
Amenophis (ăm _ĕ_ nō’ fis) III, i, 200, 220, 245, 250, 288
Amenophis IV, i, 196, 220, 245, 250, 251, 255, 281, 288, 412, 446, ii, 605
America, i, 56, 59, 100, 219, ii, 254, 400;
prehistoric, i, 100, 102-03, 107, 148, 207, 208;
races of, i, 100, 102-03, 138, 141, 158;
languages of, i, 150, 158, 164;
discovery of, i, 635, 640, ii, 53, 84, 117,
185 _sqq._, 193, 251-52, 269, 617;
European settlements in, ii, 252-55, 271,
273, 278-94, 304, 619.
(_See also_ United States)
America, Central, drawings, i, 207
America, South, i, 207, ii, 166, 187,
192-93, 200, 378, 457, 622
American Indians, i, 113, 124, 137, 143,
157-60, 207, 225, ii, 166, 187, 189, 254, 292, 304-05, 464
American king-crab, i, 10;
picture writing, i, 207
Amiens, ii, 530;
Peace of, ii, 355, 359
Amir, ii, 124
Amman (Philadelphia), i, 621-22
Ammianus, i, 607
Ammon, i, 249-52, 383, 399, 412, 602
Ammonites, i, 46
Ammonites, a people, i, 294
Amœba (_ă_ mē’ bȧ), i, 16
Amorites, i, 191, 279
Amos the prophet, i, 294
Amphibia, i, 26, 28, 38, 52, 55
Amphictyonies (ăm fik’ ti _ŏ_n iz), i, 313, ii, 3, 8
_Amphion_, cruiser, ii, 512
Amphipolis (ăm fip’ _ŏ_ lis), i, 371, 372
Amritzar (ăm rit’ s_ă_r), ii, 456
Amur (ă moor´), ii, 261
Anabaptists, ii, 156, 157, 162, 618
Anabasis (_ă_ năb´ _ă_ sis), the, i, 342
Anagni (ä nän´ yē), ii, 99, 616
Anatolia, ii, 72, 121
Anatolian peninsula, i, 623
Anatomy, i, 402-04, ii, 177
Anaxagoras (ăn _ă_k săg´ _ŏ_ răs), i, 349, 358, 364
Andaman (ăn´ d_ă_ măn) Islands, i, 139
Andes, i, 35, 52
Andronicus (ăn dr_ŏ_ nī´ k_ŭ_s), ii, 124
Angelo, St., ii, 612
Angles, i, 554, 605, ii, 50, 54, 66
Anglia, East, ii, 40
Anglicanism, ii, 163
Anglo-Norman feudalism, ii, 43
“Anglo-Saxon,” ii, 487-88
Anglo-Saxons, i, 564, 605, 612, ii, 47, 130, 149
Animals, i, 10, 16-23, 25-27,
52-57, 64, 66, 67, 102, 105,
112, 116, 128, 254. (_See also_ Mammals)
Anio, the, i, 458, 610
Anna Comnena (kom nē´ n_ă_), ii, 79
Annam, i, 634, 640, ii, 262, 467, 470
Anne, queen, ii, 226
Anselm, St., ii, 171
Antarctic birds, i, 44
Antigonus (ăn tig´ ō n_ŭ_s), i, 395
Antimony, i, 106
Antioch, i, 529, 589, 598, 604, 617-21, ii, 19, 78-81, 610
Antiochus (ăn tī´ ȯ k_ŭ_s) III, i, 474, 482, 483
Antiochus IV, i, 572
Antonines, i, 526-31, 537-40, ii, 610
Antoninus (ăn tō nī´ n_ŭ_s), Marcus Aurelius, i, 526-28, 540, ii, 153, 610
Antoninus Pius, i, 526, 530, ii, 610
Antony, i, 512, 514, 515
Antwerp, ii, 180, 184
Anu, i, 245
Anubis (_ă_ nū´ bis), Egyptian god, i, 236
Anytus(ăn´ i t_ŭ_s), i, 352
Apamea (ăp _ă_ mē´ _ă_), i, 621
Apes, i, 65-67, 230;
anthropoid, i, 57, 63, 65-66, 73
Aphelion, i, 30-34
Apion, i, 500
Apis (ā´ pis), i, 382, 412, 413, 590
Apollinaris Sidonius, i, 607
Apollo, i, 313, 325, 376, 611
Apollonius (ă p_ŏ_ lō´ ni _ŭ_s), i, 402
Appian Way, i, 461, 505
Apples, i, 113
Appomattox Court House, ii, 444, 623
Apuleius (ăp ū lē´ _ŭ_s), i, 607
Aquileia (ă kwē lā´ y_ă_), i, 461, 559
Aquinas (_ă_ kwī´ n_ă_s), ii, 168, 171
Arabia, i, 37, 109, 121, 154, 156, 160, 184, 196,
197, 218, 229, 273, 281, 295,
401, 533, 618, 624, 634, ii, 1-6, 11, 17, 18, 24,
51, 75, 105. (_See also_ Arabs)
Arabian Nights, the, ii, 32
Arabic language and literature, i, 148, 153,
530-31, 623, ii, 3-4, 22, 29, 31, 34-35, 159
Arabs, i, 188, 217, 327, 565, 570, 634, ii,
1-8, 15-21, 28, 32, 39, 41, 61, 67, 114, 149, 159, 257, 613;
culture of, i, 636, ii, 34-39, 88, 149, 168, 174-75
Aral sea, i, 153, 159, 387
Aral-Caspian region, i, 317
Arameans, i, 192, 218, 258, 259, 265, 570, 631, ii, 1
Arbela (är bē´ l_ă_), battle of, i, 384, 479, ii, 608
Arcadius, i, 554, ii, 611
Archæopteryx (är kē op´ t_ĕ_r iks), i, 45
Archæozoic (är kē ō zō´ ik) period, i, 9. (_See also_ Azoic)
Archer, William, ii, 473
Archers, i, 370
Archimedes (är ki mē´ dēz), i, 402, 476, 534
Architecture, ii, 60, 179
Arctic birds, i, 44;
Circle, i, 632;
Ocean, i, 153;
seas, ii, 142
Ardashir (ar dă shēr´) I, i, 617, 625, ii, 610
Ardennes, ii, 514
Argentine republic, i, 161, ii, 457
Argon, ii, 119
Argonne, ii, 329
Argos, i, 453, 454
Ariadne (ăr i ăd´ ni), i, 216
Arians (är´ i _ă_nz), i, 592, 601
Aridæus (ăr i dē´ _ŭ_s), i, 375, 394
Aristagoras (ăr is tăg´ _ŏ_ răs), i, 341, 342
Aristarchus, i, 384
Aristides (ăr is tī´ dēz), i, 312, 313, 337, 346
Aristocracy, i, 188, 265, 308
Aristodemus (ăr is t_ŏ_ dē´ m_ŭ_s), i, 336
Aristophanes (ăr is tof´ _ă_ nēz), i, 221, 355, ii, 607
Aristotle, i, 220, 305, 314, 357-59, 379, 383, 392,
397, 402, 411, 434, 493, 530, 562,
ii, 35, 37, 88, 146, 168-69, 173, 245, 419, 432;
_Politics_ of, i, 308, 309, 462, 467, ii, 169
Arithmetic, i, 219
Arius (ȧ rī´ ŭs), i, 592, 600, 648
Arizona, ii, 505
Ark of bulrushes, i, 209
Ark of the Covenant, i, 245, 284-88
Arles (arl), i, 600, 601, 609, ii, 611
Armadillo, giant, i, 102, 207
Armenia (and the Armenians), i, 169, 318, 395,
505, 523, 526, 548, 549, 603, 616, 620,
ii, 21, 64, 72, 114, 118, 121, 125, 153
Armenian language, i, 151, 169, ii, 138
Arno, i, 451, 460, 461
Arras, ii, 324, 517
Arrow, i, 508, 549
Arrow heads, i, 104, 107, 114, 130
Arrow straighteners, i, 90, 99