Normans, amalgamate with the English, 139, 146;
in Sicily, 180, note. _See also_ Northmen.
Norse literature, 99, note.
North German Federation, 660 f.
Northmen, treaty of Charles the Fat with, 96 f., 99 and note;
in Russia, 510.
Northumbria, king of, 62.
Notables, meeting of, 558 f.
Novara, battle of, 650.
Novgorod, 248, 510.
Nuremberg, 373;
diet of (1522), 410 f.
Odo, 96, 120 f.
Odoacer, 28.
Ordeal, 41, 142.
Ordination, sacrament of, 211.
Orient, European relations with, 199 f., 244.
Orleanists, 664, note.
Orleans, duke of, 292;
Maid of, 294.
Ormond, 487.
Osnabrück, 472.
Ostrogoths, _see_ East Goths.
Other-worldliness of mediæval Christianity, 45.
Othman, 517.
Otto I, the Great, of Germany, 149 ff.
Otto of Brunswick, 182.
Otto of Freising, 173, 197.
Overlord, 106, note.
Pagan idea of the life after death, 18, 45.
Paganism, merges into Christianity, 19;
of Italian humanists, 335.
Painting, Italian, 340 f., 346;
in northern Europe, 346.
Palace, school of the, 90.
Palatinate, electorate of, 372, 467;
Louis XIV's operations in, 505.
Pallium, 203, 307.
Pan-Slavic Congress of 1848, 648.
Papacy, origin of, 49 ff.;
seat of, transferred to Avignon, 306 f., 308, 317. _See also_ Pope.
Papal legates, 162.
Papal states, 75 f., 170, 320, 620, 639, 655, 667. _See also_ Pope.
Papyrus, supply of, cut off, 87.
Paris, 37, 96;
Treaty of (1763), 532;
Peace of (1783), 534;
importance in the Revolution, 570;
commune of, 581, 589;
insurrection of (June, 1848), 643;
of 1871, 664.
Parish, administration of, 208 f.
_Parlements_, French, origin of, 130 f., 547 f., 559 f.
Parliament, English, 147, 281, 286, 289;
after Wars of the Roses, 298, 308, 475;
struggle of, with Charles I, 478 ff., 496.
Parma, duchess of, 447 f.
_Parsifal_, by Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.
Patrick, St., 62.
Paulus Diaconus, 90.
Peasants' War, in England, 309;
in Germany, 407, 413 ff.
Peasants in France, condition of, before the French Revolution, 544 f.
Penance, sacrament of, 211 f.
Pepys, _Diary_ of, 492.
Persecution, religious, 432, 436;
of English Catholics, 462.
Peter Lombard, _Sentences_ of, 268, 334, 425.
Peter, St., 49 f.
Peter the Great, 511 ff.;
reforms of, 512.
Peter the Hermit, 190.
Petition of Right, 479.
Petrarch, 288, 332 ff.
Philip Augustus of France, 125 ff., 130, 183, 197, 246.
Philip the Fair, of France, 131, 196, 280;
struggle of, with Boniface VIII, 304 f.
Philip VI of France, 283.
Philip the Good, of Burgundy, 293, 295, 300.
Philip II of Spain, 436, 444 ff.;
reign of, 463 f.
Philip V, first Bourbon king of Spain, 506.
Picts, 279.
Piedmont, reforms in, 654.
_Piers Ploughman_, 290.
Pilgrim Fathers, 483.
Pillnitz, Declaration of, 577 f.
Pins, illustration of the manufacture of, 677.
Pippin of Heristal, 38.
Pippin the Short, 72 f., 75 f.
Pisa, Council of, 313.
Pitt, the elder, 530.
Pius IX, 639, 648.
Plantagenets, 125 ff., 140 ff.
Plassey, battle of, 531 f.
Plebiscite, 600, 644.
Poitiers, battle of, 285.
Poland, 153, 514;
first partition of, 521, 583 f.;
Napoleon's campaign in, 614;
dispute over, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.
Pomerania, 473.
Pondicherry, 530.
Pope, 52;
origin of name of, 52, note; 54 f., 66;
alliance of, with Franks, 72 f., 75 f.;
opposition to iconoclasm, 74, 85;
relations of, with Otto the Great, 151 f.;
position of, in tenth and early eleventh centuries, 161;
election of, 162;
powers of, claimed for by Gregory VII, 164 f.;
position of, in the Church, 202 ff.;
during the Great Schism, 310 ff.;
attitude of, toward councils, 438;
attitude of, toward Italian unity, 639, 647;
position of, since 1870, 667.
Popular sovereignty defended by Rousseau, 552.
Port Mahon, 532.
Portuguese, explorations by, 347 f.;
colonies of, 348, 527, 685.
_Praise of Folly_, by Erasmus, 383, 427.
Prayer-book, English, 435, 458, 482, 491.
Preaching Friars, 231.
Prefects, French, 599.
Presbyterian Church, 425 f., 459, 482 f.
Presbyters, 19 f., 426, note.
Press, censorship of, in the eighteenth century, 549.
Pressburg, Treaty of, 611.
Pride's Purge, 486.
Priest, 20;
duties of, 208 f.
Prime minister, 526.
Prince Charlie, 527.
Prince of Wales, origin of title of, 278.
Printing, invention of, 337 f.;
modern methods of, 678.
Privileges in France, 540;
abolition of, 567.
Protestant, origin of term, 416 f.
Protestant revolt, conditions explaining, 377;
course of, in Germany, 405 ff.
Protestant union of German princes, 415, 466.
Protestantism, in Germany, 418 ff.;
in Switzerland, 423 ff.;
in England, 430-435;
in the Netherlands, 447 ff.;
in France, 451 ff.
"Protests" of the French _parlements_, 547.
Provençal language, 254;
troubadours' songs in, 256.
Provisors, statute of, in England, 308.
Prussia, 474, 515 ff., 544;
war of, with France, 581, 583 f., 593, 613 f.;
reforms of Stein and Hardenberg, 622 f.;
after 1815, 626 f., 631;
in 1848, 646;
strengthening of army of, 656 f.;
war with Austria (1866), 660;
war with France (1870), 662 f.;
predominating influence of, in the German empire, 666.
Prussians conquered by the Teutonic knights, 196.
Ptolemy's estimate of size of the world, 350.
Pufendorf, 508.
Purgatory, 212.
Puritans, 482, 483 and note, 491.
Quakers, 491.
Quebec, 528, 530.
Racine, 500.
Railroads, development of, 678 f.
Rajah, 529.
Raphael, 344 f.
Ravenna, interior of a church at, 29.
Reaction, after Napoleon's downfall, 628;
in Germany, 634 f.
Reason, worship of, 589.
Reform Act, English, 682, note.
_Regalia_, 177.
Regensburg, formation of Catholic party at, 412.
Regular clergy defined, 59.
_Reichsdeputationshauptschluss_, 603.
Reign of Terror, 537, 573, 588 ff.;
customs of, abolished, 607.
Relics, German collections of, 377 f.
Relief, 108, note.
Religious equality, 683.
Rembrandt, 346.
Renaissance, 321, 329 f.
Republic, the "red," in France, 643.
Republican calendar, 591.
Republican party in France, origin of, 576.
Restoration in England, 490.
Reuchlin, 380.
Revolution of 1848, 642 ff.;
results of, 653.
Revolutionary Tribunal, 588.
_Reynard the Fox_, 256.
Rhine, left bank of, ceded to France, 603.
Rhine, the Confederation of the, 612 f.
Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, 126 f., 144, 197 f.
Richard II of England, 291, 315.
Richard III of England, 297.
Richelieu, 458, 467, 495;
intervenes in the Thirty Years' War, 471 f.
Rights of Man, Declaration of, 568 ff.
Rising in the north of England, 460.
Roads, 12;
poor, in the Middle Ages, 98, 242.
Robbia, Luca della, 343.
Robert Guiscard in Naples and Sicily, 180, note.
Robespierre, 589, f.
_Rois fainéants_, 38.
_Roland, Song of_, 83, note, 255.
Rollo, 122 f.
Roman Church, the mother church, 49 f.
Roman Empire, 8 ff.;
reasons for decline of, 12 ff.;
religious revival in, 18;
"fall" of, in the West, 27;
relations of, with Church, 47;
continuity of, 84 f.
Roman law, 11;
retained by Theodoric, 29;
supplanted by German customs, 40;
study of, revived, 177, 269.
_Romana lingua_, _see_ French language.
Romance languages, derivation of, 251 f.
Romances, mediæval, 254 f.
Rome, city of, 26, 53, 305, 310;
ascendency of, in art, 344;
sack of, 417, note;
made a republic, 648;
added to the kingdom of Italy, 667.
Romulus Augustulus, 28.
Roncaglia, Frederick I holds two assemblies at, 176 f.
Roncesvalles, Pass of, 83, note.
Rossbach, battle of, 520.
"Rotten boroughs," 682, note.
Roumania, 669 f.
Roumelia, Eastern, 670, note.
Roundheads, 485.
Round Table, Knights of the, 255.
_Rous_, 510.
Rousillon, 471 f.
Rousseau, 551.
Royal library of France, 501.
Rubens, 346.
Rudolf of Hapsburg, 355.
Rule of St. Benedict, 57 f.
Rump Parliament, 487 f.
Rurik, 510.
Russia, 509 ff.;
relations of, with Napoleon, 614, 620 f.;
Crimean War of, 668 f.;
recent expansion of, 686.
Sacraments, 210 f.;
attacked by Luther, 397 f.;
confirmed by the Council of Trent, 439.
_Sacrosancta_, decree, 317.
_Sagas_, 99, note.
St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 455 f.
St. Bernard, 197, 219, 268.
St. Dominic, 229 f.
St. Francis of Assisi, 225 ff., 342.
St. Mark's church at Venice, 323.
St. Meinrad, 423.
St. Omer, terms of charter of, 240.
St. Peter's Church at Rome, 344.
St. Petersburg, founding of, 512 f.
Saint-Simon, 500.
Saladin takes Jerusalem, 197.
Salamander, mediæval account of, quoted, 260.
Salisbury, oath of, 137 f.
Salt tax, French, 540.
Saracens, _see_ Mohammedans.
Saratoga, battle of, 534.
Sardinia, kingdom of, 628.
Satires of the sixteenth century, 406.
Savonarola, 361 f.
Savoy, France deprived of, 625.
Saxons, 27, 79 ff., 98;
settle in England, 60;
rebel against Henry IV, 166.
Saxony, 179 f.;
electorate of, 372;
question of, at the Congress of Vienna, 626 f.
Scandinavian kingdoms, 468 f.
Schism, the Great, 310 f., 314 f.
Schleswig-Holstein affair, 657 f.
Schoifher, Peter, 338, note.
Scholasticism, 272 f.
School of the palace, 90.
Schools established by Charlemagne, 88 f.
Science, mediæval, 260, 356;
modern methods of, 678 ff.
Scotch people, 280 f.
Scotland, 135, 278 ff., 459;
under the same ruler as England, 476;
Charles I at war with, 483;
union with England, 524;
welcomes the Young Pretender, 526 f.
Sculpture, mediæval, 262, 265 f.;
Renaissance, 340.
Secular clergy defined, 59.
Sedan, battle of, 663.
_Seigneur_, derivation of, 106, note.
Seneca, opinion on origin of practical arts, 14.
_Senior_, late Latin, 106, note.
Senlac, battle of, 136.
_Sentences_ of Peter Lombard, 210, 425.
Sepoys, 531.
September massacres, 582.
Serfdom, 16, 234;
disappearance of, in England, 290 f.;
abolished in France, 567;
in Prussia, 622.
Serfs, _coloni_ resemble the, 16, 100;
condition of, 234 ff., 414. _See also_ Serfdom.
Servia, 668 ff.
Sevastopol, 669.
Seven Years' War, 519 f.;
in India, 530 ff.
Sévigné, Madame de, 500, 505.
Sforza family, 327.
Shakespeare, 477 f.
Sheriffs appointed by William the Conqueror, 137.
Ship money, 481, 484.
Shires, 135 and note.
Sicily, 180, 182, 185, 360, note.
Sickingen, Franz von, 406 f., 409 f.
Sigismund, Emperor, 314 f.
Silesia, 518 f.
Simon de Montfort leads Albigensian crusade, 223.
Simon de Montfort, Parliament of, 146 f.
Simony, 158 f., 161, 218.
"Simple priests" of Wycliffe, 309.
"Six Articles," the, 431 f.
Slavery in Roman Empire, 13 ff.
Slavs, 82;
on the borders of Germany, 150, 153;
settlement of, in Europe, 509, 648 f.
Smith, Adam, 677.
_Social Contract_ of Rousseau, 551.
Social Democrats, 643.
Sophia of Hanover, 524.
Sorbonne, 452.
South Bulgaria, 670, note.
Southampton granted a charter, 240.
Spain, 26, 70 f., 83, 346;
maritime power of, 351;
under Charles V, 354, 356 f., 445, 451, 455;
decline of, 464;
colonies of, 527;
Napoleon attempts to control, 618 f., 623, 637;
loses American colonies, 684 f.
"Spanish fury," 450.
Spanish language, derivation of, 251.
Spanish March, 83, 94.
Spanish Netherlands, _see_ Netherlands.
Spanish Succession, War of the, 506 ff.
Spectacles, invention of, 352.
Speyer, Edict of (1526), 415 f.;
protest of, 316 f. and note.
Spice trade, importance of, 348 f.
Stamp Act, 532.
Star Chamber, Court of, 484.
State, character of, in Middle Ages, 48, 165.
States of the Church, _see_ Papal states.
Statutes of Laborers, 289.
Steam, application of, 675 f.
Steamboats, 678.
Steel, 676.
Steelyard, 248.
Stein, reforms of, 622, 631.
Stem duchies in Germany, 148 f.
Stephen, king of England, 140.
Stone of Scone, 280.
Strafford, 484.
Strand laws, 247.
Strasburg, 473;
seized by Louis XIV, 504, 663 f.
Strasburg oaths, 94.
Stuart, house of, 475.
Students' associations in Germany, 633.
Subdeacon, 20.
Subinfeudation, 106 f.
Subtenant, 107.
Subvassals, 107 ff.
Suffrage, extension of, 682.
Sully, 457 f.
Sutri, the council of, 160.
Suzerain, 106 and note.
Sweden, 468 f., 473;
under Charles XII, 513 f.
Swiss mercenaries, 423 and note.
Switzerland, origin of, 421 ff.;
Protestant revolt in, 423 ff., 473, 605, 626.
Symbolism, mediæval, 261.
Syria, Bonaparte's campaign in, 598.
Taille, 299, 540, 545 f., 556, 559.
Talleyrand, 626.
Tamerlane, 529, note.
Tancred, 180 f.
Tartars, 510.
Taxation, in Roman Empire, 13;
papal, 204, 384;
of church property, 304;
without representation, 533;
reform of, in France, 567.
Teachers, government, in Roman Empire, 12, 32.
Telescope, 67.
Templars, 195 f., 306.
Temporalities, 156.
"Tennis-Court" oath, 564.
Test Act 492;
repeal of, 683.
Tetzel, 390.
Teutonic order, 195 f.;
in Prussia, 515 f.
Theodoric, 28 ff.
Theodosian Code, provisions of, relating to the Church, 21.
Theodosius the Great, 22 f., 27.
Theology in University of Paris, 269.
Thermidor, 9th, 590, note.
Theses, Luther's ninety-five, 390 f.
Third estate, 543 ff.
Thirty-Nine Articles, the, 435.
Thirty Years' War, 465 ff.
Thomas à Becket, 142 f.
Thomas Aquinas, 231, 272.
Three Henrys, War of the, 456.
Tilly, 469 f.
Tilsit, treaties of, 614.
Timur, 529, note.
Tithe, 81, 202.
Titian, 346.
Toleration, religious, in Germany, 415 ff., 419 f.;
in France, 454 ff.;
modern, 683.
Tolls in Middle Ages, 246 f.
Toul, 452, 473.
Toulouse, counts of, 124, 256.
Tourneys, 118.
Tours, battle of, 71 f.
Towns, representatives of, summoned to Parliament, 147;
in Middle Ages, 174, 200, 232, 237 f., 248;
German, 373, 375, 604;
growth of the modern, 680.
Trade, mediæval, 238, 242 f.;
restrictions on, abolished, 680.
Trafalgar, battle of, 615.
Transubstantiation, 213, 309, 425, 431.
Treasury of "good works," 378.
Trent, Council of, 437 ff.
Treves, 12;
electorate of, 372.
Trial by jury, 142.
Trials, mediæval, 41, 140 ff.
Triple Alliance, 502 f.
Troubadours, 256.
Troyes, Treaty of (1420), 293.
Truce of God, 118.
Tsar, title of, 511, note.
Tudor, house of, 296 f.
Tuilleries, 581, 664.
Turenne, 472.
Turgot, 553, note, 554 f.
Turkey in Europe, 535;
disruption of, 628, 667 ff.
Turks, 188, 190 f., 376, 514, 517.
Twelve Articles of the peasants, 413 f.
Ulfilas translates Bible into Gothic, 252.
Ulm, 374, 611.
Unction, sacrament of extreme, 211.
United Provinces, 450, 473.
_Unity of the Church_, by Cyprian, 20.
Unity of history, 4.
Universities, mediæval, 269 f., 333, 356;
German, 380, 398.
Urban II, 188.
Usufruct, 105.
Usury, doctrine of, 245.
_Utopia_, by Sir Thomas More, 427.
Utrecht, Union of, 450;
Treaty of, 507.
Valentinian III, decree of, 51.
Valois, house of, 455.
Van Dyck, 346.
Van Eyck brothers, 346.
Vandals, 26, 33.
Varennes, flight to, 575 f.
Vassals, origin of, 102 f., 106;
obligations of, 110 f.
Vasco da Gama, 348.
Vassy, massacre of, 455.
Vatican library, 337.
Velasquez, 346.
Vendée, La, revolt of, 587.
Venerable Bede, the, 56, 64.
Venetia given to Austria, 626; 655;
ceded to Italy, 667.
Venice, founding of, 27;
commerce of, 194, 198 f., 243 f., 347;
government of, 321 f.;
painting at, 346;
war of, with League of Cambray, 364 f.;
destruction of republic of, 595;
in 1848, 648. _See_ Venetia.
Verdun, 452, 473;
Treaty of, 93;
fall of, 582.
Versailles, 498.
Vespasiano, Italian bookseller, 337, note.
Veto, royal, in England, 524 and note.
Victor Emmanuel, 650, 654 f.
Vienna, siege of, by Turks, 517 f.;
Congress of, 625 ff.;
revolution of 1848 in, 645, 650.
Vikings, 99, note.
Villa, Roman, 14, 100.
Villehardouin, 260.
Visconti, 324 f., 364.
Visigoths, _see_ West Goths.
Voltaire, 519, 549 ff.
Vulgate, 51, 439.
Wager of battle, 41.
Wagram, battle of, 619.
Waibling, castle of, 179, note.
Waldensians, 221 f., 452.
Waldo, Peter, 221.
Wales, 135, 277 f.
Wallenstein, 468 and note, 469 f.
Wallingford, charter of, 240.
Walpole, 526.
Walther von der Vogelweide, 258, 384.
_War and Peace_ of Grotius, 508.
War, neighborhood, 117 ff.
War of the Barons, 146 f.
Warfare, modern, 684, 686.
Wars of the Roses, 296 ff.
Warsaw, grand duchy of, 614, 626.
Wartburg, 405;
festival at the, 633.
Washington, George, 533 f.
Waterloo, battle of, 624.
Watt, James, 675.
Welf, 179.
Wellington, 623 f.
Wessex, 133.
West Frankish kingdom, 94. _See also_ Franks.
West Goths, 25 f., 36, 39, 71.
Westphalia, kingdom of, 614, 623.
Westphalia, Peace of, 472 f.
Whitby, Council of, 62.
White Hill, battle on the, 467.
William the Conqueror, claim of, to English crown, 136;
policy of, in England, 136 ff., 165.
William III of England, 492 ff., 505, 506, 523 f., 525.
William of Orange, king of England, _see_ William III.
William of Orange (the Silent), 448 ff.
William I of Prussia, 656 f.;
chosen emperor, 665.
"Winter king," 467.
Witenagemot, 135, 137, 147.
Wittenberg, University of, 389;
reform at, 407 f.
Wolfram von Eschenbach, 258.
Wolsey, Cardinal, 367, 427 ff.
Worms, council of, 167;
Concordat of, 171;
diet of, 400 f.;
Edict of, 403 f., 415.
Writing, style of, used in Charlemagne's time, 89.
Würtemberg, 372;
duke of, assumes the title of King, 612;
granted a constitution, 635.
Wycliffe, John, 308 f.;
influence of, on Huss, 315, 393.
Xavier, 442.
"Yea and Nay," by Abelard, 268.
York, house of, 296, 297, note.
Young, Arthur, 544.
Young Italy, 639.
Young Pretender, 526 f.
Zealand, 449.
Zipangu (Japan), 347.
_Zollverein_, 635.
Zurich, 421 f., 424.
Zwingli, 416, 420, 423 ff.
FOOTNOTES:
[1] There is a short description of Roman society in Hodgkin, _Dynasty
of Theodosius_, Chapter II.
[2] Reference, Adams, _Civilization during the Middle Ages_, Chapter II,
"What the Middle Ages started with."
[3] There are a number of editions of this work in English, and
selections from Epictetus are issued by several publishers. See
_Readings_, Chapter II.
[4] There is an English translation of this published by Stock ($1.20).
[5] Whoever separates himself from the Church, writes Cyprian, is
separated from the promises of the Church. "He is an alien, he is
profane, he is an enemy, he can no longer have God for his father who
has not the Church for his mother. If anyone could escape who was
outside the Ark of Noah, so also may he escape who shall be outside the
bounds of the Church." See _Readings in European History_, Chapter II.
[6] Reference, Adams, _Civilization_, Chapter III, "The Addition of
Christianity."
[7] See _Readings in European History_, Chapter II, for extracts from
the Theodosian Code.
[8] An older town called Byzantium was utilized by Constantine as the
basis of his new imperial city.
[9] St. Augustine, who was then living, gives us an idea of the
impression that the capture of Rome made upon the minds of
contemporaries, in an extraordinary work of his called _The City of
God_. He undertakes to refute the argument of the pagans that the fall
of the city was due to the anger of their old gods, who were believed to
have withdrawn their protection on account of the insults heaped upon
them by the Christians, who regarded them as demons. He points out that
the gods whom Æneas had brought, according to tradition, from Troy had
been unable to protect the city from its enemies and asks why any
reliance should be placed upon them when transferred to Italian soil.
His elaborate refutation of pagan objections shows us that heathen
beliefs still had a strong hold upon an important part of the population
and that the question of the truth or falsity of the pagan religion was
still a living one in Italy.
[10] Reference, Emerton, _Introduction to the Middle Ages_, Chapter III.
[11] Reference, Emerton, _Introduction_, Chapter V.
[12] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter I.
[13] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter II.
[14] See above, p. 19.
[15] See _Readings_, Chapter III (end), for historical writings of this
period.
[16] For Justinian, who scarcely comes into our story, see Oman, _Dark
Ages_, Chapters V-VI.
[17] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter IV.
[18] See _Readings_, Chapter III, for passages from Gregory of Tours.
[19] Reference, Emerton, _Introduction_, 68-72.
[20] Reference, Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter XV.
[21] The northern Franks, who did not penetrate far into the Empire, and
the Germans who remained in Germany proper and in Scandinavia, had of
course no reason for giving up their native tongues; the Angles and
Saxons in Britain also adhered to theirs. These Germanic languages in
time became Dutch, English, German, Danish, Swedish, etc. Of this matter
something will be said later. See below, § 97.
[22] Extracts from the laws of the Salian Franks may be found in
Henderson's _Historical Documents_, pp. 176-189.
[23] Professor Emerton gives an excellent account of the Germanic ideas
of law in his _Introduction_, pp. 73-91; see also Henderson, _Short
History of Germany_, pp. 19-21. For examples of the trials, see
_Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV, No. 4. A philosophical account of
the character of the Germans and of the effects of the invasions is
given by Adams, _Mediæval Civilization_, Chapters IV-V.
[24] Tacitus' _Germania_, which is our chief source for the German
customs, is to be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. VI, No. 3.
For the habits of the invading Germans, see Henderson, _Short History of
Germany_, pp. 1-11; Hodgkin, _Dynasty of Theodosius_, last half of
Chapter II.
[25] See above, § 7.
[26] For reports of miracles, see _Readings_, especially Chapters V and
XVI.
[27] Matt. xvi. 18-19. Two other passages in the New Testament were held
to substantiate the divinely ordained headship of Peter and his
successors: Luke xxii. 32, where Christ says to Peter, "Stablish thy
brethren," and John xxi. 15-17, where Jesus said to him, "Feed my
sheep." See _Readings_, Chapter IV.
[28] The name _pope_ (Latin, _papa_ = father) was originally and quite
naturally applied to all bishops, and even to priests. It began to be
especially applied to the bishops of Rome perhaps as early as the sixth
century, but was not apparently confined to them until two or three
hundred years later. Gregory VII (d. 1085) was the first to declare
explicitly that the title should be used only for the Bishop of Rome. We
shall, however, hereafter refer to the Roman bishop as pope, although it
must not be forgotten that his headship of the Western Church did not
for some centuries imply the absolute power that he came later to
exercise over all the other bishops of western Europe.
[29] The great circular tomb was later converted into the chief fortress
of the popes and called, from the event just mentioned, the Castle of
the Angel (San Angelo).
[30] For extracts from Gregory's writings, see _Readings_, Chapter IV.
[31] Benedict did not introduce monasticism in the West, as is sometimes
supposed, nor did he even found an _order_ in the proper sense of the
word, under a single head, like the later Franciscans and Dominicans.
Nevertheless, the monks who lived under his rule are ordinarily spoken
of as belonging to the Benedictine order. A translation of the
Benedictine rule may be found in Henderson, _Historical Documents_, pp.
274-314.
[32] Cunningham, _Western Civilization_, Vol. II, pp. 37-40, gives a
brief account of the work of the monks.
[33] See _Readings_, Chapter V, for Gregory's instructions to his
missionaries.
[34] See _Readings_, Chapter V.
[35] There is a _Life of St. Columban_, written by one of his
companions, which, although short and simple in the extreme, furnishes a
better idea of the Christian spirit of the sixth century than the
longest treatise by a modern writer. This life may be found in
_Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 7, translated by Professor
Munro.
[36] For extracts from the Koran, see _Readings_, Chapter VI.
[37] An admirable brief description of the culture of the Arabs and
their contributions to European civilization will be found in Munro,
_Mediæval History_, Chapter IX.
[38] One of the most conspicuous features of early Protestantism, eight
hundred years later, was the revival of Leo's attack upon the statues
and frescoes which continued to adorn the churches in Germany, England,
and the Netherlands.
[39] Charlemagne is the French form for the Latin, Carolus Magnus, i.e.,
Charles the Great. It has been regarded as good English for so long that
it seems best to retain it, although some writers, fearful lest one may
think of Charles as a Frenchman instead of a German, use the German
form, Karl.
[40] Professor Emerton (_Introduction_, pp. 183-185) gives an example of
the style and spirit of the monk of St. Gall, who was formerly much
relied upon for knowledge of Charlemagne.
[41] These decrees lose something of their harshness by the provision:
"If after secretly committing any one of these mortal crimes any one
shall flee of his own accord to the priest and, after confessing, shall
wish to do penance, let him be freed, on the testimony of the priest,
from death." This is but another illustration of the theory that the
Church was in the Middle Ages a governmental institution. It would be
quite out of harmony with modern ideas should the courts of law, in
dealing with one who had committed a crime, consider in any way the
relations of the suspected criminal to his priest or minister, or modify
his sentence on account of any religious duties that the criminal might
consent to perform.
[42] The king of Prussia still has, among other titles, that of Margrave
of Brandenburg. The German word _Mark_ is often used for "march" on maps
of Germany.
[43] The Mohammedan state had broken up in the eighth century, and the
ruler of Spain first assumed the title of emir (about 756) and later
(929) that of caliph. The latter title had originally been enjoyed only
by the head of the whole Arab empire, who had his capital at Damascus,
and later at Bagdad.
[44] As Charlemagne was crossing the Pyrenees, on his way back from
Spain, his rear guard was attacked in the Pass of Roncesvalles. The
chronicle simply states that Roland, Count of Brittany, was slain. This
episode, however, became the subject of one of the most famous of the
epics of the Middle Ages, the _Song of Roland_. See below, § 99.
[45] Reference, for Charlemagne's conquests, Emerton, _Introduction_,
Chapter XIII; Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapters XX-XXI.
[46] See _Readings_, Chapter VII, and Bryce, _Holy Roman Empire_,
Chapter V.
[47] See extracts from these regulations, and an account of one of
Charlemagne's farms, in _Readings_, Chapter VII.
[48] For the capitulary relating to the duties of the _missi_, see
_Readings_, Chapter VII.
[49] See above, p. 32.
[50] These lines are taken from a manuscript written in 825. They form a
part of a copy of Charlemagne's admonition to the clergy (789) mentioned
below. The part here given is addressed to the bishops and warns them of
the terrible results of disobeying the rules of the Church. Perhaps the
scribe did not fully understand what he was doing, for he has made some
of those mistakes which Charlemagne was so anxious to avoid. Then there
are some abbreviations which make the lines difficult to read. They
ought probably to have run as follows: ... _mereamini. Scit namque
prudentia vestra, quam terribili anathematis censura feriuntur qui
praesumptiose contra statuta universalium conciliorum venire audeant.
Quapropter et vos diligentius ammonemus, ut omni intentione illud
horribile execrationis judicium_ ...
[51] See _Readings_, Chapter VII.
[52] References for the reign of Louis the Pious, Henderson, _Germany in
the Middle Ages_, Chapter VI; Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter XXIII.
[53] Named for Lothaire II.
[54] For the text and translation of the Strasburg oaths, see Emerton,
_Mediæval Europe_, pp. 26-27, or Munro, _Mediæval History_, p. 20. A
person familiar with Latin and French could puzzle out a part of the
oath in the _lingua romana_; that in the _lingua teudisca_ would be
almost equally intelligible to one familiar with German.
[55] The following table will show the relationship of the descendants
of Charlemagne:
Charlemagne, d. 814
|
Louis the Pious, d. 840
|
+---------------------------+--------------------------+
| | |
Lothaire, d. 855 Louis the German, d. 876 Charles the Bald, d. 877
| |
| |
+-----------------------------+ |
| | |
Carloman, d. 880 Charles the Fat (deposed 887) |
| |
| Louis the Stammerer, d. 879
| |
| |
| +----------------+------------------+
| | | |
Arnulf, d. 899 Louis, d. 882 Carloman, d. 884 Charles the Simple, d. 929[56]
|
Louis the Child, d. 911.
[56] Who was too young to be considered in 884, but afterwards became
king of France and progenitor of the later Carolingian rulers.
[57] Reference, Henderson, _Germany in the Middle Ages_, Chapter VII;
Oman, _Dark Ages_, Chapter XXV.
[58] Reference, Munro, _Mediæval History_, pp. 34-39. The Northmen
extended their expeditions to Spain, Italy, and even into Russia. In
England, under the name of Danes, we find them forcing Alfred the Great
to recognize them as the masters of northern England (878). The Norse
pirates were often called _vikings_, from their habit of leaving their
long boats in the _vik_, i.e., bay or inlet. A goodly number of the
Northmen settled in Iceland, and our knowledge of their civilization and
customs comes chiefly from the Icelandic _sagas_, or tales. Some of
these are of great interest and beauty; perhaps none is finer than _The
Story of Burnt Njal_. This and others may be read in English. See
_Readings_, Chapter VIII.
[59] An account of the manor will be given later, Chapter XVIII.
[60] See an example of an immunity granted by Charlemagne to a
monastery, in Emerton, _Introduction_, pp. 246-249, also Munro,
_Mediæval History_, p. 44. Other examples are given in the _Readings_,
Chapter IX.
[61] Extracts from the chronicles of the ninth century illustrating the
disorder of the period will be found in the _Readings_, Chapter VIII.
[62] See above, p. 16.
[63] See an example of this form of grant in the seventh century in
_Readings_, Chapter IX. The reader will also find there a considerable
number of illustrations of feudal contracts, etc.
[64] See formula of "commendation," as this arrangement was called, in
_Readings_, Chapter IX. The fact that the Roman imperial government
forbade this practice under heavy penalties suggests that the local
magnates used their retainers to establish their independence of the
imperial taxgatherers and other government officials.
[65] See Adams, _Civilization_, pp. 207 _sqq._
[66] Lord is _dominus_, or _senior_, in mediæval Latin. From the latter
word the French _seigneur_ is derived. _Suzerain_ is used to mean the
direct lord and also an _overlord_ separated by one or more degrees from
a subvassal.
[67] A relic of the time when fiefs were just becoming hereditary was
preserved in the exaction by the lord of a certain due, called the
_relief_. This payment was demanded from the vassal when one lord died
and a new one succeeded him, and from a new vassal upon the death of his
predecessor. It was originally the payment for a new grant of the land
at a time when fiefs were not generally held hereditarily. The right did
not exist in the case of all fiefs and it varied greatly in amount. It
was customarily much heavier when the one succeeding to the fief was not
the son of the former holder but a nephew or more distant relative.
[68] Homage is derived from the Latin word for man, _homo_.
[69] The conditions upon which fiefs were granted might be dictated
either by interest or by mere fancy. Sometimes the most fantastic and
seemingly absurd obligations were imposed. We hear of vassals holding on
condition of attending the lord at supper with a tall candle, or
furnishing him with a great yule log at Christmas. Perhaps the most
extraordinary instance upon record is that of a lord in Guienne who
solemnly declared upon oath, when questioned by the commissioners of
Edward I, that he held his fief of the king upon the following terms:
When the lord king came through his estate he was to accompany him to a
certain oak. There he must have waiting a cart loaded with wood and
drawn by two cows without any tails. When the oak was reached, fire was
to be applied to the cart and the whole burned up "unless mayhap the
cows make their escape."
[70] The feudal courts, especially those of the great lords and of the
king himself, were destined to develop later into the centers of real
government, with regular judicial, financial, and administrative bodies
for the performance of political functions.
[71] In the following description of the anarchy of feudalism, I merely
condense Luchaire's admirable chapter on the subject in his _Manuel des
Institutions Françaises_. The _Readings_, Chapters X, XII, XIII, XIV,
furnish many examples of disorder.
[72] The gorgeous affairs of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were
but weak and effeminate counterparts of the rude and hazardous
encounters of the thirteenth.
[73] References, for the mediæval castle, the jousts, and the life of
the nobles, Munro, _Mediæval History_, Chapter XIII, and Henderson,
_Short History of Germany_, pp. 111-121.
[74] See the famous "Truce of God" issued by the Archbishop of Cologne
in 1083, in _Readings_, Chapter IX.
[75] See genealogical table, above, p. 96.
[76] Reference, Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 405-420. _Readings_,
Chapter X.
[77] Not to be confounded with the _duchy_ of Burgundy just referred to.
See p. 97, above.
[78] See genealogical table and map of the Plantagenet possessions, pp.
140-141, below.
[79] Henry's family owes its name, Plantagenet, to the habit that his
father, Geoffrey of Anjou, had of wearing a bit of broom (_planta
genista_) in his helmet on his crusading expeditions.
[80] Geoffrey, the eldest of the three sons of Henry II mentioned above,
died before his father.
[81] The Estates General were so called to distinguish a general meeting
of the representatives of the three estates of the realm from a merely
local assembly of the provincial estates of Champagne, Provence,
Brittany, Languedoc, etc. There are some vague indications that Philip
had called in a few townspeople even earlier than 1302.
[82] For the French monarchy as organized in the thirteenth century, see
Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 432-433; Adams, _Civilization_, pp.
311-328.
[83] In spite of the final supremacy of the West Saxons of Wessex, the
whole land took its name from the more numerous Angles.
[84] References, Green, _Short History of the English People_ (revised
edition, Harper & Brothers), pp. 48-52; extracts from the _Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle_ may be found in _Readings_, Chapter XI.
[85] The shires go back at least as far as Alfred the Great, and many of
their names indicate that they had some relation to the earlier little
kingdoms, e.g., Sussex, Essex, Kent, Northumberland.
[86] See above, p. 62.
[87] Often called the battle of Hastings from the neighboring town of
that name.
[88] For contemporaneous accounts of William's character and the
relations of Normans and English, see Colby, _Sources_, pp. 33-36,
39-41; _Readings_, Ch. XI.
[89] Reference, for the Conqueror and his reign, Green, _Short History_,
pp. 74-87, and Gardiner, _Students' History_, pp. 86-114.
[90]
William I (1066-1087), m. Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders
|
+----+----------------------+-------------------------+
| | |
William II (Rufus) Henry I (1100-1135), Adela, m. Stephen,
(1087-1100) m. Matilda, daughter of Count of Blois
Malcolm, King of Scotland |
| |
Matilda (d. 1167), Stephen (1135-1154)
m. Geoffrey Plantagenet,
Count of Anjou
|
Henry II (1154-1189),
the first Plantagenet king
[91] See above, p. 126.
[92] References, Green, pp. 104-112; Gardiner, pp. 138-158. A
contemporaneous account of the murder is given by Colby, _Sources_, pp.
56-59.
[93] See above, p. 126.
[94] For John's reign, see Green, pp. 122-127.
[95] The text of the Great Charter is given in _Translations and
Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 6; extracts, in the _Readings_, Chapter XI.
[96] These were payments made when the lord knighted his eldest son,
gave his eldest daughter in marriage, or had been captured and was
waiting to be ransomed.
[97] See map following p. 152 for the names and position of the several
duchies.
[98] Arnulf, the grandson of Louis the German, who supplanted Charles
the Fat, died in 899 and left a six-year-old son, Louis the Child (d.
911), who was the last of the house of Charlemagne to enjoy the German
kingship. The aristocracy then chose Conrad I (d. 918), and, in 919,
Henry I of Saxony, as king of the East Franks.
[99] See _Readings_, Chapter XII.
[100] See Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, Chapter IV, for a clear account of
the condition of the papacy, the struggles between the rival Italian
dynasties, and the interference and coronation of Otto the Great.
[101] Henry II (1002-1024) and his successors, not venturing to assume
the title of emperor till crowned at Rome, but anxious to claim the
sovereignty of Rome as indissolubly attached to the German crown, began
to call themselves before their coronation _rex Romanorum_, i.e., King
of the Romans. This habit lasted until Luther's time, when Maximilian I
got permission from the pope to call himself "Emperor Elect" before his
coronation, and this title was thereafter taken by his successors
immediately upon their election.
[102] For Otto II, Otto III, and Henry II, see Emerton, _Mediæval
Europe_, Chapter V; and Henderson, _Germany in the Middle Ages_, pp.
145-166.
[103] These grants of the powers of a count to prelates serve to explain
the _ecclesiastical_ states,--for example, the archbishoprics of Mayence
and Salzburg, the bishopric of Bamberg, and so forth,--which continue to
appear upon the map of Germany until the opening of the nineteenth
century.
[104] From the beginning, single life had appealed to some Christians as
more worthy than the married state. Gradually, under the influence of
monasticism, the more devout and enthusiastic clergy voluntarily shunned
marriage, or, if already married, gave up association with their wives
after ordination. Finally the Western Church condemned marriage
altogether for the deacon and the ranks above him, and later the
sub-deacons were included in the prohibition. The records are too
incomplete for the historian to form an accurate idea of how far the
prohibition of the Church was really observed throughout the countries
of the West. There were certainly great numbers of married clergymen in
northern Italy, Germany, and elsewhere, in the tenth and eleventh
centuries. Of course the Church refused to sanction the marriage of its
officials and called the wife of a clergyman, however virtuous and
faithful she might be, by the opprobrious name of "concubine."
[105] Pronounced _sĭm'o-ny_.
[106] Reference, Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 201-209.
[107] The word _cardinal_ (Latin, _cardinalis_, principal) was applied
to the priests of the various parishes in Rome, to the several deacons
connected with the Lateran,--which was the cathedral church of the Roman
bishopric,--and, lastly, to six or seven suburban bishops who officiated
in turn in the Lateran. The title became a very distinguished one and
was sought by ambitious prelates and ecclesiastical statesmen, like
Wolsey, Richelieu, and Mazarin. If their official titles were examined,
it would be found that each was nominally a cardinal bishop, priest, or
deacon of some Roman church. The number of cardinals varied until fixed,
in 1586, at six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons.
[108] The decree of 1059 is to be found in Henderson, _Historical
Documents_, p. 361.
[109] For text of the _Dictatus_, see _Readings_, Chapter XIII. The most
complete statement of Gregory's view of the responsibility of the papacy
for the civil government is to be found in his famous letter to the
Bishop of Metz (1081), _Readings_, Chapter XIII.
[110] For this letter, see Colby, _Sources_, p. 37.
[111] Reissues of this decree in 1078 and 1080 are given in the
_Readings_, Chapter XIII.
[112] To be found in the _Readings_, Chapter XIII.
[113] Henry's letter and one from the German bishops to the pope are
both in Henderson, _Historical Documents_, pp. 372-376.
[114] Gregory's deposition and excommunication of Henry may be found in
the _Readings_, Chapter XIII.
[115] For Gregory's own account of the affair at Canossa, see
_Readings_, Chapter XIII.
[116] For a fuller account of the troubles between Gregory and Henry,
see Henderson, _Germany in the Middle Ages_, pp. 183-210; Emerton,
_Mediæval Europe_, pp. 240-259.
[117] See _Readings_, Chapter XIII.
[118] For the emperors Lothaire (1125-1137) and Conrad III (1138-1152),
the first of the Hohenstaufens, see Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp.
271-282.
[119] Something will be said of the mediæval towns in Chapter XVIII.
[120] Reference, Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 271-291.
[121] Reference, Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 293-297.
[122] The origin of the name _Ghibelline_, applied to the adherents of
the emperor in Italy, is not known; it may be derived from Waibling, a
castle of the Hohenstaufens.
[123] The attention of the adventurous Normans had been called to
southern Italy early in the eleventh century by some of their people
who, in their wanderings, had been stranded there and had found plenty
of opportunities to fight under agreeable conditions for one or another
of the local rival princes. From marauding mercenaries, they soon became
the ruling race. They extended their conquests from the mainland to
Sicily, and by 1140 they had united all southern Italy into a single
kingdom. The popes had naturally taken a lively interest in the new and
strong power upon the confines of their realms. They skillfully arranged
to secure a certain hold upon the growing kingdom by inducing Robert
Guiscard, the most famous of the Norman leaders, to recognize the pope
as his feudal lord; in 1059 he became the vassal of Nicholas II.
[124] For John's cession of England and oath of vassalage, see
Henderson, _Historical Documents_, pp. 430-432. For the interdict, see
Colby, _Sources_, pp. 72-73.
[125] For the career and policy of Innocent III, see Emerton, _Mediæval
Europe_, pp. 314-343.
[126] An excellent account of Frederick's life is given by Henderson,
_Germany in the Middle Ages_, pp. 349-397.
[127] For the speech of Urban, see _Readings_, Chapter XV.
[128] The privileges of the crusaders may be found in _Translations and
Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 2.
[129] For Peter the Hermit, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I, No.
2.
[130] For the routes taken by the different crusading armies, see the
accompanying map.
[131] For an account of the prowess of Richard the Lion-Hearted, see
Colby, _Sources_, pp. 68-70.
[132] Heraldry may be definitely ascribed to the Crusades, for it grew
up from the necessity of distinguishing the various groups of knights.
Some of its terms, for example, _gules_ (red) and _azur_, are of Arabic
origin.
[133] References. For the highly developed civilization which the
crusaders found in Constantinople, Munro, _Mediæval History_, Chapter X.
For the culture of the Saracens, see the same work, Chapter IX.
[134] The law of the Church was known as the _canon law_. It was taught
in most of the universities and practiced by a great number of lawyers.
It was based upon the acts of the various church councils, from that of
Nicæa down, and, above all, upon the decrees and decisions of the popes.
See Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 582-592.
One may get some idea of the business of the ecclesiastical courts from
the fact that the Church claimed the right to try all cases in which a
clergyman was involved, or any one connected with the Church or under
its special protection, such as monks, students, crusaders, widows,
orphans, and the helpless. Then all cases where the rites of the Church,
or its prohibitions, were involved came ordinarily before the church
courts, as, for example, those concerning marriage, wills, sworn
contracts, usury, blasphemy, sorcery, heresy, and so forth.
[135] Many of the edicts, decisions, and orders of the popes were called
_bulls_ from the seal (Latin, _bulla_) attached to them.
[136] For an illustration of provinces and bishoprics, see accompanying
map of France showing the ecclesiastical divisions. The seats of the
archbishops are indicated by [Symbol]; those of the bishops by [Symbol].
[137] See below, § 81.
[138] Except those monasteries and orders whose members were especially
exempted by the pope from the jurisdiction of the bishops.
[139] Those clergymen who enjoyed the revenue from the endowed offices
connected with a cathedral church were called _canons_. The office of
canon was an honorable one and much sought after, partly because the
duties were light and could often be avoided altogether. A scholar like
Petrarch might look to such an office as a means of support without
dreaming of performing any of the religious services which the position
implied. For an account of the relations between the chapter and the
bishop, see Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 549-550.
[140] It should be remembered that only a part of the priests were
intrusted with the care of souls in a parish. There were many priests
among the wandering monks, of whom something will be said presently. See
below, § 91. There were also many chantry priests whose main function
was saying masses for the dead in chapels and churches endowed with
revenue or lands by those who in this way provided for the repose of
their souls or those of their descendants. See below, p. 213.
[141] For several centuries the _Sentences_ were used as the text-book
in all the divinity schools. Theologians established their reputations
by writing commentaries upon them. One of Luther's first acts of revolt
was to protest against giving the study of the _Sentences_ preference
over that of the Bible in the universities.
[142] All the sacraments,--e.g. orders and matrimony,--are not necessary
to every one. Moreover, the sincere _wish_ suffices if one is so
situated that he cannot possibly actually receive the sacraments.
[143] Confession was a very early practice in the Church. Innocent III
and the fourth Lateran Council made it obligatory by requiring the
faithful to confess at least once a year, at Easter time. For
sacraments, see _Readings_, Chapter XVI.
[144] See above, p. 183, and _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. IV, No.
4, for examples of the interdict and excommunication.
[145] The privilege of being tried by churchmen, which all connected
with the Church claimed, was called _benefit of clergy_. See _Readings_,
Chapter XVI.
[146] The bishops still constitute an important element in the upper
houses of parliament in several European countries.
[147] For a satire of the thirteenth century on the papal court, see
Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, p. 475.
[148] It must not be forgotten that the monks were regarded as belonging
to the clergy. For the various new orders of monks and the conditions in
the monasteries, see Munro, _Mediæval History_, Chapter XII, and
Jessopp, _Coming of the Friars_, Chapter III, "Daily Life in a Mediæval
Monastery."
[149] See _Readings_, Chapter XVII.
[150] See _Readings_, Chapter XVII, for the beliefs of the Albigenses.
[151] Examples of these decrees are given in _Translations and
Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.
[152] His son married an English lady, became a leader of the English
barons, and was the first to summon the commons to Parliament. See
above, pp. 146-147.
[153] For the form of relaxation and other documents relating to the
Inquisition, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.
[154] The whole rule is translated by Henderson, _Historical Documents_,
p. 344.
[155] In Italy and southern France town life was doubtless more general.
[156] The peasants were the tillers of the soil. They were often called
_villains_, a word derived from vill.
[157] The manner in which serfs disappeared in England will be described
later.
[158] Reference, Munro, _Mediæval History_, Chapter XIV, where the
subject of this chapter is treated in a somewhat different way.
[159] In Germany the books published annually in the German language did
not exceed those in Latin until after 1680.
[160] Even the monks and others who wrote Latin in the Middle Ages were
unable to follow strictly the rules of the language. Moreover, they
introduced many new words to meet the new conditions and the needs of
the time, such as _imprisonare_, imprison; _utlagare_, to outlaw;
_baptizare_, to baptize; _foresta_, forest; _feudum_, fief, etc.
[161] See above, pp. 94-95.
[162]
"Bytuene Mershe and Avoril
When spray beginneth to springe,
The little foul (bird) hath hire wyl
On hyre lud (voice) to synge."
[163] Of course there was no sharp line of demarcation between the
people who used the one language and the other, nor was Provençal
confined to southern France. The language of Catalonia, beyond the
Pyrenees, was essentially the same as that of Provence. French was
called _langue d'oïl_, and the southern language _langue d'oc_, each
after the word used for "yes."
[164] The _Song of Roland_ is translated into spirited English verse by
O'Hagan, London, 1880.
[165] The reader will find a beautiful example of a French romance of
the twelfth century in an English translation of _Aucassin and
Nicolette_ (Mosher, Portland, Me.). Mr. Steele gives charming stories of
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in _Huon of Bordeaux_, _Renaud of
Montauban_, and _The Story of Alexander_ (Allen, London). Malory's _Mort
d'Arthur_, a collection of the stories of the Round Table made in the
fifteenth century for English readers, is the best place to turn for
these famous stories.
[166] An excellent idea of the spirit and character of the troubadours
and of their songs may be got from Justin H. Smith, _Troubadours at
Home_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York). See _Readings_, Chapter XIX.
[167] Reference, Henderson, _Short History of Germany_, Vol. I, pp.
111-121.
[168] See Steele's _Mediæval Lore_ for examples of the science of the
Middle Ages. For the curious notions of the world and its inhabitants,
see the _Travels_, attributed to Sir John Mandeville. The best edition
is published by The Macmillan Company, 1900. See _Readings_, Chapter
XIX.
[169] The word _miniature_, which is often applied to them, is derived
from _minium_, i.e., vermilion, which was one of the favorite colors.
Later the word came to be applied to anything small. See the
frontispiece for an example of an illuminated page from a book of hours.
[170] So called because it was derived from the old Roman basilicas, or
buildings in which the courts were held.
[171] In France as early as the twelfth century.
[172] Notice flying buttresses shown in the picture of Canterbury
cathedral, p. 208.
[173] See _Readings_, Chapter XIX.
[174] The origin of the bachelor's degree, which comes at the end of our
college course nowadays, may be explained as follows: The bachelor in
the thirteenth century was a student who had passed part of his
examinations in the course in "arts," as the college course was then
called, and was permitted to teach certain elementary subjects before he
became a full-fledged master. So the A.B. was inferior to the A.M. then
as now. After finishing his college course and obtaining his A.M., the
young teacher often became a student in one of the professional schools
of law, theology, or medicine, and in time became a master in one of
these sciences. The words _master_, _doctor_, and _professor_ meant
pretty much the same thing in the thirteenth century.
[175] An example of the scholastic method of reasoning of Thomas Aquinas
may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.
[176] Reference, Green, _Short History of the English People_, pp.
161-169.
[177] See above, p. 147.
[178] See above, pp. 127-128 and 130.
[179] See above, pp. 131-132.
[180] Formerly it was supposed that gunpowder helped to decide the
battle in favor of the English, but if siege guns, which were already
beginning to be used, were employed at all they were too crude and the
charges too light to do much damage. For some generations to come the
bow and arrow held its own; it was not until the sixteenth century that
gunpowder came to be commonly and effectively used in battles.
[181] For the account of Crécy by Froissart, the celebrated historian of
the fourteenth century, see _Readings_, Chapter XX.
[182] See above, pp. 131-132.
[183] Reference, Adams, _Growth of the French Nation_, pp. 116-123.
[184] For an example of the Statutes of Laborers, see _Translations and
Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 5, and Lee, _Source-book of English History_,
pp. 206-208.
[185] For extracts, see _Readings_, Chapter XX.
[186] For description of manor, see above, pp. 234-235.
[187] For this younger line of the descendants of Edward I, see
genealogical table below, p. 297.
[188] See above, p. 287.
[189] The title of Dauphin, originally belonging to the ruler of
Dauphiny, was enjoyed by the eldest son of the French king after
Dauphiny became a part of France in 1349, in the same way that the
eldest son of the English king was called Prince of Wales.
[190] Reference, Green, _Short History_, pp. 274-281. For official
account of the trial of Joan, see Colby, _Sources_, pp. 113-117.
[191] DESCENT OF THE RIVAL HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK
Edward III (1327-1377)
|
+------------------------+---------------------------+
| | |
Edward, John of Gaunt, Edmund,
the Black Prince Duke of Lancaster Duke of York
(d. 1376) | |
| +--------+---------+ |
| | | |
RICHARD II | | |
(1377-1399) | | |
HENRY IV John Beaufort Richard
(1399-1413) | |
| | |
HENRY V John Beaufort Richard
(1413-1422) | |
| | |
HENRY VI | +-----------+--------------+
(1422-1461) | | |
| EDWARD IV RICHARD III
| (1461-1483) (1483-1485)
| |
| +--+----------+
Edmund Tudor m. Margaret | |
| | |
HENRY VII m. Elizabeth of York EDWARD V
(1485-1509), Murdered in
First of the the Tower,
Tudor kings 1483
[192] References, Green, _Short History_, pp. 281-293, 299-303.
[193] See _Readings_, Chapter XX.
[194] Reference, Adams, _Growth of the French Nation_, pp. 121-123,
134-135.
[195] See above, p. 128.
[196] See geneological table above, p. 282.
[197] See below, Chapter XXIII.
[198] Reference, Adams, _French Nation_, pp. 136-142.
[199] See _Readings_, Chapter XXI.
[200] The name recalled of course the long exile of the Jews from their
land.
[201] See _Readings_, Chapter XXI.
[202] For statutes, see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 5, and
Lee, _Source-book_, pp. 198-202.
[203] See above, p. 183.
[204] Reference, Green, _Short History_, pp. 235-244. For extracts, see
_Readings_, Chapter XXI; _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 5;
Lee, _Source-book_, for the treatment of the Lollards, as the followers
of Wycliffe were called, pp. 209-223.
[205] The eighth and last of these eastern councils, which were regarded
by the Roman Church as having represented all Christendom, occurred in
Constantinople in 869. In 1123 the first Council of the Lateran
assembled, and since that five or six Christian congresses had been
convoked in the West. But these, unlike the earlier ones, were regarded
as merely ratifying the wishes of the pope, who completely dominated the
assembly and published its decrees in his own name.
[206] See above, pp. 202-203.
[207] THE POPES DURING THE GREAT SCHISM
Gregory XI (1373-1378)
Returns to Rome in 1377
_Roman Line_ _Avignon Line_
Urban VI (1378-1389) Clement VII (1378-1394)
| |
Boniface IX (1389-1404) Benedict XIII (1394-1417)
| |
Innocent VII (1404-1406) _Council of Pisa's Line_ |
| |
Gregory XII (1406-1415) Alexander V (1409-1410) |
| | |
| John XXIII (1410-1415) |
| | |
| | |
| | |
+------------------ Martin V (1417-1431) -----------------+
[208] See above, pp. 222-223.
[209] For examples of the general criticism of the abuses in the Church,
see _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.
[210] This decree, _Frequens_, may be found in _Translations and
Reprints_, Vol. III, No. 6.
[211] On account of an outbreak of sickness the council was transferred
to Florence.
[212] See above, p. 186.
[213] This word, although originally French, has come into such common
use that it is quite permissible to pronounce it as if it were
English,--_rẹ-nā'sens_.
[214] See above, p. 27.
[215] See above, pp. 198-199 and 243.
[216] See above, pp. 174 _sqq._
[217] In the year 1300 Milan occupied a territory scarcely larger than
that of the neighboring states, but under the Visconti it conquered a
number of towns, Pavia, Cremona, etc., and became, next to Venice, the
most considerable state of northern Italy.
[218] A single example will suffice. Through intrigue and
misrepresentation on the part of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, the Marquis of
Ferrara became so wildly jealous of his nephew that he beheaded the
young man and his mother, then burned his own wife and hung a fourth
member of the family.
[219] See above, pp. 31-32.
[220] The translation of _The Banquet_ in Morley's "Universal Library"
is very poor, but that of Miss Hillard (London, 1889) is good and is
supplied with helpful notes.
[221] See the close of the fourth canto of the _Inferno_.
[222] See above, pp. 271-272.
[223] Copies of the _Æneid_, of Horace's _Satires_, of certain of
Cicero's _Orations_, of Ovid, Seneca, and a few other authors, were
apparently by no means uncommon during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. It seemed, however, to Petrarch, who had learned through the
references of Cicero, St. Augustine, and others, something of the
original extent of Latin literature, that treasures of inestimable value
had been lost by the shameful indifference of the Middle Ages. "Each
famous author of antiquity whom I recall," he indignantly exclaims,
"places a new offense and another cause of dishonor to the charge of
later generations, who, not satisfied with their own disgraceful
barrenness, permitted the fruit of other minds and the writings that
their ancestors had produced by toil and application, to perish through
shameful neglect. Although they had nothing of their own to hand down to
those who were to come after, they robbed posterity of its ancestral
heritage."
[224] Petrarch's own remarkable account of his life and studies, which
he gives in his famous "Letter to Posterity," may be found in Robinson
and Rolfe, _Petrarch_, pp. 59-76.
[225] See above, pp. 45-46.
[226] Historians formerly supposed that it was only after Constantinople
was captured by the Turks in 1453 that Greek scholars fled west and took
with them the knowledge of their language and literature. The facts
given above serve as a sufficient refutation of this oft-repeated error.
[227] In Whitcomb, _Source Book of the Italian Renaissance_, pp. 70
_sqq._, interesting accounts of these libraries may be found, written by
Vespasiano, the most important book dealer of the time.
[228] Manuscript, _manu scriptum_, means simply written by hand.
[229] The closing lines (i.e., the so-called _colophon_) of the second
edition of the Psalter which are here reproduced, are substantially the
same as those of the first edition. They may be translated as follows:
"The present volume of the Psalms, which is adorned with handsome
capitals and is clearly divided by means of rubrics, was produced not by
writing with a pen but by an ingenious invention of printed characters;
and was completed to the glory of God and the honor of St. James by John
Fust, a citizen of Mayence, and Peter Schoifher of Gernsheim, in the
year of our Lord 1459, on the 29th of August."
[230] Note the similarity in form of the letters in the accompanying
illustration and those in the illuminated page which serves as the
frontispiece of this volume. It is not easy at first sight to tell some
early printed books from the best manuscripts. It may be observed that
the Germans still adhere to a type something like that used by the first
printers.
[231] See above, pp. 261-262.
[232] See above, p. 263.
[233] With the appearance of the mendicant orders, preaching again
became an important part of the church service, and pulpits were erected
in the body of the church, where the people could gather around them.
These pulpits offered a fine opportunity to the sculptor and were often
very elaborate and beautiful.
[234] The frescoes in Pompeii and other slight remnants of ancient
painting were not discovered till much later.
[235] In the church of Santa Croce in Florence and in that of St.
Francis at Assisi.
[236] Fra is an abbreviation of _frate_, brother.
[237] See below, pp. 361, 363, 364.
[238] One of the most celebrated among the other Florentine painters of
the period was Botticelli. He differs from most of his contemporaries in
being at his best in easel pictures. His poetic conceptions, the
graceful lines of his draperies, and the pensive charm of his faces have
especially inspired a famous school of English painters in our own
day--the Preraphaelites.
[239] See below, pp. 364, 365.
[240] Leonardo was an engineer and inventor as well.
[241] Compare his Holy Family with the reproduction of one of Giotto's
paintings, in order to realize the great change in art between the
fourteenth and sixteenth centuries.
[242] See his portrait of Erasmus below, p. 382.
[243] For an example of the magnificent bronze work produced in Germany
in the early sixteenth century, see the statues of Philip the Good and
Charles the Bold, pp. 300, 301, above.
[244] See his portrait of Charles I below, p. 480.
[245] Marco Polo's travels can easily be had in English; for example, in
_The Story of Marco Polo_, by Noah Brooks, Century Company, 1898. A
certain Franciscan monk, William of Rubruk, visited the far East
somewhat earlier than the Polo brothers. The account of his journey, as
well as the experiences of other mediæval travelers, may be found in
_The Travels of Sir John Mandeville_, published by The Macmillan
Company, 1900.
[246] See map above, pp. 242-243.
[247] Reference, _Cambridge Modern History_, Chapter I.
[248] Reference, _Cambridge Modern History_, Chapter II. Kingsley has
described these mariners in his _Westward Ho_. He derives his notions of
them from the collection of voyages made by an English geographer,
Hakluyt (died 1616). Some of these are published by Payne, _Voyages of
Elizabethan Seamen_ (Clarendon Press, 2 vols., $1.25 each).
[249] See above, pp. 85, 151 _sq._, and Chapters XIII-XIV.
[250] Rudolf, like many of his successors, was strictly speaking only
king of the Romans, since he was never crowned emperor at Rome. See
above, pp. 152 n., 185.
[251] From 1438 to 1806 only two emperors belonged to another family
than the Hapsburgs.
[252] See above, p. 301.
[253] See above, p. 71.
[254] See map above, following p. 152.
[255] No one can gaze upon the great castle and palace of the Alhambra,
which was built for the Moorish kings, without realizing what a high
degree of culture the Moors had attained. Its beautiful and impressive
arcades, its magnificent courts, and the delicate tracery of its arches
represent the highest achievement of Arabic architecture.
[256] See above, pp. 224-225.
[257]
Austria Burgundy Castile Aragon Naples, etc.
(America)
Maximilian I = Mary (d. 1482), Isabella = Ferdinand (d. 1516)
(d. 1519) | dau. of Charles (d. 1504) |
| the Bold (d. 1477) |
| |
Philip (d. 1506) === Joanna the Insane (d. 1555)
|
+---------------+-----+
| |
Charles V (d. 1558) Ferdinand (d. 1564) = Anna, heiress to kingdoms
Emperor, 1519-1556 Emperor, 1556-1564 of Bohemia and Hungary
[258] It will be remembered that the popes, in their long struggle with
Frederick II and the Hohenstaufens, finally called in Charles of Anjou,
the brother of St. Louis, and gave to him both Naples and Sicily. See
above, p. 185. Sicily revolted in 1282 and was united with the kingdom
of Aragon, which still held it when Charles V came to the Spanish
throne. The older branch of the house of Anjou died out in 1435 and
Naples was conquered by the king of Aragon, and was still in his family
when Charles VIII undertook his Italian expedition. The younger branch
of the house of Anjou had never reigned in Naples, but its members were
careful to retain their asserted title to it, and, upon the death of
their last representative, this title was transferred to Louis XI. He,
however, prudently refused to attempt to oust the Aragonese usurpers, as
he had quite enough to do at home.
[259] See above, p. 327.
[260] More important for France than the arrangements mentioned above
was the so-called _Concordat_, or agreement, between Francis and the
pope in regard to the selection of the French prelates. Francis was
given the privilege of appointing the archbishops, bishops, and abbots,
and in this way it came about that he and his successors had many rich
offices to grant to their courtiers and favorites. He agreed in return
that the pope should receive a part of the first year's revenue from the
more important offices in the Church of France. The pope was, moreover,
thereafter to be regarded as superior to a council, a doctrine which had
been denied by the French monarchs since the Council of Basel. The
arrangements of the Concordat of 1516 were maintained down to the French
Revolution.
[261] See below, p. 428-429.
[262] The Catholic Church, on the other hand, held that certain
important teachings, institutions, and ceremonies, although not
expressly mentioned in the Bible, were nevertheless sanctioned by
"tradition." That is, they had been handed down orally from Christ and
his apostles as a sacred heritage to the Church, and like the Bible were
to be received as from God. See _Readings_, Chapter XXIV.
[263] For the origin of these and of the other ecclesiastical states of
Germany, see above, p. 156.
[264] The manner in which the numerous and often important
ecclesiastical states all disappeared in Napoleon's time will become
clear later. See below, § 244.
[265] See above, pp. 117 _sqq._ For the German law permitting feuds, see
Henderson, _Historical Documents_, p. 246. In 1467, the German diet
ventured to forbid neighborhood war for five years. It was not, however,
permanently prohibited until a generation later.
[266] For example, in one of the books of instruction for the priest we
find that he is warned, when he quotes the Bible, to say to the people
that he is not translating it word for word from the Latin, for
otherwise they are likely to go home and find a different wording from
his in their particular version and then declare that the priest had
made a mistake.
[267] Some seventeen universities had been established by German rulers
and towns in a little over one hundred years. The oldest of them was
founded in 1348 at Prague. Several of these institutions, for example,
Leipsic, Vienna, and Heidelberg, are still ranked among the leading
universities of the world.
[268] See above, § 104.
[269] For examples of these _Letters of Obscure Men_, see Whitcomb,
_Source Book of the German Renaissance_, pp. 67 _sq._, and _Translations
and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 6. The peculiar name of the satire is due to
the fact that Reuchlin's sympathizers wrote him many letters of
encouragement, which he published under the title, _Letters of
Celebrated Men to John Reuchlin_. The humanists then pitched upon the
modest title, _Letters of Obscure Men_, for the supposed correspondence
of the admirers of the monks. The following is an example of the
"obscure men's" poetry. One of them goes to Hagenau and meets a certain
humanist, Wolfgang Angst, who, the writer complains, struck him in the
eye with his staff.
Et ivi hinc ad Hagenau
Da wurden mir die Augen blau
Per te, Wolfgang Angst,
Gott gib das du hangst,
Quia me cum baculo
Percusseras in oculo.
[270] See below, pp. 426-7.
[271] This may be had in English, published by Scribner's Sons ($1.25)
or Brentano ($1.25).
[272] See above, pp. 317-318.
[273] See above, p. 203.
[274] The Augustinian order, to which Luther belonged, was organized in
the thirteenth century, a little later than the Dominican and the
Franciscan.
[275] He writes exultingly to a friend: "Our kind of theology reigns
supreme in the university; only one who lectures on the Bible,
Augustine, or some real Church father, can reckon on any listeners; and
Aristotle sinks lower and lower every day." In this way he sought to
discredit Peter Lombard, Aquinas, and all the writers who were then most
popular in the theological schools. Walker, _The Reformation_, pp.
77-91.
[276] See above, p. 211-212.
[277] It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the
indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed
in the future. There is absolutely no foundation for this idea. A person
proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the
Church, and even if he secured an indulgence it would, according to the
theologians, have been quite worthless.
[278] See above, p. 344.
[279] The complete text of the theses may be found in _Translations and
Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 6.
[280] See above, p. 209, for the Church's doctrine of the "indelible
character" which the priest received at ordination.
[281] See above, §§ 81-82. The two great works of Luther, here
mentioned, as well as his _Freedom of the Christian_, in which he
explains his own doctrine very simply, may be found translated in Wace
and Buchheim, _Luther's Primary Works_.
[282] It must be remembered that it was the emperor's business to
execute the law, not to discuss its propriety with the accused. In the
same way nowadays, should a man convicted, for example, of bigamy urge
that he believed it Scriptural to have two wives, the court would refuse
to listen to his arguments and would sentence him to the penalty imposed
by law, in spite of the fact that the prisoner believed that he had
committed no wrong.
[283] The text of the Edict of Worms is published in English in the
_Historical Leaflets_ issued by the Crozer Theological Seminary,
Chester, Pa.
[284] See _Readings_, Chapter XXVI.
[285] See below, § 167.
[286] The "Twelve Articles" may be found in _Translations and Reprints_,
Vol. II, No. 6.
[287] The Protest of Speyer is to be had in English in the _Historical
Leaflets_ published by the Crozer Theological Seminary, Chester, Pa.
[288] For the successive wars between Charles and Francis and the
terrible sack of Rome in 1527, see Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth
Century_, pp. 172-175 and 181-195.
[289] It is still accepted as the creed of the Lutheran Church. Copies
of it in English may be procured from the Lutheran Publication Society,
Philadelphia, for ten cents each.
[290] Reference, Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, Chapter V;
Walker, _The Reformation_, pp. 188-216.
[291] See above, p. 300.
[292] This condition has not changed; all Swiss laws are still
proclaimed in three languages.
[293] Switzerland had made a business, ever since the time when Charles
VIII of France invaded Italy, of supplying troops of mercenaries to
fight for others, especially for France and the pope. It was the Swiss
who gained the battle of Marignano for Francis I, and Swiss guards may
still be seen in the pope's palace.
[294] So eloquent was the new preacher that one of his auditors reports
that after a sermon he felt as if "he had been taken by the hair and
turned inside out."
[295] See above, pp. 212-213.
[296] For Zwingli's life and work see the scholarly biography by Samuel
Macauley Jackson, _Huldreich Zwingli_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1901).
[297] See below, p. 452.
[298] Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the ministers
and the elders, or _presbyters_, hence the name Presbyterian. For
Calvin's work, see Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, pp.
272-276.
[299] See above, p. 382.
[300] An English translation of the _Utopia_ is published by the
Macmillan Company at 50 cents.
[301] See above, § 139.
[302] The clergy only recognized the king as "Head of the Church and
Clergy so far as the law of Christ will allow." They did not abjure the
headship of the pope over the whole Church.
[303] These were the sufficiency of the bread without the wine for the
laity in partaking of the communion;[A] the celibacy of the clergy; the
perpetual obligation of vows to remain unmarried; the propriety of
private masses; and, lastly, of confession. The act was popularly known
as "the whip with six strings."
[A] The custom of the Church had long been that the priest alone should
partake of the wine at communion. The Hussites, and later the
Protestants, demanded that the laity should receive both the bread and
the wine.
[304]
Henry VIII, m. (1) Catherine, m. (2) Anne Boleyn, m. (3) Jane Seymour
| | |
Mary (1553-1558) Elizabeth (1558-1603) Edward VI (1547-1553)
It was arranged that the son was to succeed to the throne. In case he
died without heirs, Mary and then Elizabeth were to follow.
[305] These may be found in any Book of Common Prayer of the English
Church or of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States.
[306] For an extract from the Bishop of Worcester's diary, recording
these changes, see _Readings_, Chapter XXVII.
[307] The Catholics in their turn, it should be noted, suffered serious
persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant successors of
Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those who
obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of the
English Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to attend
Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have been
executed under Elizabeth; others were tortured or perished miserably in
prison. See below, p. 462, and Green, _Short History_, pp. 407-410.
[308] There is an admirable account of the spirit of the conservative
reformers in the _Cambridge Modern History_, Vol. I, Chapter XVIII.
[309] Protestant writers commonly call the reformation of the mediæval
Catholic Church the "counter-reformation" or "Catholic reaction," as if
Protestantism were entirely responsible for it. It is clear, however,
that the conservative reform began some time before the Protestants
revolted. Their secession from the Church only stimulated a movement
already well under way. See Maurenbrecher, _Geschichte der Katholischen
Reformation_.
[310] They may be had in English, _Decrees and Canons of the Council of
Trent_, translated by Rev. J. Waterworth, London and New York. See
extracts from the acts of the council in _Translations and Reprints_,
Vol. II, No. 6.
[311] See _Readings_, Chapter XXVIII.
[312] Reference, Parkman's, _Jesuits in North America_, Vol. I, Chapters
II and X.
[313] DIVISION OF THE HAPSBURG POSSESSIONS BETWEEN THE SPANISH AND THE
GERMAN BRANCHES
Maximilian I (d. 1519), m. Mary of Burgundy (d. 1482)
|
Philip (d. 1506), m. Joanna the Insane (d. 1555)
|
+----------------------------+
| |
Charles V (d. 1558) Ferdinand (d. 1564), m. Anna, heiress to kingdoms
Emperor, 1519-1556 Emperor, 1556-1564 | of Bohemia and Hungary
| |
Philip II (d. 1598) Maximilian II (d. 1576)
inherits Spain, the Netherlands, Emperor, and inherits Bohemia,
and the Italian possessions of Hungary, and the Austrian possessions
the Hapsburgs of the Hapsburgs
The map of Europe in the sixteenth century (see above, p. 372) indicates
the vast extent of the combined possessions of the Spanish and German
Hapsburgs.
[314] Reference, Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, Chapter
VIII.
[315] It is impossible in so brief an account to relate the heroic deeds
of the Dutch, such, for example, as the famous defence of Leyden. The
American historian Motley gives a vivid description of this in his
well-known _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, Part IV, Chapter II. The most
recent and authoritative account of the manner in which the Dutch won
their independence is to be found in the third volume of _A History of
the People of the Netherlands_, by the Dutch scholar Blok, translated by
Ruth Putnam (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 3 vols., $7.50). Miss Putnam's own
charming _William the Silent_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons, 2 vols., with many
fine illustrations, $3.75) gives an impressive picture of the tremendous
odds which he faced and of his marvellous patience and perseverance.
[316] Reference, Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, pp.
386-389.
[317] See _Readings_, Chapter XXVIII.
[318] See above, p. 221.
[319] The origin of this name is uncertain.
[320] Reference for Henry IV, Wakeman, _Europe from 1598-1715_, Chapter
I.
[321] Reference, Schwill, _History of Modern Europe_, Chapter VI, or a
somewhat fuller account in Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_,
Chapter IX.
[322] Reference, Green, _Short History_, pp. 370-376, 392-405.
[323] For English mariners and their voyages and conflicts with Spain,
see Froude's _English Seamen in the Fifteenth Century_. The account of
Drake's voyage is on pp. 75-103. See also "The Famous Voyage of Sir
Francis Drake," by one of Drake's gentlemen at arms, in E.J. Payne's
_Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America_, Vol. I, pp. 196-229, Oxford,
1893.
[324] See above, p. 62.
[325] Reference for life and death of Mary Stuart, Green, _Short
History_, pp. 379-392, 416-417.
[326] References, Green, _Short History of the English People_, pp.
418-420; Froude, _English Seamen_, pp. 176-228.
[327] Reference, Johnson, _Europe in the Sixteenth Century_, Chapter
VII, §§ 1 and 3.
[328] See above, pp. 419-420.
[329] Reference, Wakeman, _Europe from 1598-1715_, Chapter III.
[330] Wallenstein (b. 1583) had been educated in the Catholic faith,
although he came of a family with Hussite sympathies.
[331] Reference, Wakeman, _Europe from 1598-1715_, Chapter IV.
[332] Reference, Wakeman, _Europe from 1598-1715_, Chapter V.
[333] See above, p. 452.
[334] Reference, Wakeman, _Europe from 1598-1715_, Chapter VI. For a
brief and excellent review of the whole war, see Schwill, _Modern
Europe_, pp. 141-160.
[335] See above, p. 467.
[336] See above, p. 273.
[337] See the translators' dedication to James I in the authorized
version of the Bible. Only recently has it been deemed necessary to
revise the remarkable work of the translators of the early seventeenth
century. Modern scholars discovered very few serious mistakes in this
authorized version, but found it expedient for the sake of clearness to
modernize a number of words and expressions.
[338] See Lee, _Source-book of English History_, pp. 348-352.
[339] See Lee, _Source-book of English History_, pp. 352-355, for the
first writ of ship money.
[340] See above, p. 426, n. 1.
[341] The name Puritan, it should be noted, was applied loosely to the
English Protestants, whether Low Churchmen, Presbyterians, or
Independents, who aroused the antagonism of their neighbors by
advocating a godly life and opposing popular pastimes, especially on
Sunday.
[342] Reference, Green, _Short History_, pp. 595-614. For a contemporary
account of Puritans, see _Readings_, Chapter XXX.
[343] Reference, Lee, _Source-book of English History_, pp. 355-357.
[344] Reference for Cromwell's early career and his generalship, Green,
_Short History_, pp. 554-559.
[345] For charge against the king, etc., see Lee, _Source-book of
English History_, pp. 364-372.
[346] Reference, Green, _Short History_, pp. 580-588, 594-600.
[347] See below, p. 502.
[348] Reference, Wakeman, _Europe from 1598-1715_, Chapter VII.
[349] Louis does not appear to have himself used the famous expression,
"_I_ am the _state_," usually attributed to him, but it exactly
corresponds to his idea of the relation of the king and the state.
[350] Reference, Perkins, _France under the Regency_, pp. 129-141.
[351] Reference, Perkins, _France under the Regency_, Chapter IV.
[352] Reference, Perkins, _France under the Regency_, pp. 141-147.
[353] See above, pp. 488 and 492, 493.
[354] See below, pp. 517-518.
[355] Reference, Perkins, _France under the Regency_, Chapter VI.
[356] The title Tsar, or Czar, was formerly supposed to be connected
with Cæsar (German, _Kaiser_), i.e., emperor, but this appears to have
been a mistake.
[357] References, Schwill, _Modern Europe_, pp. 215-230; Wakeman,
_European History from 1598-1715_, pp. 300-308.
[358] See above, p. 196.
[359] The title King of Prussia appeared preferable to the more natural
King of Brandenburg, because Prussia lay wholly without the empire, and
consequently its king was not in any sense subject to the emperor but
was wholly independent. Since western Prussia still belonged to Poland
in 1701 the new king satisfied himself at first with the title, King
_in_ Prussia.
[360] Reference, Schwill, _Modern Europe_, pp. 230-238.
[361] Reference, Schwill, _Modern Europe_, pp. 238-247.
[362] Reference, Hassall, _The Balance of Power_, pp. 18, 19, 303-317.
See map below, p. 584.
[363] The last instance in which an English ruler vetoed a measure
passed by Parliament was in 1707.
[364] See above, pp. 278-280.
[365] Originally there had been but seven electors (see above, p. 372),
but the duke of Bavaria had been made an elector during the Thirty
Years' War, and in 1692 the father of George I had been permitted to
assume the title of Elector of Hanover.
[366] Wolsey, it will be remembered, had advanced the same reason in
Henry VIII's time for England's intervention in continental wars. See
above, p. 428.
[367] Except in 1718-1720, when she joined an alliance against Spain,
and her admiral, Byng, destroyed the Spanish fleet.
[368] Derived from _Jacobus_, the Latin for James. The name was applied
to the adherents of James II and of his son and grandson, the elder and
younger pretenders to the throne.
[369] It will be remembered that the children of James II by his second
and Catholic wife, Mary of Modena, were excluded from the throne at the
accession of William and Mary. See genealogical table on preceding page.
[370] The Dutch occupation of a portion of the coast of North America
was brought to an end, as has been mentioned, by the English. See above,
p. 492.
[371] For the settlement of the English and French in North America, see
Morris, _The History of Colonization_, Vol. I, Chapter X, and Vol. II,
Chapter XVII; also Parkman, _Montcalm and Wolfe_, Vol. I, pp. 20-35.
[372] See above, p. 348.
[373] Baber claimed to be descended from an earlier invader, the famous
Timur (or Tamerlane), who died in 1405. The so-called Mongol (or Mogul)
emperors were really Turkish rather than Mongolian in origin. A very
interesting account of them and their enlightenment may be found in
Holden, _The Mogul Emperors of Hindustan_ (Charles Scribner's Sons,
$2.00).
[374] Reference, Perkins, _France under Louis XV_, Vol. I, Chapter XI.
[375] Reference, Green, _Short History of the English People_, pp.
776-786.
[376] See below, p. 568.
[377] The interior customs lines roughly coincided with the boundaries
of the region of the great salt tax. See accompanying map.
[378] The figures indicate the various prices of a given amount of salt.
[379] See above, p. 366.
[380] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter III.
[381] See above, Chapter XVIII.
[382] Only a very small portion of the nobility were descendants of the
ancient and illustrious families of France. The king could grant
nobility to whom he would; moreover, many of the government offices,
especially those of the higher judges, carried the privileges of
nobility with them.
[383] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter XIII.
[384] See above, § 192.
[385] See Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, pp. 116-118.
[386] See the account of Voltaire's defense of Calas in Perkins, _Louis
XV_, Vol. II, pp. 198 _sqq._
[387] See above, p. 500.
[388] Turgot, the leading economist of the time, argues that it would be
quite sufficient if "the government should always protect the natural
liberty of the buyer to buy, and of the seller to sell. For the buyer
being always the master to buy or not to buy, it is certain that he will
select among the sellers the man who will give him at the best bargain
the goods that suit him best. It is not less certain that every seller,
it being his chief interest to merit preference over his competitors,
will sell in general the best goods and at the lowest price at which he
can make a profit in order to attract customers. The merchant or
manufacturer who cheats will be quickly discredited and lose his custom
without the interference of government."
[389] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter II.
[390] Turgot succeeded in inducing the king to abolish the guilds and
the forced labor on the roads, but the decrees were revoked after
Turgot's dismissal. For an admirable short account of Turgot's life,
ideas, and reforms, see Say, _Turgot_ (McClurg, 75 cents).
[391] See _Readings_, Chapter XXIV.
[392] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, pp. 238-242.
[393] See above, pp. 131-132.
[394] Reference, H. Morse Stephens, _The French Revolution_, Vol. I, pp.
13-15, 20-24.
[395] Pronounced kă-yā'.
[396] Examples of the _cahiers_ may be found in _Translations and
Reprints_, Vol. IV, No. 5.
[397] Reference, Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_, Chapter XXI.
[398] Reference, Stephens, _The French Revolution_, Vol. I, pp. 128-145.
[399] Reference, Stephens, _The French Revolution_, Vol. I, Chapter VI.
[400] This decree may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I,
No. 5.
[401] Reference, Stephens, _French Revolution_, Vol. I, Chapter VII.
[402] See above, p. 568.
[403] The text of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy may be found in
_Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I, No. 5.
[404] Reference, Mathews, _The French Revolution_, Chapter XII.
[405] The formerly despotic king is represented as safely caged by the
National Assembly. When asked by Marie Antoinette's brother what he is
about, Louis XVI replies, "I am signing my name,"--that is, he had
nothing to do except meekly to ratify the measures which the Assembly
chose to pass.
[406] By June, 1791, there were four hundred and six of these affiliated
clubs.
[407] A committee of the Convention was appointed to draw up a new
republican calendar. The year was divided into twelve months of thirty
days each. The five days preceding September 22, at the end of the year,
were holidays. Each month was divided into three _decades_, and each
"tenth day" (_décadi_) was a holiday. The days were no longer dedicated
to saints, but to agricultural implements, vegetables, domestic animals,
etc.
[408] In former times it had been customary to inflict capital
punishment by decapitating the victim with the sword. At the opening of
the Revolution a certain Dr. Guillotin recommended a new device, which
consisted of a heavy knife sliding downward between two uprights. This
instrument, called after him, the guillotine, which is still used in
France, was more speedy and certain in its action than the sword in the
hands of the executioner.
[409] Reference, for the conduct of the terrorists and the executions at
Paris, Nantes, and Lyons: Mathews, _The French Revolution_, Chapter
XVII.
It should not be forgotten that very few of the people at Paris stood in
any fear of the guillotine. The city during the Reign of Terror was not
the gloomy place that we might imagine. Never did the inhabitants appear
happier, never were the theaters and restaurants more crowded. The
guillotine was making away with the enemies of liberty, so the women
wore tiny guillotines as ornaments, and the children were given toy
guillotines and amused themselves decapitating the figures of
"aristocrats." See Stephens, _French Revolution_, Vol. II, pp. 343-361.
[410] The date of Robespierre's fall is generally known as the 9th
Thermidor, the day and month of the republican calendar.
[411] There were about forty billions of francs in assignats in
circulation at the opening of 1796. At that time it required nearly
three hundred francs in paper money to procure one in specie.
[412] See above, pp. 326-327.
[413] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. I, Chapter VIII.
[414] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 95, 96,
104-108, 114, 115.
[415] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. I, pp. 144-148.
[416] Reference, _Ibid._, Chapter X.
[417] See above, § 134.
[418] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 132-133.
[419] The roads were dilapidated and the harbors filled with sand; taxes
were unpaid, robbery prevailed, and there was a general decay in
industry. A manufacturer in Paris who had employed sixty to eighty
workmen now had but ten. The lace, paper, and linen industries were as
good as destroyed.
[420] See above, pp. 572-573, 579-580.
[421] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. I, Chapter XII.
[422] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 148-163.
[423] See _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 2.
[424] See above, p. 604.
[425] See above, p. 581.
[426] That is, a blockade too extensive to be really carried out by the
ships at the disposal of the power proclaiming it.
[427] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. II, pp. 197-207. For
documents relating to the blockade and "the Continental system," see
_Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II, No. 2.
[428] See _Readings_, Chapter XXXVIII.
[429] Napoleon was never content with his achievements or his glory. On
the day of his coronation, December, 1806, he complained to his minister
Decrès that he had been born too late, that there was nothing great to
be done any more. On his minister's remonstrating he added: "I admit
that my career has been brilliant and that I have made a good record.
But what a difference is there if we compare ours with ancient times.
Take Alexander the Great, for example. After announcing himself the son
of Jupiter, the whole East, except his mother, Aristotle, and a few
Athenian pedants, believed this to be true. But now, should I nowadays
declare myself the son of the Eternal Father, there isn't a fishwife who
would not hiss me. No, the nations are too sophisticated, there is
nothing great any longer possible."
[430] "It depends upon you alone," he said to the Spanish in his
proclamation of December 7, "whether this moderate constitution that I
offer you shall henceforth be your law. Should all my efforts prove
vain, and should you refuse to justify my confidence, then nothing
remains for me but to treat you as a conquered province and find a new
throne for my brother. In that case I shall myself assume the crown of
Spain and teach the ill-disposed to respect that crown, for God has
given me power and will to overcome all obstacles."
[431] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 193-201.
Louis Bonaparte, the father of Napoleon III, and the most conscientious
of the Bonaparte family, had been so harassed by his imperial brother
that he had abdicated as king of Holland.
[432] Reference, Rose, _Life of Napoleon_, Vol. II, Chapter XXXII.
[433] See above, p. 544.
[434] This decree may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. II,
No. 2.
[435] Reference, Rose, _Revolutionary and Napoleonic Era_, pp. 335-361.
[436] The son of Louis XVI had been imprisoned and maltreated by the
terrorists. He died while still a boy in 1795, but nevertheless takes
his place in the line of French kings as Louis XVII.
[437] Compare the accompanying map with that below, pp. 666-667.
[438] This document may be found in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I,
No. 3.
[439] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. I, Chapter IV.
[440] Observe the boundary of the German Confederation as indicated on
the map, pp. 626-627, above. Important portions of the German
constitution of 1815 are given in _Translations and Reprints_, Vol. I,
No. 3.
[441] For the Carlsbad Resolutions, see _Translations and Reprints_,
Vol. I, No. 3.
[442] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. I, pp. 229-257.
[443] The island of Sardinia had, in 1720, been given to the duke of
Savoy, who was also ruler of Piedmont. The duke thereupon assumed the
title of king of Sardinia, but Piedmont, with Turin as its capital,
remained, nevertheless, the most important part of the kingdom of
Sardinia.
[444] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. I, pp. 205-212.
[445] Reference, Fyffe, _History of Modern Europe_ (Popular Edition,
1896), Chapter XV.
[446] See above, p. 449.
[447] See above, p. 600.
[448] See map, p. 649, below.
[449] The Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia.
[450] Reference, Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. II, Chapter III.
[451] He ruled until 1861 as regent for his brother, Frederick William
IV, who was incapacitated by disease.
[452] Reference, Fyffe, _Modern Europe_, pp. 954-957.
[453] Andrews, _Modern Europe_, Vol. 2, pp. 173-180.
[454] In 1869 Spain was without a king, and the crown was tendered to
Leopold of Hohenzollern, a very distant relative of William I of
Prussia. This greatly excited the people of Paris, for it seemed to them
only an indirect way of bringing Spain under the influence of Prussia.
The French minister of foreign affairs declared that the candidacy was
an attempt to "reëstablish the empire of Charles V." In view of this
opposition, Leopold withdrew his acceptance of the Spanish crown early
in July, 1870, and Europe believed the incident to be at an end. The
French ministry, however, was not satisfied with this, and demanded that
the king of Prussia should pledge himself that the candidacy should
never be renewed. This William refused to do. The account of the demand
and refusal was given in such a way in the German newspapers that it
appeared as if the French ambassador had insulted King William. The
Parisians, on the other hand, thought that their ambassador had received
an affront, and demanded an immediate declaration of war.
[455] Reference, Fyffe, _Modern Europe_, pp. 988-1002.
[456] Alsace had, with certain reservations,--especially as regarded
Strasburg and the other free towns,--been ceded to the French king by
the treaty of Westphalia (see above, p. 473). Louis XIV disregarded the
reservations and seized Strasburg and the other towns (1681) and so
annexed the whole region to France. The duchy of Lorraine had upon the
death of its last duke fallen to France in 1766. It had previously been
regarded as a part of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1871 less than a third
of the original duchy of Lorraine, together with the fortified city of
Metz, was ceded back to Germany.
[457] The monarchical party naturally fell into two groups. One, the
so-called _legitimists_, believed that the elder Bourbon line, to which
Louis XVI and Charles X had belonged, should be restored in the person
of the count of Chambord, a grandson of Charles X. The _Orleanists_, on
the other hand, wished the grandson of Louis Philippe, the count of
Paris, to be king. In 1873 the Orleanists agreed to help the count of
Chambord to the throne as Henry V, but that prince frustrated the plan
by refusing to accept the national colors,--red, white, and blue,--which
had become so endeared to the nation that it appeared dangerous to
exchange them for the white of the Bourbons.
[458] See above, p. 75.
[459] See above, pp. 514, 517-518, 535.
[460] See above, p. 640.
[461] Herzegovina is a small province lying between Bosnia and the
Adriatic. Both Bosnia and Herzegovina appear on the map as a part of
Austria, to which they now belong, to all intents and purposes. See map,
p. 649, above.
[462] In 1885 South Bulgaria (formerly known as Eastern Roumelia)
proclaimed itself annexed to Bulgaria. The Sultan, under the influence
of the western powers, permitted the prince of Bulgaria to extend his
power over South Bulgaria.
[463] See above, pp. 351-352.
[464] See _The Progress of the Century_, Harper Bros., pp. 181-188,
232-242.
[465] Reference, for the development of the inventions, Cheyney,
_Industrial History of England_, pp. 199-216.
[466] See above, p. 488.
[467] See above, p. 500.
[468] See above, p. 553.
[469] Reference, Cheyney, _Industrial History of England_, pp. 224-239.
[470] For factory legislation in England, see Cheyney, _Industrial
History_, pp. 244-262.
[471] Reference, Cheyney, _Industrial History_, pp. 277-293.
[472] England, like the continental countries, has gradually, during the
nineteenth century, conceded the right to vote to almost all adult
males. Before 1832 a great part of the members of the House of Commons
were chosen, not by the voters at large but by a few individuals, who
controlled the so-called "rotten boroughs." These boroughs had once been
important enough to be asked by the king to send representatives to
Parliament, but had sunk into insignificance, or even disappeared
altogether. Meanwhile great manufacturing cities like Birmingham,
Manchester, and Sheffield had grown up, and as there had been no
redistribution of representatives after the time of Charles II, these
large cities were unrepresented in Parliament. This evil was partially
remedied by the famous _Reform Act_ of 1832. At the same time the amount
of property which one must hold in order to be permitted to vote was
reduced. In 1867 almost all of the workingmen of the cities were granted
the franchise by permitting those to vote who rented a lodging costing
at least fifty dollars a year. This doubled the number of voters. In
1885 the same privilege was granted to the country people.
[473] See above, p. 492.
[474] See Sir Charles Dilke on "War," in _The Progress of the Century_,
333 _sqq._
[475] The works here enumerated are those referred to in the notes
throughout the volume. They would form a valuable and inexpensive
collection for use in a high school. The prices given are in most
instances subject to a discount, often as high as twenty-five per cent.
ANNOUNCEMENTS
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE
By JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON
Professor of History in Columbia University
IN ONE VOLUME
12mo, cloth, 714 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.60
IN TWO VOLUMES
VOLUME I. 12mo, cloth, 368 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.00
VOLUME II. 12mo, cloth, 364 pages, with maps and illustrations, $1.00
The excellence of Robinson's "History of Western Europe" has been
attested by the immediate and widespread adoption of the book in many of
the best schools and colleges of the country. It is an epoch-making
text-book on the subject, in that it solves in an entirely satisfactory
manner the problem of proportion.
The book differs from its predecessors in omitting all isolated,
uncorrelated facts, which only obscure the great issues upon which the
pupil's attention should be fixed. In this way the writer has gained the
space necessary to give a clear and interesting account of the
all-important movements, customs, institutions, and achievements of
western Europe since the German barbarians conquered the Roman Empire.
Such matters of first-rate importance as feudalism, the mediæval Church,
the French Revolution, and the development of the modern European states
have received much fuller treatment than has been customary in histories
of this compass.
The work is thoroughly scholarly and trustworthy, since the writer has
relied either upon the most recent treatises of the best European
authorities of the day or upon a personal study of the primary sources
themselves. Carefully selected illustrations and an abundance of maps
accompany the text.
GINN & COMPANY PUBLISHERS
READINGS IN EUROPEAN HISTORY
By JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, Professor of History in Columbia University.
Designed to supplement his "Introduction to the History of Western
Europe"
VOLUME I. 12mo, cloth, 551 pages, $1.50
VOLUME II. 12mo, cloth, xxxii + 629 pages, $1.50
ABRIDGED EDITION. 12mo, cloth, xxxiv +
573 pages, $1.50
It is now generally recognized among teachers of history that the
text-book should be supplemented by collateral reading. Professor
Robinson's "Readings" will supply a need that has long been felt by
those dealing with the general history of Europe. For each chapter of
his text he furnishes from twenty to thirty pages of extracts, mainly
from vivid, first-hand accounts of the persons, events, and institutions
discussed in his manual. In this way the statements in the text-book may
be amplified and given added interest and vividness. He has drawn upon
the greatest variety of material, much of which has never before found
its way into English.
The extensive and carefully classified bibliographies which accompany
each chapter embody the results of careful criticism and selection. They
are carefully arranged to meet the needs of students of all grades, from
the high-school pupil to one engaged in advanced graduate work.
Volume I corresponds to Chapters I-XXII of the author's "History of
Western Europe," and closes with an account of the Italian cities during
the Renaissance. Volume II begins with Europe at the opening of the
sixteenth century. The Abridged Edition is intended especially for high
schools.
GINN & COMPANY PUBLISHERS
READINGS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY
_A collection of extracts from sources chosen with the purpose of
illustrating some of the chief phases of the development of Europe
during the last two hundred years_
By JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, Professor of History, and CHARLES A. BEARD,
Adjunct Professor of Politics, in Columbia University
Volume I. The Eighteenth Century: The French Revolution
and the Napoleonic Period. 12mo, cloth, illustrated,
410 pages, $1.40
Volume II. Europe since the Congress of Vienna. 12mo,
cloth, illustrated, 448 pages, $1.50
"READINGS IN MODERN EUROPEAN HISTORY" aims to stimulate the student to
real thought and interest in his work by bringing him right to the
sources of historical knowledge and enabling him to see the very words
of those who, writing when the past was present, can carry him back to
themselves and make their times his own. In this way the book offers the
proper background and atmosphere for "The Development of Modern Europe,"
by the same authors, which it accompanies chapter by chapter and section
by section.
Bibliographies provided in the Appendix start the student on the path to
a really thorough study of the field.
A goodly number of the readings in this volume are of the
constitutional kind which merit and richly reward careful study. A
still larger number are of the interesting and lively kind which
charm and entertain, and which are valuable because they give the
flavor of the olden times. The bibliography is no mere list of
unappreciated titles, but an excellent critical classification
which guides the student quickly on to the fundamental
works.--SIDNEY B. FAY, _Assistant Professor of History, Dartmouth
College_, in _The American Historical Review_.
GINN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS
TRENHOLME'S SYLLABI
By NORMAN MACLAREN TRENHOLME Professor of History and the Teaching of
History in the University of Missouri
A SYLLABUS FOR THE HISTORY OF WESTERN EUROPE
Part I. The Middle Ages 12mo, cloth, vii + 80 pages, 40 cents
Part II. The Modern Age 12mo, cloth, vii + 94 pages, 40 cents
In One Volume 60 cents
This topical outline is arranged to accompany Robinson's "History of
Western Europe" or to correlate with "Readings in European History" by
the same author. It is not a lecture syllabus, but is meant as an aid in
studying the text-books and Readings.
Review questions occur from time to time throughout the text, and a
brief list of the most serviceable reference books, with the publisher
and price, has been prefixed.
AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH HISTORY
12mo, cloth, xii + 122 pages, 50 cents
Especially arranged for use with Cheyney's "Short History of England" as
a text-book and the "Readings in English History" as collateral
reference. It is built upon the same lines as the author's "Syllabus for
the History of Western Europe," described above, and is arranged in
sections and subdivisions, there being ninety topics in all.
The book is admirably adapted for either short or long courses in
English history, and, with its clear analysis of leading movements and
suggestive review questions, should be a welcome aid in the teaching of
the subject.
GINN AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS