CHAPTER XLI

EUROPE OF TO-DAY

275. The scholars and learned men of the Middle Ages were but little

interested in the world about them. They devoted far more attention to

philosophy and theology than to what we should call the natural

sciences. They were satisfied in the main to get their knowledge of

nature from reading the works of the ancients, above all of Aristotle.

Roger Bacon, as we have seen, protested against the exaggerated

veneration for books. He foresaw that a careful examination of the

things about us,--like water, air, light, animals and plants,--would

lead to important and useful discoveries which would greatly benefit

mankind.

[Sidenote: Modern scientific methods of discovering truth.]

[Sidenote: Experimentation.]

He advocated three methods of reaching truth which are now followed by

all scientific men. In the first place, he proposed that natural objects

and changes should be examined with great care, in order that the

observer might determine exactly what happened in any given case. This

has led in modern times to incredibly refined measurements and analysis.

The chemist, for example, can now determine the exact nature and amount

of every substance in a cup of impure water, which may appear perfectly

limpid to the casual observer. Then, secondly, Roger Bacon advocated

experimentation. He was not contented with mere observation of what

actually happened, but tried new and artificial combinations and

processes. Nowadays experimentation is constantly used by scientific

investigators, and by means of it they discover many things which the

most careful observation would never reveal. Thirdly, in order to carry

on investigation and make careful measurements and the desired

experiments, apparatus designed for the special purpose of discovering

truth was necessary. As early as the thirteenth century it was found,

for example, that a convex crystal or bit of glass would magnify

objects, although several centuries elapsed before the microscope and

telescope were devised.

[Sidenote: Astrology grows into astronomy.]

The progress of scientific discovery was hastened, strangely enough, by

two grave misapprehensions. In the Middle Ages even the most intelligent

believed that the heavenly bodies influenced the fate of mankind;

consequently, that a careful observation of the position of the planets

at the time of a child's birth would make it possible to forecast his

life. In the same way important enterprises were only to be undertaken

when the influence of the stars was auspicious. Physicians believed that

the efficacy of their medicines depended upon the position of the

planets. This whole subject of the influence of the stars upon human

affairs was called astrology, and was in some cases taught in the

mediæval universities. Those who examined the stars gradually came,

however, to the conclusion that the movements of the planets had no

effect upon humanity; but the facts which the astrologers had discovered

through careful observation became the basis of modern astronomy.

[Sidenote: Alchemy grows into chemistry.]

In the same way chemistry developed out of the mediæval study of

alchemy. The first experimentation with chemicals was carried on with

the hope of producing gold by some happy combination of less valuable

metals. But finally, after learning more about the nature of chemical

compounds, it was discovered that gold was an element, or simple

substance, and consequently could not be formed by combinations of other

substances.

[Sidenote: Discovery that the universe follows natural laws.]

In short, observation and experimentation were leading to the most

fundamental of all scientific discoveries, namely, the conviction that

all the things about us follow certain natural, immutable laws. The

modern scientific investigator devotes a great part of his attention to

the discovery of these laws and their application. He has given up any

hope of reading man's fate in the stars or of producing any results by

magical combinations. Unlike the mediæval writers, he hesitates to

accept as true the reports which reach him of miracles, that is, of

exceptions to the general laws, because he is convinced that the natural

laws have been found to work regularly in every instance where they have

been carefully observed. His study of the natural laws has, however,

enabled him to produce far more marvelous results than those reported of

the mediæval magician.

[Sidenote: Galileo's telescope.]

276. In a previous chapter the progress of science for three hundred

years after Roger Bacon has been briefly noted.[463] With the exception

of Copernicus the investigators of this period are scarcely known to us.

In the seventeenth century, however, progress became very rapid and has

been steadily accelerating since. In astronomy, for example, the truths

which had been only suspected by earlier astronomers were demonstrated

to the eye by Galileo (1564-1642). By means of a little telescope, which

was hardly so powerful as the best modern opera glasses, he discovered

(in 1610) the spots on the sun. These made it plain that the sun was

revolving on its axis as astronomers were already convinced that the

earth revolved. He saw, too, that the moons of Jupiter were revolving

about their planet in the same way that the planets revolve about the

sun.

[Sidenote: Sir Isaac Newton and his discovery of the law of universal

gravitation.]

The year that Galileo died, the famous English mathematician, Sir Isaac

Newton, was born (1642-1727). He carried on the work of earlier

astronomers by the application of higher mathematics, and proved that

the force of attraction which we call gravitation was a universal one,

and that the sun and the moon and the earth, and all the heavenly

bodies, are attracted to one another inversely as the square of the

distance.

[Sidenote: Development of the microscope.]

While the telescope aided the astronomer, the microscope contributed far

more to the extension of practical knowledge. Rude and simple

microscopes were used with advantage as early as the seventeenth

century. Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch linen merchant, so far improved his lenses

that he discovered the blood corpuscles and (1665) the "animalculæ" or

minute organisms of various kinds found in pond water and elsewhere. The

microscope has been rapidly perfected since the introduction of better

kinds of lenses early in the nineteenth century, so that it is now

possible to magnify minute objects to more than two thousand times their

diameters.

[Sidenote: Advance in medical science.]

This has produced the most extraordinary advance in medicine and

biology. It has made it possible to determine the difference between

healthy and diseased tissue; and not many years ago the microscope

revealed the fact that the bodies of animals and men are the home of

excessively small organisms called bacteria, some of which, through the

poisonous substances they give out, cause disease. The modern treatment

of many maladies, such as consumption, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and

typhoid, is based upon this momentous discovery. The success of surgical

operations has also been rendered far more secure than formerly by the

so-called antiseptic measures which are now taken to prevent the

development of bacteria.[464]

[Sidenote: Scientific discovery and invention did not affect daily life

before the end of the eighteenth century.]

277. The discoveries of the scientist and of the mathematician did not

begin to be applied to the affairs of daily life until about a hundred

and fifty years ago. No new ways had previously been discovered for

traveling from place to place. Spinning and weaving were still carried

on as they had been before the barbarians overran the Roman Empire.

Iron, of which we now make our machines, could only be prepared for use

expensively and in small quantities by means of charcoal and bellows.

[Sidenote: The 'domestic system' of manufacture.]

Manufacture still meant, as it did in the original Latin (_manu

facere_), to make by hand. Artisans carried on their trade with their

own tools in their own homes, or in small shops, like the cobbler of

to-day. Instead of working with hundreds of others in a great factory

and being entirely dependent upon his wages, the artisan, in England at

least, was often able to give some attention to a small garden plot from

which he derived a part of his support. This "domestic system" was

displaced by factories, as the result of a series of mechanical

inventions made in England during the latter half of the eighteenth

century. Through them machinery was substituted for hand and foot power

and for the simple implements which had served the world for centuries.

[Sidenote: Cheap iron and adequate power essential to the development of

machinery.]

[Sidenote: Watt invents the steam engine.]

In order that machinery should develop and become widely useful, two

things were necessary. In the first place, there must be some strong

material available of which to make the machines; for that purpose iron

and steel have, with few exceptions, proved to be the best. In the

second place, some adequate power must be found to propel the machinery,

which is ordinarily too heavy to be run by hand or foot power. This

necessary motive power was discovered in steam. The steam engine was

devised by James Watt, an English inventor of great ingenuity. He

invented a cylinder containing a piston, which could be forced back and

forth by the introduction of steam. His progress was much retarded by

the inability of the mechanics of his time to make an accurate cylinder

of sufficient size, but in the year 1777 the new machine was

successfully used for pumping. A few years later (1785) he arranged his

engine so that it would turn a wheel. In this way, for the first time,

steam could be used to run machinery--the spindles, for example, in a

cotton mill.

[Sidenote: Steam used for spinning and weaving.]

A few years before Watt completed his improved steam engine, the old

spinning wheel had been supplanted by the modern system, in which the

thread is drawn out by means of spindles revolving at different rates

of speed. The spindles, which had at first been run by water power,

could now be propelled by steam. The old loom had also been improved,

and weaving by steam began to become general after the year 1800.

[Sidenote: Use of steam cheapens iron.]

[Sidenote: New method of producing steel.]

Machinery, however, could not become common so long as iron and steel

were expensive. The first use, therefore, to which the crude steam

engines were put was to furnish a blast which enabled the iron smelter

to employ coal instead of charcoal to fuse the iron ore (1777).

Moreover, the steam pumps made it possible for the miners to pump out

the water which impeded their work in the mines, and in this way

cheapened both the iron and the coal. Soon the so-called "puddling

furnace" was invented, by means of which steel was produced much more

economically than it could be earlier. Rolling mills run by steam then

took the place of the hammers with which the steel had formerly been

beaten into shape. These discoveries of the use of steam and coal and

iron revolutionized the life of the people at large in western Europe

more quickly than any of the events which have been previously recorded

in this volume. It is the aim of the remainder of this chapter to

indicate very briefly the variety and importance of the effects produced

by modern inventions.[465]

[Sidenote: Domestic industry supplanted by the factory system.]

278. Machinery although very efficient was expensive, and had

necessarily to be near the boilers which produced the steam.

Consequently machines for particular purposes were grouped in factories,

and the workmen left their homes and gathered in large establishments.

The hand worker with his old tools was more and more at a disadvantage

compared with the workman who produced commodities by machinery. The

result was inevitable, namely, that domestic industry was supplanted by

the factory.

[Sidenote: Advantages of machinery.]

[Sidenote: Division of labor.]

One of the principal advantages of the factory system is that it makes

possible a minute division of labor. Instead of giving his time and

thought to the whole process, each worker concentrates his attention

upon one single step of the process, and by repeating a simple set of

motions over and over again acquires wonderful dexterity. At the same

time the period of necessary apprenticeship is shortened under the

factory system, because each separate task is comparatively simple.

Moreover, the invention of new machinery is increased, because the very

subdivision of the process into simple steps often suggests some way of

substituting mechanical motion for the motion of the human hand.

[Sidenote: Examples of the increased production of goods by machinery.]

An example of the greatly increased output rendered possible by the use

of machinery and division of labor is given by the distinguished Scotch

economist, Adam Smith, whose great work, _The Wealth of Nations_,

appeared in 1776. Speaking of the manufacture of a pin in his own time,

Adam Smith says: "To make the head requires two or three distinct

operations; to put it on is a peculiar business, to whiten the pin is

another. It is even a trade by itself to put them into the paper, and

the important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into

about eighteen distinct operations." By this division, he adds, ten

persons can make among them upwards of forty-eight thousand pins in a

day. A recent writer reports that now an English machine makes one

hundred and eighty pins a minute, cutting the wire, flattening the

heads, sharpening the points, and dropping the pin into its proper

place. In a single factory which he visited seven million pins were made

in a day, and three men were all that were required to manage the

mechanism.

Another example of modern mechanical work is found in printing. For

several centuries after the development of that art the type was set up

by hand, inked by hand, each sheet of paper was laid by hand upon the

type and then printed by means of a press operated by a lever. Nowadays

our newspapers are, in the great cities at least, printed almost

altogether by machinery, from the setting up of the type until they are

dropped complete and counted out by hundreds at the bottom of a rotary

press. The paper is fed into the press from a great roll and is printed

on both sides and folded at the rate of two hundred or more newspapers a

minute.

[Sidenote: New means of communication.]

[Sidenote: Steamboats.]

279. The factory system would never have developed upon a vast scale had

the manufacturers been able to sell their goods only in the

neighborhood. The discovery that steam could be used to carry the goods

cheaply and speedily to all parts of the world made it possible for a

manufacturer to widen his market indefinitely. Fulton, an American

inventor, devised the first steamboat that was really successful, in

1807, yet over half a century elapsed before steamships began to

supplant the old and uncertain sailing ship. It is now possible to make

the journey from New York to Southampton, three thousand miles, in less

than six days, and with almost the regularity of an express train. Japan

may be reached from Vancouver in thirteen days, and from San Francisco

via Honolulu, a distance of five thousand five hundred miles, in

eighteen days. A commercial map of the world shows that the globe is now

crossed in every direction by definite routes, which are followed by

innumerable freight and passenger steamers passing regularly from one

port to another. These are able to carry goods for incredibly small

sums. For example, wheat has frequently been shipped from New York to

Liverpool for two cents a bushel.

[Sidenote: Development of the railroad.]

Just as the gigantic modern steamship has taken the place of the

schooner and clipper, so, on land, the merchandise which used to be

slowly dragged in carts by means of horses and oxen is now transported

in long trains of capacious cars, each of which holds as much as many

ordinary carts. A ton of freight can now be carried for less than a cent

a mile. In 1825 Stephenson's locomotive was put into operation in

England. Other countries soon began to follow England's lead in

building railroads. France opened its first railroad in 1828, Germany in

1835. By 1840 Europe had over eighteen hundred miles of railroad; fifty

years later this had increased to one hundred and forty thousand.

[Sidenote: Startling improvements in the means of communication.]

Besides the marvelous cheapening of transportation, other new means of

communication have resulted from modern inventions. The telegraph, the

submarine cable, and the telephone, all have served to render

communication prompt and certain. Steamships and railroads carry letters

half round the globe for a price too trivial to be paid for delivering a

message round the corner. The old, awkward methods of making payments

have given way to a tolerably uniform system of coinage. Instead of each

petty principality and each town having its own coins, as was common,

especially in Germany and Italy, before the nineteenth century, all

coins are now issued by the national central governments. Yet the most

convenient coins are difficult to transfer in large quantities, and

nowadays all considerable sums are paid by means of checks and drafts.

The banks settle their accounts by means of a clearing house, and in

this way almost no large amount of money need pass from hand to hand.

England took the lead in utilizing all these remarkable new inventions,

and with their aid became, by the middle of the nineteenth century, the

manufacturing center of the world. Gradually the new machinery was

introduced on the continent, and since 1850 countries having the

necessary coal, such as Germany and Belgium, have developed

manufacturing industries which now rival those of Great Britain.

[Sidenote: Some results of the industrial revolution of the nineteenth

century.]

[Sidenote: Rapid growth of the towns.]

280. The _industrial revolution_, as the changes above referred to are

usually called, could not but have a profound influence upon the life

and government of Europe. For example, the population of Europe appears

to have nearly doubled during the nineteenth century. One of the most

startling tendencies of recent times has been the growth of the towns.

In 1800 London had a population of less than one million; it now

contains over four million five hundred thousand inhabitants. Paris, at

the opening of the French Revolution, contained less than seven hundred

thousand inhabitants; it now has over two and a half millions. Berlin

has grown in a hundred years from one hundred and seventy-two thousand

to nearly two millions. In England a quarter of the whole population

live in towns having over two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants,

and less than a quarter still remain in the country. Our modern life is

dominated by the great cities, which not only are the center of commerce

and manufacturing, but are the homes of the artist and man of letters.

[Sidenote: Reasons for the growth of the towns.]

There are two obvious reasons for the growth of the towns since the

industrial revolution. In the first place, factories are established in

places where there is an abundant supply of coal, or where conditions

are otherwise favorable; and this brings a large number of people

together. In the second place, there is no limit set to the growth of

cities, as was formerly the case, by the difficulty of procuring food

from a distance. Paris, in the time of Louis XVI, was not a large city

in the modern sense of the word; still the government found it very

difficult to secure a regular supply of food in the markets. Now grain

and even meat and fruit are easily carried any distance. England imports

a large amount of her meat from Australia, on the other side of the

globe, and even her butter and eggs she gets largely from the continent.

[Sidenote: Abolition of most of the restrictions on trade and industry.]

281. Before the nineteenth century the European governments had been

accustomed to regulate trade, industry, and commerce by a great variety

of laws, which were supposed to be necessary for the protection of the

public. Of this we find examples in the English Navigation Acts;[466] in

the guilds, which under the protection of the government enjoyed a

monopoly of their industries in their particular districts; in the

regulations issued by Colbert[467] and in the grain laws in both France

and England, which limited the free importation and even the exportation

of grain.

The French and English economists in the eighteenth century, like Turgot

and Adam Smith, advocated the abolition of all restrictions, which they

believed did far more harm than good. The expediency of this _laissez

faire_,[468] or free-trade policy, has now been recognized by most

European powers. England abolished her grain laws (the so-called Corn

Laws) in 1846, and since then has adopted the policy of free trade,

except so far as she raises a revenue from customs duties imposed upon a

very few commodities, like liquor and tobacco. Low import duties are

collected by most of the European powers on goods entering their

territories, but all export duties have been abolished as well as all

customs barriers within the countries.

[Sidenote: Government regulations protecting the laborer.]

A short experience with the factory system showed the need of

regulations designed to protect the laborer.[469] There was a temptation

for the new factories to force the employees to work an excessive number

of hours under unhealthful conditions. Women and children were set to

run the machines, and their strength was often cruelly overtaxed. Women

and children were also employed in the coal mines, under terribly

degrading conditions. One of the great functions of our modern

governments has been to pass laws to protect the working men and women

and to improve their condition. Germany has been particularly active in

this sort of regulation, and has gone so far as to compel workingmen to

insure themselves for the benefit of their families.[470]

[Sidenote: Labor unions.]

Another development of the factory system has been the rise of labor

unions. These are voluntary associations intended to promote the

interests of their members. They have grown as the factory system has

been extended, and they now enjoy an influence in certain industries

comparable to that exercised by the craft guilds of the Middle Ages. The

governments do not undertake, however, to enforce the regulations of the

labor unions as they formerly did of the guilds.[471]

[Sidenote: The people admitted to a share in the government.]

[Sidenote: Character of modern constitutions.]

282. The extension of manufacturing industries has had much to do with

the gradual admission of the people to a share in the government. The

life in towns and cities has quickened the intelligence of the working

classes, so that they are no longer willing to intrust the affairs of

government entirely to a king or to the representatives of the upper

classes. The result of this was, as we have seen, that constitutions

were, during the nineteenth century, introduced into all the western

European states. While these differ from one another in detail, they all

agree in establishing a house of representatives, whose members are

chosen by the people at large. Gradually the franchise has been extended

so that the poorest laborer, so soon as he comes of age, is permitted to

have a voice in the selection of the deputies.[472] Without the sanction

of the representatives of the people, the king and the upper, more

aristocratic house are not allowed to pass any law or establish any new

tax. Each year a carefully prepared list of expenses must be presented

to the lower house and receive its ratification before money collected

by taxation can be spent.

[Sidenote: Equality before the law.]

The French prefaced their first constitution by the memorable words:

"All citizens being equal before the law, are alike eligible to all

public offices and positions of honor and trust, according to their

capacity, and without any distinction, except that of their character

and ability." This principle, so different from that which had hitherto

prevailed, has been recognized in most of the modern European

constitutions. The privileges and exceptions which everywhere existed

before the French Revolution have been abolished. Modern European

governments are supposed to treat all alike, regardless of social rank

or religious belief.

[Sidenote: Religious equality in England.]

[Sidenote: Repeal of the Test Act, 1828.]

At the opening of the nineteenth century England still kept on the

statute book the laws debarring Roman Catholics and dissenters from

sitting in Parliament or holding any public office. Exceptions, however,

were made in the case of the dissenters. Finally, after violent

opposition on the part of the conservative party, the Test Act, passed

in the reign of Charles II,[473] was repealed in 1828. Next year the

Roman Catholics were also given the right to sit in Parliament and to

hold office, like the other subjects of the king.

[Sidenote: Free and compulsory education under the control of the

state.]

Education, which was formerly left to the church, has during the

nineteenth century become one of the most important functions of

government. Boys and girls of all classes, between the ages of four and

fourteen or fifteen, are now generally forced to take advantage of the

schools which the government supports for their benefit. Tuition is free

in France, Italy, Norway, and Sweden, and only trifling fees are

required in Germany and elsewhere in western Europe. In 1902 the English

Parliament and the French Legislative Assembly each appropriated about

forty million dollars for educational purposes. As an example of the

rapid advance in education in recent times, it may be noted that in

1843, among those who married in England and Wales, one third of the men

and half of the women were unable to sign their names in the marriage

registers. In 1899 all but three men in a hundred could write, and

almost as many of the women.

[Sidenote: Warfare in recent times.]

283. The general advance in education has not yet taught nations to

settle all their disputes without recourse to war. It is true that since

Napoleon's downfall there have been but three or four serious wars in

western Europe, and these very brief ones compared with the earlier

conflicts. But the European powers spend vast amounts annually in

maintaining standing armies and building battle ships. France and

Germany have each a force of over half a million carefully trained

soldiers ready to fight at any moment, and two million more who can be

called out with the utmost speed should war be declared.[474] The

invention of repeating rifles and of new and deadly explosives have,

however, rendered war so terrible a thing to contemplate that statesmen

are more and more reluctant to suggest a resort to arms.

[Sidenote: European colonies in the nineteenth century.]

Recent wars and the frequent rumors of war have had their origin mainly

in disagreements over colonial matters. The anxiety of the European

powers to extend their control over distant parts of the world is now no

less marked than it was in the eighteenth century. Modern means of

communication have naturally served to make the world smaller and more

compact. An event in London is known as promptly in Sydney as in Oxford.

A government can send orders to its commanders on the opposite side of

the globe as easily as if they were but five miles away. Supplies,

ammunition, and arms are, moreover, readily and speedily transferred to

remote points.

[Sidenote: The Spanish colonies in North and South America establish

their independence, 1810-1826.]

At the opening of the nineteenth century Spain still held Mexico,

Florida, Central America, and most of South America except Brazil,

which belonged to Portugal. During the Napoleonic period the Spanish

colonies revolted and declared their independence of the mother

country,--Mexico, New Granada, Chile, and the region about Buenos Ayres

in 1810, Venezuela in 1811, etc. By 1826 Spain had been forced to give

up the struggle and withdraw her troops from the American continent. In

1822 Brazil declared itself independent of Portugal. After the recent

war with the United States Spain lost Cuba, Porto Rico, and the

Philippines, the last remnants of her once imposing colonial domains.

[Sidenote: Expansion of England during the nineteenth century.]

England, on the other hand, has steadily increased her colonial realms

and her dependencies during the nineteenth century, and has met with no

serious losses since the successful revolt of the thirteen American

colonies. In 1814 she acquired the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch, and

since then the territory has been enlarged by adding the adjacent

districts. During the last years of the nineteenth century England

busied herself extending her power over large tracts of western,

central, and eastern Africa.

England has secured her interests in the eastern Mediterranean by

gaining control of the Suez Canal, which was completed in 1869, mainly

with French capital. In 1875 she purchased the shares owned by the

khedive of Egypt. Then, since the khedive's finances were in a very bad

way, she arranged to furnish him, in the interest of his creditors and

in agreement with France, with financial advisers without whose approval

he can make no financial decision. Moreover, English troops are

stationed in Egypt with a view of maintaining order.

In the southern hemisphere England has colonized the continent of

Australia, the large islands of New Zealand, Tasmania, etc. The mother

country wisely grants these colonies and Canada almost complete freedom

in managing their own affairs. The Canadian provinces formed a

federation among themselves in 1867, and in 1901 the Commonwealth of

Australia was proclaimed, a federation of the five Australian colonies

and the island of Tasmania.

[Sidenote: Expansion of Russia since the Crimean War.]

France exercises a wide influence in Africa and even Germany has made

some effort to gain a foothold there; but the most momentous extension

of a European power is that of Russia. Since the Crimean War Russia has

pressed steadily into central Asia, so that now her boundaries and those

of the English possessions in India practically touch one another. She

has also been actively engaged in the Far East. In 1898 she leased Port

Arthur from China, and now the Trans-Siberian Railroad connects this as

well as Vladivostok on the Pacific coast with Moscow.

[Sidenote: The Far Eastern Question.]

Recent events have shown that the European powers are likely to come

into hostile relations with one another in dealing with China. The

problem of satisfying the commercial and military demands of the various

nations constitutes what is known as the Far Eastern Question.

[Sidenote: General disturbance caused by war in modern conditions.]

While all these conquests of the European powers increase the

probability of friction and misunderstandings, there is a growing

abhorrence of war. It appears more inhuman to men of to-day than it did

to their ancestors. Moreover, all parts of the world are now so

dependent each on the other that even the rumor of war may produce

disastrous results far and wide. The prospect of war frightens the

merchants, checks commerce and industry, and causes loss both to the

laborer and the capitalist.

[Sidenote: The peace conference at The Hague, 1899.]

Many difficulties between nations can now be adjusted by the rules of

international law. Arbitration is more and more frequently preferred to

war. In 1899 an international peace conference was held at The Hague at

the suggestion of the Tsar. Its object was to consider how the European

powers might free themselves from the burden of supporting tremendous

armies and purchasing the terrible engines of destruction which modern

ingenuity has conceived. The resolutions of the conference embody rules

for adjusting international disputes and prohibiting the use of

particularly cruel and murderous projectiles, and for the treatment of

prisoners of war, etc.

It has been possible to mention only a few of the startling achievements

and changes which the nineteenth century has witnessed. Enough has,

however, been said to show that Europe to-day differs perhaps more

fundamentally from the Europe Napoleon knew than did Napoleon's world

from Charlemagne's. Although civil and religious liberty and equality

have been established, and incredible progress has been made in

scientific thought, in general enlightenment, and in domestic comfort,

yet the growth of democracy, the magnitude of the modern city, and the

unprecedented development of industry and commerce have brought with

them new and urgent problems which the future must face.

General Reading.--_The Progress of the Century_ (Harper & Bros.,

$2.50), a collection of essays by distinguished writers and

investigators, summing up the changes of the nineteenth century.

_The Statesman's Year Book_ (The Macmillan Company, $3.00) is

issued each year and gives much valuable information in regard to

the population, constitution, finances, educational system, etc.,

of the European states. WELLS, _Recent Economic Changes_ (D.

Appleton & Co., $2.00).

LIST OF BOOKS[475]

ADAMS, GEORGE B., _Civilization during the Middle Ages_ (Charles

Scribner's Sons, $2.50).

ADAMS, GEORGE B., _Growth of the French Nation_ (The Macmillan Company,

$1.25).

ANDREWS, _Historical Development of Modern Europe_ (G.P. Putnam's Sons,

$2.75).

BRYCE, _The Holy Roman Empire_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.00).

_Cambridge Modern History_, Volume I (The Macmillan Company, $3.75).

CESARESCO, _Liberation of Italy_ (Charles Scribner's Sons, $1.75).

CHEYNEY, _Industrial and Social History of England_ (The Macmillan

Company, $1.40).

COLBY, _Selections from the Sources of English History_ (Longmans, Green

& Co., $1.50).

CUNNINGHAM, _Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects: Volume II_,

_Mediæval and Modern Times_ (The Macmillan Company, $1.25).

EMERTON, _Introduction to the Study of the Middle Ages_ (Ginn & Company,

$1.12).

EMERTON, _Mediæval Europe_ (Ginn & Company, $1.50).

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INDEX

Abbeys, _see_ Monasteries.

Abbot, meaning of, 58.

Abbots chosen by feudal lords, 155.

Abelard, 268 f.

Absolute monarchy, 475 ff., 496 ff.

Acolyte, 20.

Acre taken in First Crusade, 194.

Act of Appeals, 430.

Act of Supremacy, 430.

Act of Uniformity, 491.

Adda, valley of, 471.

_Address to the German Nobility_, by Luther, 396 f.

Adrian VI, Pope, attempts reformation of Church, 310.

Adrianople, battle of, 25.

_Æneid_, copies of, in Middle Ages, 333, note.

Agincourt, battle of (1415), 292.

Agricola, Rudolph, 379.

Aids, feudal, 111, 145 and note.

Aistulf, Lombard king, 74 f.

Aix-la-Chapelle, Charlemagne's palace at, 78.

Alaric takes Rome, 26.

Albertus Magnus, 231, 260;

writes commentary on Aristotle, 272.

Albigenses, 221 f.;

crusade against, 223 f., 256.

Alchemy, 672.

Aleander's views of Protestant revolt, 399, 403.

Alemanni, 35;

attempted conversion of, by St. Columban, 65.

Alessandria built, 178.

Alexander III, Pope, 178 f.

Alexander VI, Pope (Borgia), 362, 364.

Alexander I, Tsar, 611, 620.

Alexius, Emperor, and First Crusade, 188, 191.

Alfred the Great, 133 f.

Alsace ceded to Germany, 472 f., 663 and note.

Alva, 448 ff.

Amalfi, commerce of, 243.

Ambrose, 51.

America, North, explored by English, 351.

American colonies of England, revolt of, 532 ff.

American Revolution, 533 ff.

Amiens, rupture of Treaty of, 610.

Anabaptists, 416.

Anagni, attack on Boniface VIII at, 306.

_Ancien Régime_, 537 ff.

Andrea del Sarto, 346.

Angelico, Fra, 343.

Angevins, _see_ Plantagenets.

Angles, 27;

settle in Britain, 60.

Anglo-Saxon, 253.

_Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, 134, 253.

Anjou, 126, 301.

Anne, Queen, 524.

Antioch, Latin principality of, 193.

Antwerp, 450.

_Appanages_, creation of, in France, 128.

Aquinas, 231, 272.

Aquitaine, 67, 82, 93, 124, 126. _See also_ Guienne.

Arabia, 243.

Arabs, condition of, before Mohammed, 69;

conquests of, 70 f.;

conquer Syria, 188;

civilization of, in Spain, 356.

Aragon united with Castile, 357.

Archbishops, origin of, 21;

powers of, 203 ff.

Arches defined and illustrated, 264.

Architecture, mediæval, 262 f.;

Romanesque, 263;

Gothic, 264 f.;

domestic, 266 f.;

Renaissance, 339 f.

Aristotle, mediæval veneration for, 271 f.;

Dante's estimate of, 331.

Arius, 30.

Arles, _see_ Burgundy.

Armada, 463.

Arnold of Brescia, 177.

Arnulf of Carinthia, 97.

Art, mediæval, 261 f.;

fostered by Italian despots, 326;

Renaissance, 339;

Arabic, 356.

Arthur, nephew of John of England, 127.

Artois, count of, 575, 630. _See_ Charles X of France.

_Assignats_, 571, 591 and note.

Astrology, 260, 672.

Astronomy, mediæval knowledge of, 331;

discoveries of Copernicus, 351;

modern, 672 f.

Athanasius, 50.

Athens, school at, closed, 33.

Attila, 27.

Augsburg, Hungarians defeated near, 150;

confession of, 417 f.;

diet of, 417 f.;

religious Peace of, 419 f., 465.

Augustine, Bishop of England, 61.

Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, 26, note, 51, 390, 393.

Augustinian order, 385, note, 387.

Austerlitz, battle of, 611.

Australia, 685 f.

Austrasia, 37, 38.

Austria, 150, 354 f.;

hold of, on Italy, 507;

conflicts with Turks, 517 f.;

war of 1809 with Napoleon, 619;

mixed population of, 632;

influence of, after 1815, 640;

revolution of 1848 in, 644 f.;

opposition of, to German unity, 651 f.;

decline of influence of, after 1851, 653 f.;

war with Prussia (1866), 660.

Austrian Mark, 150.

Austrian Netherlands, given to France, 604;

to Holland, 625.

Austrian Succession, War of, 518 ff.

Avignon, seat of papacy (1305-1377), 307 f.;

Clement VII, anti-pope, reëstablishes papal court at, 310.

Azores Islands discovered by Portuguese, 347.

Baber, 529 and note.

Babylonian Captivity of the Church (1305-1377), 307 f.

_Babylonian Captivity of the Church_, by Luther, 397.

Bacon, Francis, 478.

Bacon, Roger, 273, 478, 671.

Bacteria, 674.

Baden granted a constitution, 635.

Bæda, _see_ Venerable Bede.

Bagdad, 83, note.

_Baillis_, established by Philip Augustus, 130.

Balance of power, 427 f., 625 f.

Baldwin, in First Crusade, 191 f.;

ruler of Jerusalem, 194.

Balliol, 279.

Banking, origin of, 246.

Bannockburn, battle of (1314), 280.

_Banquet_, Dante's, 331.

Baptism essential to salvation, 46;

sacrament of, 210.

Baptists, 491.

Barbarians, _see_ Germans.

_Barbarians, Laws of the_, 40.

Barbarossa, Frederick, _see_ Frederick I, Emperor.

Barebone's Parliament, 489.

Barons, War of the, 146 f.

Basel, Council of (1431-1449), 318 f.

Basil, 51.

Bastile, fall of the, 565.

Bavaria, conquered by the Franks, 37; 65, 67, 82, 93, 98, 112;

made an electorate, 467;

in War of Austrian Succession, 518 f.;

elector of, assumes title of king, 612;

granted a constitution, 635.

Baylen, battle of, 618.

Bede, _see_ Venerable Bede.

Bedford, duke of, 293.

"Beggars" of the Netherlands, 447.

Belgium, 627 f.;

becomes an independent kingdom, 640 f.

Belisarius overthrows the Vandal kingdom, 33.

Benedict, St., 57 f.;

Rule of, 57 f.

Benedict IX, Pope, 160.

Benedict XIII, Pope, deposed by Council of Pisa, 313;

by Council of Constance, 315.

Benedictine order, 57, note.

_Beneficium_, 105 f.

Berbers, 71.

Berlin, Congress of, 670.

Bible, translated into Gothic, 252;

Wycliffe's translation of, 309;

first printed, 338;

German, before Luther, 378, 405;

Luther's translation of, 405 f.;

German, for Catholics, 413;

English translation of, 431;

King James version of, 478 and note.

Bishop of Rome, not yet pope in Constantine's time, 21;

obscurity of the early, 50;

Valentinian's decree concerning, 51.

_See_ Pope.

Bishops, origin of, 20, 67;

method of choosing, 155;

complicated position of, 156, 174;

duties, position, and importance of, 204, 206 f.

Bismarck, 657 ff., 663.

Black Death (1348-1349), 288.

Black Friars, _see_ Dominicans.

"Black Hole" of Calcutta, 531.

Black Prince of England, at Crécy, 285;

and Poitiers, 287.

Blockade, 615 f.

Boethius, last distinguished Roman writer, 19, 31 f., 134.

Bohemia, Huss spreads Wycliffe's doctrines in, 309;

relation with Council of Basel, 318 f.;

revolts from the Hapsburgs, 466 f.;

in 1848, 646, 648.

Bohemians, Charlemagne forces, to pay tribute, 82.

Bohemond, in First Crusade, 191 f.

Boleyn, Anne, 429 f.

Bologna, study of Roman law at, 177.

Bonaparte, analysis of character of, 595 ff.

_See_ Napoleon.

Bonaventura, head of Franciscan order, quoted, 232.

Boniface, St., apostle to the Germans, 65 f.;

anoints Pippin, 73.

Boniface VIII, Pope, struggle with Philip the Fair, 304 f.

Book of Prayer, English, 435, 458, 482, 491.

Books copied by monks, 58.

Borgia, Cæsar, hero of Machiavelli's _Prince_, 362.

Borgia, Pope Alexander VI, 362.

Borodino, battle of, 621.

Bosnia, 669, 670 and note.

Boso, count of Vienne, 97.

Bosworth Field, battle of, 297.

Bothwell, 459 f.

Boulogne, Napoleon's army at, 610 f.

Bourbon kings, 453, 630.

Brandenburg, electorate of, 372, 474, 515 f.

_See_ Prussia.

Brazil, 685.

Breitenfeld, battle of, 470.

Bremen, foundation of, 81;

commerce of, 244;

member of the German empire, 604.

Bretigny, Treaty of (1360), 286 f.

Britain conquered by the Angles and Saxons, 60;

church of, yields to Roman Church, 62.

Brittany, 123.

Bruce, Robert, 279 f.

Bruges, 123, 245.

Brumaire, eighteenth, 598.

Bruni, Leonardo, estimate of importance of Greek studies, 336.

Bruno, Archbishop, 149.

Buckingham, 478.

Bulgaria, 669 f.

Bulgaria, South, 670, note.

Bulls, papal, origin of name, 204, note.

_Bundesrath_, 661, 666.

Burgher class, rise of, 249.

Burgundians, 30, 36;

number of, entering the empire, 39.

Burgundy, county of, 366, 471.

_See also_ Franche-Comté.

Burgundy, duchy of, 124, 292;

alliance with England, 292 f.;

importance of, under Philip the Good and Charles the Bold, 300, 354,

417.

Burgundy, kingdom of, 38, 97, 124 and note, 153.

_Burnt Njal, The Story of_, 99, note.

Buttress, flying, defined and illustrated, 264 f.

Byzantium, 22, note.

Cabinet, English, 524 f.

Cadiz, 479.

Cædmon, 253.

Cæsar, drives back the Germans, 5;

conquers Britain, 60.

_Cahiers_, 562 f.

Calais taken by English, 285, 295.

Calcutta, 529;

"Black Hole" of, 531.

Calendar, French republican, 582 and note.

Caliph, title of, 70.

Calmar, Union of, 469.

Calonne, 556 f.;

reforms proposed by, 558 ff.

Calvin, 425 f., 452.

Calvinists, 420, 473.

Cambray, League of (1508), 365.

Campo-Formio, Treaty of, 594 f.

Canada won by the English, 530, 532, 685 f.

Canary Islands discovered by Portuguese, 347.

Canon law, 202, note;

burned by Luther, 399.

Canonical election, 155.

Canons, 207, note.

_Canons and decrees of the Council of Trent, The_, 440.

Canossa, 169.

Canterbury, the religious capital of England, 61;

St. Martin's at, 61;

dispute concerning Archbishop of, under John, 183.

Capet, Hugh, 121.

Capetian kings, position of early, 121 f., 124 f.

Capitularies, 87.

_Carbonari_, 637.

Cardinals, 162 and note, 204.

Carloman, brother of Pippin, 72.

Carlsbad Resolutions, 634 f.

Carlstadt, 407 f.

Carnot, 588.

Carolingian line in France, 120 f.

Cassiodorus, his treatises on the liberal arts and sciences, 32.

Castile, united with Aragon, 357.

Castle, mediæval, 100, 267.

Catechism, Napoleon's, 617.

Cathari, 221.

Cathedral, the mediæval, 262 f.;

of Wells, 265 f.

Catherine de' Medici, 454 f.

Catherine of Aragon, 367, 428 ff.

Catherine II of Russia, 514.

Catholic Church, early conception of, 20.

_See_ Church, Clergy.

Catholic League of Dessau, 415.

Catholic League in Germany, 466 f.

Catholic party, formation of a, at Regensburg, 412.

Catholic reaction, 438, note.

Catholic reformation, 412 f., 437 ff.

Cavaliers, 485.

Cavour, 654.

Celibacy of the clergy, _see_ Marriage.

Celts in Britain, 60.

Chalcedon, Act of the Council of, 51.

Châlons, battle of, 27.

Champagne, counts of, growth of possessions of, 113 f;

position of, 114 f.

Chapter, cathedral, 207.

Charlemagne, 77 ff.;

ideal of, of a great German empire, 79;

coronation of, as emperor, 83 f.;

reëstablishes the Western Empire, 84 f.;

system of government of, 86;

his farms, 86 and note;

interest of, in schools, 87 ff., 268;

disruption of empire of, 92 ff.;

collects German poems, 253;

hero of romances, 254.

Charles Martel, 38;

aids Boniface, 66, 67 ff.;

defeats the Mohammedans at Tours, 72.

Charles the Bald, 92 f., 95.

Charles the Fat, 96 f.

Charles the Simple, 96, note, 113, 121 f.

Charles V of France (1364-1380) reconquers most of English possessions

in France, 287 f.

Charles VI of France, 292 f.

Charles VII of France, 293 f.

Charles VIII of France invades Italy, 360 f.

Charles IX of France, 454 ff.

Charles X of France, 630. _See also_ Artois, count of.

Charles the Bold of Burgundy, 300, 422.

Charles V, Emperor, 301;

possessions of, 354, 359 f.;

coronation of, 367;

wars with Francis I, 366, 415, 417;

at diet of Worms, 400;

at Augsburg, 417 f.;

attitude toward the Protestants, 438;

abdicates, 444.

Charles VI, Emperor, 518.

Charles VII, Emperor, 518 f.

Charles I of England, 478 ff.;

financial exactions of, 479, 481;

execution of, 486 f.

Charles II of England, 488, 490 ff.

Charles II of Spain, 502;

will of, 506.

Charles XII of Sweden, 513 f.

Charles Albert of Sardinia, 646, 647, 650.

Charter, French, of 1814, 629 f.

Charter, the Great, of England, 144, 146.

Charters granted to mediæval towns, 239 f.

Chemistry, 672.

Chivalry, 256 f.

Christian IV of Denmark, 467 f.

Christian missions, map of, 63.

Christianity, preparation for, in Roman Empire, 18;

promises of, 18;

pagan rites and conceptions adopted by, 19.

Christians, persecution of, 10.

Chrysoloras called to teach Greek in Florence, 336.

Church, apostolic, 19;

organization of, before Constantine, 20;

in the Theodosian Code, 21;

survives the Roman Empire, 22;

greatness of, 44;

sources of power of, 45 ff.;

attitude of, toward the civil government, 47;

begins to perform the functions of the civil government, 48;

coöperation of, with the civil government, 80, note, 81;

maintains knowledge of Latin, 87;

policy of William the Conqueror in regard to English, 138;

wealth of, 154;

lands of, feudalized, 154;

offices bought and sold, 158;

and state, 165, 303;

character and organization of mediæval, 201 ff.;

services of, to civilization, 216;

evil effects of wealth upon, 217 f.;

loses power as modern states develop, 303 f.;

reasons for influence of, in Middle Ages, 303, 370;

corruption of, 217 ff.;

during Babylonian Captivity of, 307;

in Germany, 383;

attempted reformation of, 223;

at Constance, 317;

taxation of, 307;

attempted union of, with Eastern Church, 319;

attitude of humanists toward, 335;

enthusiasm for, in Germany before Luther, 377;

discontent with, in Germany, 385;

in France before the Revolution, 541 ff.;

attacked by Voltaire, 550;

property of, confiscated by the National Assembly, 570 f.;

lands, secularization of, 603.

Church fathers, 50 f.

Cicero, humanists' estimate of, 332, 334.

Cisalpine republic, 595, 601, 602.

Cistercian order, 219.

_City of God, The_, Augustine's, 26, note, 78.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 571 f., 580, 606 f.

Civil war in England, 485 f.

Classics, Greek and Roman, neglect of, in the Middle Ages, 259, 330,

333, note;

Dante's respect for, 331;

revival of, 332 ff.;

Petrarch's enthusiasm and search for, 332 ff.

Clement V, Pope, removes seat of papacy to France, 306.

Clement VII, anti-pope, returns to Avignon, 310.

Clement VII, Pope, 412, 430.

Clergy, minor orders of, 20;

privileges of, in Theodosian Code, 21;

attitude toward civil government, 81;

lower, demoralized by simony, 159;

importance of, to civilization, 214 f.;

benefit of, 214, note;

corruption of, 217 f.;

secular, opposition of, to mendicant orders, 231;

reform of, at Regensburg, 412;

policy of Henry VIII toward, 429 ff.;

in France before the Revolution, 542;

representatives of, join third estate, 564;

Civil Constitution of, 571 f., 580, 606 f.;

non-juring, in France, 572, 579, 606.

_See also_ Marriage.

_Clericis laicos_, papal bull, 304.

Clive, 531 f.

Clovis, conquests of, 35 f.;

conversion of, 35;

number of soldiers of, baptized, 39.

Cnut, king of England, 134.

Coal, use of, 676.

_Code Napoléon_, 607 f.

Coinage, French king's control of, 131.

Colbert, reforms of, 499 f.

Colet, 426 f.

Coligny, 455 f.

Cologne, 12, 248;

elector of, 372.

_Coloni_, condition of, 15 f.

Colonies, European, 527 ff., 684;

Roman, 12;

French, in North America, 527 f.;

Spanish, 684 f.

Columban, St., 65.

_Columban St., Life of_, 65, note.

Columbus, 350.

_Comitatus_, 105 f.

_Comites_, 67.

Commendation, 105 and note.

Commerce, development of, 199 f., 243 f.;

restrictions on, 245 f.;

in Italy, 243, 322 f.;

in France and England, 302.

Commercial war between Holland and England, 488.

Committee of Public Safety, 585, 587 f.

Common law, English, 142.

Commons, House of, 147. _See_ Parliament.

Commons, summoned to the French Estates General, 131;

the English, 147.

Commonwealth, England a, 487.

Commune, Paris, 586;

insurrection of, 1871, 664.

Communes, establishment of, in France in 1789, 566.

Communes, origin of, 239 f.

Communication, modern means of, 678 f., 684.

Communion under both kinds, 432 and note.

Compass, invention of, 352.

Compendiums, reliance upon, in later Roman Empire, 17;

inherited by Middle Ages, 18.

Compurgation, 41.

Concordat, between Francis I and Pope Leo X, 366, note;

of 1801, 607.

Condé, 472.

_Condottieri_, Italian mercenary troops, 326 f.

Confederation of the Rhine, 612 f.

Confession, 212, note.

Confession of Augsburg, 417 f.

Confirmation, sacrament of, 211.

Congregational church, 483.

Congress of Berlin, 670.

Congress of Vienna, 625 ff.

Conrad II, Emperor, 153.

Conrad III, Emperor, 173, note, 197.

_Consolation of Philosophy, The_, of Boethius, 19, 134.

Constance, heiress of Naples and Sicily, marries Emperor Henry VI, 180.

Constance, Peace of (1183), 179;

Council of (1414), 314.

Constantine, 21 f.

Constantine VI, 84.

Constantinople, 22 f.;

threatened by Turks, 188;

taken by the Turks, 23, 517;

Bishop of, put on an equal footing with the Bishop of Rome, 51;

during First Crusade, 191;

culture of, affects the West, 336 f.;

desire of Russia for, 668.

Constitution, first French, 576;

of the year VIII, 599;

veneration for a, in Italy, 637.

Constitutional government, desire for, in France, 563;

demand for, in Prussia, 632;

granted in southern Germany, 635;

in Piedmont, 651.

Consul, title of Bonaparte, 600, 608.

Continental blockade, 615 f.

Continental system, the, 616.

Continuity of history, 4.

Conventicle Act, 492.

Convention, French, 582 ff.;

close of, 590 f.

Conversion of the Germans, 56 ff.;

of the Saxons, 80.

Copernicus (Kopernik), astronomical discoveries of, 351 f.

Copyists, carelessness of, 89 and note, 90.

Corbie, school at, 90.

Cordova, emir of, 83;

brilliant civilization of caliphate of, 356.

Corn Laws, 681.

Corneille, 500.

Corsica added to France, 536, 592 f.

Cortez conquers Mexico, 351.

Council, general, 311 f.;

of Clermont, 188;

fourth Lateran, 184;

of Pisa, 313;

of Constance, 314 ff.;

of Basel, 318 f.;

of Ferrara-Florence, 319 f.;

Luther recognizes fallibility of, 393.

Council of Blood, 448.

Council of State, French, 599.

Counter-reformation, 438, note.

Counties, sheriffs in the English, 137.

Counts, origin of, 67;

position of, 102.

Counts of the march, 82, 86.

_Coup d'état_, 598.

Court, lord's, 110 and note.

Court of High Commission, 482.

Covenant, National, 483 f.

Crécy, battle of, 284.

Crema destroyed by Frederick I, 178.

Crimean War, 668 f.

Cromwell, Oliver, 485 ff.;

death of, 489 f.

Cromwell, Richard, 490.

Crusade, Albigensian, 223 f., 256.

Crusades, 23, 187 ff.;

effects of, 199 f., 243, 347.

Culloden Moor, 527.

Culture, mediæval, 250 f.;

general use of Latin, 250;

Germanic languages, 251 f.;

Romance languages, 251 f.;

literature, romance, 254 f.;

chivalry, 256 f.;

ignorance of the past, 259;

popular science, 260;

art, 261 f.;

education, the universities, 267 f.;

Roman and canon law, 269;

Aristotle, 271;

scholasticism, 272.

Curia, papal, 204.

Customs duties, 246, 681.

Customs lines, interior, 539 f.

Customs union, German, 635.

Cyprian, 20.

Czar, _see_ Tsar.

Dagobert, 38.

Damascus, seat of the caliphate, 70, 83, note.

Danegeld, 134.

Danes, 99, note;

invade England, 133 f.;

defeated by Alfred, 133.

Danish language, derivation of, 251.

Dante, 330 f.

Danton, 589.

Dantzig, 196, 248.

Dark age before Charlemagne, 87.

"Dark ages," meaning of, 6, 91.

Darnley, 459.

Dauphin, origin of title, 292, note.

Deacons, 19 f.

Declaration of Independence, American, 533.

Declaration of Rights, English, 494.

Declaration of the Rights of Man, 568 ff., 629.

_Decretum_ of Gratian, 269.

Degrees, university, explained, 270, note.

Deist, 550.

Departments in France, 538, 567 f.

Desaix, 601 f.

Dessau, League of, 415.

_Dialogues_ of Gregory the Great, 54.

Diaz rounds Cape of Good Hope, 348.

_Dictatus_ of Gregory VII., 164.

Diet, German, attempts to reform government, 375.

Directory, French, 591, 593, 597 f., 601.

Discoveries in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 347 f.;

modern scientific, 671 ff.

Dispensations, papal, 203.

Dissenters, 491.

_Divine Comedy_ of Dante, 330.

Divine right of kings, 476 f., 496 ff.

Doge of Venice, 324.

Domain, 121.

_Domesday Book_, 138.

Dominican order organized, 230.

Donauwörth, 466.

Drake, Sir Francis, 461.

Dresden, battle of, 623.

Dukes, origin of, 67.

Dumouriez, 582, 584.

Dunkirk, 489, 588.

Dupleix, 531.

Dürer, Albrecht, 346.

Dutch, commerce of, 448.

_See also_ Holland.

Dutch language, derivation of, 251.

East Frankish kingdom, 94, 98.

East Goths, 28 f., 30, 33.

East India Company, English, 530;

French, 530.

Eastern Church, _see_ Greek Church.

Eastern Empire, 22;

civilization of, in Middle Ages, 23.

Eastern question, origin of, 535, 667 ff.

Ecclesiastical states, origin of, 156, note;

in Germany, disappearance of, 603 f.

Eck, 392 f., 398, 418.

Economists, French, 552 f.

Edessa, Latin principality of, established, 193;

fall of, 196.

Edict of Nantes, 542.

Edict of Restitution, 468, 473.

Edict of Worms, 403 f., 415.

Education, clerical monopoly of, 213 f.;

mediæval, 267;

humanistic, 335;

compulsory, 683.

Edward the Confessor, 134, 136 f.

Edward I of England, 147, 278 f.

Edward II, 280;

forced to abdicate, 281.

Edward III, claims French crown, 283 f., 286 f.

Edward IV, 296.

Edward V, 297.

Edward VI, 434 f.

Egbert, king of Wessex, 133.

Egypt, Bonaparte's expedition to, 597 f.;

English occupation of, 685.

Eisenach, Luther at, 405.

Elba, 624.

Elders, 19, 426, note.

Elders, Council of, 590, 599.

Electors in empire, 372, 524, note.

Elizabeth, queen of England, 430, 451, 458 ff., 476.

Embargo acts of the United States, 615 f.

Emigrant nobles, 575, 577, 579;

permitted to return, 607.

_Émigrés_, _see_ Emigrant nobles.

Emirate of Cordova, 83, note.

"Emperor Elect," 152, note.

Emperor, Roman, his will law, 10;

worship of, 10.

Emperor, title of, held by Italian kings, 151;

assumed by Otto the Great, 151;

assumed by Napoleon, 608;

assumed by Austrian ruler, 612.

Empire, reëstablishment of, in the West, 84;

divisions of, 92 f., 96;

relations with papacy, 151 f.;

under Hohenstaufens, 173, 185;

under Hapsburgs, 355.

_See_ Holy Roman Empire.

Empire, Roman, character and organization of, 8 ff.

Engine, steam, 675 f.

England, early culture in, 64;

becomes a part of the Catholic Church, 64;

claims of kings of, to France, 130;

importance of, in history of Europe, 133;

on the accession of William the Conqueror, 135;

feudalism in, 135;

Norman conquest of, 136 ff.;

made tributary to pope by John, 183;

commerce of, 244 f., 351, 460 f.;

conquers Wales, 278;

relations of, with Scotland, 279 f.;

union of, with Scotland, 280;

during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff., 301 f.;

labor problem of, and Peasants' War, 288 ff.;

Wars of the Roses, 296 f.;

humanism in, 335, 363;

Protestant revolt in, 426 ff.;

struggle for constitutional government, 475 ff.;

establishment of commonwealth, 487 ff.;

restoration of the Stuarts, 490;

revolution of 1688, 493;

in the War of the Austrian Succession, 526;

in the Seven Years' War, 520 f.;

expansion of, 523 ff.;

colonies of, in North America, 527 ff.;

settlements of, in India, 529;

colonial possessions of, at end of eighteenth century, 535;

involved in war with France (1793), 583;

renews war with Napoleon, 610;

expansion of, in the nineteenth century, 685.

_See also_ Britain.

English language, 134, 147, 251, 253 f.

Epictetus, 18.

Equality before the law, 683.

Erasmus, 381 f.;

attitude of, toward Luther, 394, 427.

Estates General, 131 f. and note, 285, 298 f., 305, 475, 496 f.;

demanded by the _parlement_ of Paris, 560;

summoning of, 561;

meeting of (1789), 562 f.

Esthonia, 514.

Etruria, kingdom of, 620.

Eucharist, _see_ Mass.

Eugene IV, Pope, 319.

Eugene of Savoy, 507.

Euric, king of West Goths, 26.

Europe after 1814, 625, 627 f.;

contemporaneous, 671.

Excommunication, 213.

Exorcist, 20.

Fabliaux, mediæval, 256.

Far Eastern Question, 686.

Ferdinand I, Emperor, brother of Charles V, 412, 444, 465, 517.

Ferdinand II, Emperor, 467.

Ferdinand of Aragon, 357, 363, 364.

Ferrara-Florence, Council of, 319 f.

Feudal dues, 110 f.;

in France, 543;

abolition of, 567.

Feudal hierarchy, no regular, 116.

Feudal registers, 112.

Feudalism, 104 ff.;

origins of, 99 ff., 102 f., 104 f.;

anarchy of, 116 f.;

in England, 135;

connection of, with chivalry, 257.

Fief, hereditary character of, 106 ff.;

conditions upon which granted, 110 and note;

classes of, 110, 111 f., 115.

Five Hundred, Council of, 590, 599.

Flanders, 94, 123 f., 244;

weavers from, in England, 139;

relations of, with England, 283 f.;

under dukes of Burgundy, 300;

art of, 346.

"Flayers," 298.

Florence, 321, 325, 327 ff., 342;

under Savonarola, 361 f.

Fontenay, battle of, 93.

Foot soldiers, English, defeat French knights at Crécy, 284;

at Poitiers, 285;

at Agincourt, 292.

Forest cantons, 421.

France, origin of, 94, 95 f., 121;

position of early kings of, 121 f., 125;

under Philip Augustus, 130;

genealogical table of the kings of, 282, note;

during the Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 288, 291 ff.;

standing army of, established, 298;

condition under Louis XI, 299 ff.;

influence of Italian culture, 335, 363;

Protestantism in, 451 ff.;

wars of religion, 451 ff.;

limits of, in 1659, 501 f.;

ascendency of, under Louis XIV, 495 ff.;

absolute monarchy in, 545;

reforms of Colbert, 499 f.;

condition of, at end of the reign of Louis XIV, 508;

joins in War of Austrian Succession, 518;

alliance with the Hapsburgs, 520;

possessions in North America, 527 f.;

in India, 529 ff.;

losses of, at close of Seven Years' War, 532;

aids the United States, 534;

in the eighteenth century, 535 f., 537 ff.;

first Revolution, cause of, 545, 563;

course of, 558 ff.;

First Republic, 581 ff.;

Reign of Terror, 585 ff.;

constitution of the year III, 590 f.;

reforms of Bonaparte, 599, 606, 616;

restoration of the Bourbons, 629 f.;

revolution of 1848, 642 ff.;

Third Republic, 664 f.

Franche-Comté, 300, 366, 471;

ceded to France, 502 f. _See_ Burgundy, county of.

Francis I, Emperor, 519.

Francis II, Emperor, assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, 612.

Francis I of France, 365, 415, 417, 425;

wars with Emperor Charles V, 366;

persecutes the Protestants, 452.

Francis II of France, 452 f.

Francis Joseph I, accession of, 650.

Francis of Assisi, 226 ff.

Franciscan order founded, 228.

Franconian line of emperors, 153.

Franco-Prussian War, 662 f.

Frankfurt, National Assembly at, 646, 651 f.

Franks, conquests of, 30, 34;

conversion of, 35;

history of, 36 f.;

alliance of, with popes, 73, 75 f. _See also_ Charlemagne.

Frederick, Elector of the Palatinate, 466 f., 477.

Frederick I (Barbarossa), Emperor, 173, 197.

Frederick II, Emperor, 181 f., 198.

Frederick I of Prussia, 516.

Frederick II of Prussia, _see_ Frederick the Great.

Frederick the Great, 516, 518 ff.

Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, collects relics, 377;

patron of Luther, 389.

Frederick William III of Prussia, 613 f., 621 f.

Frederick William IV of Prussia, 652 f., 656, note.

Freedmen, condition of, 15.

_Freedom of the Christian_, by Luther, 397, note.

Freemen in competition with slaves in Roman Empire, 15.

Free towns, German. _See_ Towns.

French Academy, 501.

French and Indian War, 530.

French language, 94, 251, 254, 260.

French Revolution, 4, 537 f.;

opening of, 557, 558 ff.;

second, 574, ff.

_Frequens_, decree, of Council of Constance, 318, note.

Friends, Society of, 491.

Frisia, 79.

Fritzlar, sacred oak of Odin at, 66.

Fust, John, printer of Psalter of 1459, 338, note.

Future life, pagan view of, 18;

Christian view of, 19.

Galileo, 673.

Gall, St., Irish missionary, 65;

monk of, 78 and note.

Garibaldi, 655, 667.

Gascony, 124.

Gaul, West Goths establish a kingdom in, 26;

occupied by the Franks, 30, 35;

church in, reformed and brought under the papal supremacy, 66.

Gelasius, Pope, his opinion of the relation of the Church and the civil

government, 47.

Geneva, Calvin at, 425 f.

Genghiz Khan, 510.

Genoa, 174, 194, 198;

commerce of, 243, 347;

given to Sardinia, 626.

Geoffrey, son of Henry II, 126 f. and note.

George I of England, 524.

George II of England, 526.

George III, 533.

German Confederation of 1815, 632 f.;

dissolution of, 660.

German empire, Proclamation of the, 665.

German kings, difficulties of, caused by the imperial title, 85;

vain attempt of, to control Italy, 85.

German kingship, 148, 152 f.

German language, 94 f. and note, 251;

reduced to writing, 252 f., 258 f.;

books published in the, 250, note;

in Luther's time, 405 f.

Germans, infiltration of, into Roman Empire, 8, 12, 16 f.;

objects of, in invading the Empire, 25;

number of invading, 39;

fusion of, with the Romans, 39;

character of early, 42;

conversion of, 56 ff.

Germany, 79, 95 f.;

foundation of towns in northern, 81;

assigned to Louis the German, 92 f., 94;

history of, contrasted with that of France, 148;

under the same ruler as Italy, 151 f.;

confusion in, under Henry VI, 182;

want of unity in, 185, 355;

culture in, 335, 363;

before Protestant revolt: complexity, organization, the electors, the

knights, the cities, neighborhood war, the diet, reorganization in

fifteenth century, social and intellectual conditions, 371 f.;

during the Protestant revolt, 405 ff.;

progress of Protestantism in, 418 ff.;

religious division of, 412, 415 ff.;

after the Thirty Years' War, 473 f.;

territorial reorganization of, in 1803, 604;

condition of, in 1814, 626;

effects of Napoleonic era in, 631 f.;

in 1848, 646;

unification of, 656 ff., 665.

Ghent, 123;

commerce of, 245, 248.

Ghibelline party, 179, note.

Ghiberti, 342.

Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, 325.

Gibbon, 73, 76.

Gibraltar, 507, 532;

siege of, 534.

Giotto, 341 f.

Girondists, 585 f., 587.

Glass, stained, 264.

Godfrey of Bouillon, 191 f., 193.

Golden Bull sanctions neighborhood war, 117.

Good Hope, Cape of, rounded by Diaz (1486), 348;

ceded to England, 685.

Gothic language, Bible translated into, 252.

Gothic type, 339.

Government, difficulty of, in the Middle Ages, 67, 85, 98;

effect of feudalism on, 108 f.;

natural, 120;

modern character of, 682 f.

Grail, legend of Holy, 258.

Granada, fall of, 83, 357.

Grand Alliance, 506.

Grand Remonstrance, 484.

Granson, 422.

Gratian, _Decretum_ of, 269.

Gravitation, discovery of universal, 673.

Gray Friars, _see_ Franciscans.

Great Charter of England, 144-146.

Great Elector of Prussia, 516.

Great Khan, 510.

Great Mogul, 529.

Great St. Bernard crossed by Bonaparte, 601.

Greece, creation of the kingdom of, 640, 668.

Greek books brought to Venice in 1423, 337.

Greek Church, tends to separate from the Latin, 51;

union of, with Western Church, 319.

Greek culture in the Roman Empire, 12.

Greek language, knowledge of, in Middle Ages, 64, 336;

revived study of, in Italy, 320, 336 f.

Greek New Testament, 423.

Gregory of Tours, 33, 36.

Gregory the Great, 52 ff.;

writings of, 54;

missionary work of, 55, 61.

Gregory VI, Pope, 160.

Gregory VII, 52, note, 138, 162, 164 ff.;

reform of, 161, 162 f.;

conflict of, with Henry IV, 167 ff.;

death of, 170.

Gregory XI, Pope, 310.

Gregory XII, Pope, 313, 315.

Grotius, 508.

Guelf party, origin of, 179, 182.

Guienne, 130, 140, 283.

_See also_ Aquitaine.

Guilds, craft, 241 f., 500;

abolition of, in France, 555.

Guillotine, 588 f. and notes.

Guise, Henry of, 456.

Guises, 454.

Gunpowder, invention of, 352.

Gustavus Adolphus, 468 ff.

Gustavus Vasa, 469.

Hades, 18.

Hadrian, tomb of, 54.

Hadrian IV, Pope, and Frederick I, 176 f.

Hadrian VI, Pope, 410-412.

Hague, peace conference at The, 686.

Hampden, John, 481.

Hanover, electorate of, 524, note.

Hanover, house of, 524;

occupied by Napoleon, 610;

relations of, with Prussia, 613 f.

Hanseatic League, 247 f.

Hanseatic towns annexed to France, 602.

Hapsburg, Rudolf of, king of Germany, 185.

Hapsburgs, rise of, 354 f., 421, 444 f., 471, 517 ff.

Harold, Earl of Wessex, 136 f.

Hastings, battle of, 136, note.

Hébert, 589.

Heilbronn, articles of, 414.

Hejira, the, 69.

Henrietta Maria, 478.

Henry II of England, possession of, 126, 140 ff.

Henry III of England, 146 f.

Henry IV of England, 291.

Henry V of England continues Hundred Years' War, 291 ff.

Henry VII of England, 296 f.

Henry VIII of England, 365, 367, 426 ff., 476.

Henry II of France, 452.

Henry III of France, 456.

Henry IV of France, 457 f.

Henry I of Germany, 149 and note.

Henry III, Emperor, 153 f.;

intervenes in papal matters, 160, 166.

Henry IV of Germany, 165 ff.;

conflict of, with Gregory VII, 167 ff., 174.

Henry V, Emperor, 171.

Henry VI, Emperor, 180 f.

Henry of Navarre, _see_ Henry IV of France.

Henry the Lion, 180.

Henry the Proud, 179.

Heresy, in twelfth and thirteenth centuries, 220 f.;

punishment of, 225;

of Huss, 314 f., 403 and note.

Herzegovina, 669, 670 and note.

Hesse, Philip of, 409 f., 415, 419.

Hesse-Cassel, 628.

Hildebrand, _see_ Gregory VII.

Hindustan, 348, 529 ff.

History, scope of, 1;

continuity or unity of, 4;

notions of, in the Middle Ages, 259 f.

Hohenstaufens, 173 f.

_See also_ Frederick I, Henry VI, Frederick II.

Hohenzollern family, 515.

_See also_ Brandenburg and Prussia.

Holbein, Hans, 346.

Holidays, number of, reduced in Germany, 412.

Holland, 449;

war with England, 492;

war with France, 492 f., 502 f.;

colonies of, 527;

becomes the Batavian republic, 604;

Louis Bonaparte, king of, 613;

annexed to France, 620;

made a kingdom, 625, 632.

_See also_ United Netherlands.

Holy Land, commercial interests of Italian cities in, 198 f.

Holy League formed by Pope Julius II against France, 365.

Holy League, French, 456.

Holy Roman Empire, 85, 152 f., 473;

consolidation of, in 1803, 603 f.;

dissolution of, 612.

_See also_ Germany.

Homage, 109 and note;

refusal of, 116 f.

Horace, idea of life entertained by, 45;

_Satires_ of, 333, note.

Hospitalers, 194 f.

House of Lords, abolition of, 487.

_See also_ Parliament.

Hrolf, 122 f.

Huguenots, 454 ff., 467;

Charles I attempts to aid, 478 f.;

position of, under Louis XIV, 504 f.

Humanists, Italian, 334 f.;

German, 379 f.

Humanities, 334.

Hundred Years' War, 281 ff., 291 ff.

Hungarians, 149;

defeated by Otto the Great, 150.

Hungary, freed from the Turks, 518;

during revolution of 1848, 646, 648 f.;

dual union of, with Austria, 650.

Huns, 25, 27.

Huss, 309, 315 ff., 393.

Hussite wars, 317.

Hussites, 432, 465.

Hutten, Ulrich von, 385 f., 395 f., 399, 404, 410.

Iconoclastic controversy, 74.

_See_ Images.

Illuminations, 261 f.

Images, demolition of, in England, 433 f.;

in the Netherlands, 447 f.

Immunities, 101.

Imperial title, 151 f.

_See also_ Emperor.

Indemnity, the French, 664.

Independents, 482 f. and note.

India, Portuguese seek a sea route to, 348;

Europeans in, 528 ff.;

during Seven Years' War, 530.

Indulgences attacked by Wycliffe, 308;

explained, 390 f.;

attitude of Luther toward, 390 ff., 412, 423.

Industrial revolution, 679 f.

Industry stimulated by commerce in Middle Ages, 244 f.

Infeudation, 106 f.;

of other things than land, 115.

Innocent III, Pope, struggle of, with the Hohenstaufens, 181 f.;

attempts to reform the Church, 223.

Inquisition established, 224, 231;

in Spain, 358, 619;

in the Netherlands, 445, 447.

_Institutes of Christianity_, Calvin's, 425 f.

Interdict, 183, 213.

International law, 507 f.

Invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries, 98 f.

Invention, progress of, in fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 352 f.;

modern, 674 ff.

Investiture, lay, 155 ff., 161;

prohibition of, 163, 167;

question of, settled at Worms, 171 f.

Invincible Armada, 463.

Ireland, 461 f., 487 f.

Irene, Empress, 84.

Irish monks in Britain, 62.

Iron industry, 352, 675 f.

Isabella, queen of Castile, 357.

Islam, 69.

Italian language, derivation of, 251;

used by Dante in the _Divine Comedy_, 330;

by Petrarch, 334.

Italy, during the barbarian invasions, 33;

united to Charlemagne's empire, 85, 93, 96;

German kings make vain attempt to control, 151 f.;

towns of, under Frederick I, 174 f.;

Hohenstaufens in, 180, 186;

commerce of, 198 f., 243 f.;

divisions of, in fourteenth century, 321 f.;

culture of, during the Renaissance, 321, 339 ff.;

invasion of, by Charles VIII, 360 f.;

hold of Austria on, 507;

Bonaparte's campaign in, 594;

Napoleon, king of, 611;

after 1815, 636 f., 638 f.;

war of independence of, 645 f.;

constitutions granted to various states of, 646;

unification of, 654 ff.;

formation of the present kingdom of, 655 f.

Ivan the Terrible, 511.

Jacobins, 578 f., 590.

Jacobites, 526 and note.

James I of England, 467;

theory of kingship of, 475 ff.

James II, 493.

James VI of Scotland, 462.

_See also_ James I of England.

Jamestown, 528.

Jefferson, Thomas, opinion of the condition of France, 544.

Jena, battle of, 614.

Jerome, St., 51;

advocate of the monastic life, 57.

Jerome Bonaparte, 614.

Jerusalem, 185, 188;

Kingdom of, 192 ff., 197 f.

Jesuits, order of, 462, 465 f., 494.

Jewry, 246.

Jews, economic importance of, 246;

persecution of, 246, 358.

Joan of Arc, 293 f.

John of England, 126 f., 144 ff.;

vassal of pope, 183.

John, king of France, 285.

John Frederick of Saxony, 415, 418 f.

John XXIII, Pope, 313.

Jongleurs, 256.

Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, 618.

Josephine, 607, 620.

_Journal des Savants_, 501.

Jousts, 118.

Jubilee at Rome (1300), 305.

Julius II, Pope, 344, 365.

Jury, origin of, 142.

Just price, doctrine of, 245.

Justification by faith, 388, 439.

Justinian 33;

closes government schools, 267.

Kadijah, wife of Mohammed, 69.

Kappel, battle of, 425.

Kent, king of, converted, 61.

King, position of, in Middle Ages, 73, 102, 108, 120.

King of Rome, 620.

King of the Romans, 152, note.

Kneeling Parliament, 436.

Knighthood, 257 f.

Knights, summoned to the English Parliament, 147;

in Germany, 407;

revolt of, 409 f.;

disappearance of, 604.

Knox, John, 459.

Koran, the, 69 f.

Kossuth, 650.

Labor, division of, 677.

Labor unions, 681 f.

Laborers, protection of, 681.

Lafayette, 534, 563, 570.

_Laissez faire_, 553, 681.

Lancaster, house of, in England, 291, 296;

genealogical table of, 297, note.

Lancelot, description of, quoted, 258.

Landholding, in the Roman Empire, 104.

_See also_ Feudalism.

Lanfranc, 138.

Langton, Stephen, 183.

_Langue d'oc_, 254, note.

_Langue d'oïl_, 254, note.

La Rochelle, 455, 457, 478.

La Salle, 528.

Latin Church tends to separate from the Greek, 51.

_See also_ Church.

Latin language, contrast of the written, with the spoken, 39, 252, note;

knowledge of, preserved by the Church, 87 f.;

general use of, in the Middle Ages, 95, 202, 250.

Latin literature, extinction of, 31.

_See also_ Humanists.

Laud, William, 481 f., 484.

La Vendée, revolt of, 587.

Law, _see_ Canon and Civil law.

_Law of Free Monarchies, The_, of James I, 477.

_Law of Nature and Nations_, by Pufendorf, 508.

_Laws of the Barbarians_, 40.

Lay investiture, _see_ Investiture.

Lea, Henry C., description of Church, 214;

account of mendicants, 230.

Lefèvre, 452 f.

Legates, 162.

Legion of Honor, 617.

Legislative Assembly, 576, 579 f.

Legitimists, 664, note.

Legnano, battle of, 179.

Leipsic, disputation at, 392 f.;

battle of, 623.

Leo the Great, 21, 51, 52.

Leo III, Emperor, forbids the veneration of images, 74.

Leo IX, Pope, reform begun by, 161 f.

Leo X (Medici), Pope, patron of art, 344, 365, 391, 410.

Leonardo da Vinci, 344 f.

Leopold II, 577.

Leopold of Hohenzollern, 662, note.

_Letters of Obscure Men_, 380 f., and note.

_Lettres de cachet_, 546.

Leyden, siege of, 451, note.

Libraries, destruction of, 32;

established in Italy, 337.

Ligurian republic, 610.

Lisbon, trade in spices, 348.

_Lit de justice_, 547.

Livonia, 514.

Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, 278.

Logic, esteem for, in the Middle Ages, 268, 271;

decline of, 334 f.

Lombard cities, 170 f., 174 ff.

Lombard League, 178.

Lombard, Peter, _Sentences_ of, 210, 396 f.

Lombards as bankers, 246.

_Lombards, History of the_, by Paulus Diaconus, 90.

Lombards in Italy, 33, 34, 65, 74 f.;

conquered by Charlemagne, 81.

London, 248, 290.

Long Parliament, 484 ff.;

dissolved by Cromwell, 488 f.;

recalled, 490.

Lord, mediæval, position of, 99 f.;

meaning of term, 106.

Lord Protector, Cromwell, 489.

Lord's Supper, Zwingli's conception of, 425.

_See also_ Mass.

Lorraine, 94, 300, 472;

added to France, 536;

portion of, ceded to Germany, 663 and note.

_Lorsch, Chronicles of_, passage from, 84.

Lothaire, son of Louis the Pious, 93.

_Lotharii regnum_, 94.

Louis the Fat of France, 125.

Louis the German, 92, 93, 95.

Louis the Pious, 92.

Louis IX (Saint), 130 f., 198.

Louis XI of France, 299 f.

Louis XII of France, 364 f.

Louis XIII of France, 458.

Louis XIV, 472, 489, 492, 495 ff.;

idea of position of, 496 f.;

court of, 498;

wars of, 501 ff.;

condition of France at end of reign of, 508.

Louis XV, 508, 553.

Louis XVI, position of, 545, 553 f.;

removes to Paris, 570;

flight of, to Varennes, 575 f.;

imprisonment of, 581;

trial and execution of, 583.

Louis XVII, 625, note.

Louis XVIII, 625;

policy of, 629 f.

Louis Philippe, 630, 642 f.

Louisiana, 534, 602.

Low Church party, 482.

Loyola, Ignatius, 440 ff.

Lübeck, 244, 248.

Lucien Bonaparte, 599.

Luther, Martin, 387 ff.;

burns the canon law, 368, 399;

early life and education of, 387;

enters monastery, 387;

justification by faith, 388;

called to Wittenberg, visits Rome, 389;

teaches biblical theology, 389;

the theses of, 390;

warfare against indulgences, 390;

debate with Eck at Leipsic, 392;

relations with humanists, 393;

with Ulrich von Hutten, 395;

_Address to the German Nobility_ of, 396;

_Babylonian Captivity of the Church_ of, 397;

excommunicated, 398;

at diet of Worms, 401;

outlawed by the emperor, 403 and note;

translates the Bible, 405;

view of reform of, 407 ff.;

rash talk of, about princes, 413;

attacks the peasants, 414, 416.

Lützen, battle of, 470.

Luxembourg, 300, 662.

Lyons revolts against the Convention, 587, 589.

Machiavelli, _The Prince_ of, 327, 362.

Machinery, introduction of, 675 ff.

Madras, 529.

Magdeburg, 469.

Magellan circumnavigates the globe, 351.

Magyars, _see_ Hungarians.

Major Domus, _see_ Mayors of the Palace.

Malory, the _Mort d'Arthur_ of, 255, note.

Malta, 195.

Mandeville, Sir John, referred to, 261, note.

Manor, 100, 234 f.;

court of the, 236.

Mantua, 471.

Manufacture, increase of, in thirteenth century, 200;

modern, 675.

Manuscripts, 337 f.

Marches, establishment of, 82.

Marco Polo, 347.

Marcus Aurelius, _Meditations of_, 18.

Marengo, battle of, 601.

Margaret, queen of Navarre, 452.

Margraves, origin of, 82, 86, 102.

Maria Louisa, 620.

Maria Theresa, 518 ff.

Marie Antoinette, 554, 570, 589.

Marlborough, 506.

Marquette, 528.

Marquises, 86.

Marriage, of the clergy, 154, 157 and note, 161, 163, 418;

sacrament of, 211.

Marseilles, revolt of, 587.

Marston Moor, battle of, 486.

Mary of Burgundy, 301.

Mary of Modena, 493.

Mary, queen of England, 435 f.

Mary Queen of Scots, _see_ Mary Stuart.

Mary Stuart, 454, 459 ff.

Mass, the, 211 f., 407, 409, 432.

Matilda, 126, 140.

Maurice of Saxony, 418 f.

Maximilian I, Emperor, 356, 358 f., 363, 365.

Maximilian of Bavaria, 466, 467.

Mayence, 66, 78;

elector of, 372, 378;

printing at, 338.

Mayflower, 483.

Mayors of the Palace, 38.

Mazarin, 495.

Mazzini, 639, 648.

Mecca, 68, 69, 70.

Medici, 328 f., 361, 366;

Lorenzo de', 328, 344;

library of the, 337.

Medicine, modern advance in, 674.

Medina, 69.

Melanchthon, 417.

Mendicant orders, 225 f.

Merovingian documents, carelessness of, 87.

Merovingian kings, 38, 72.

Mersen, Treaty of, 95 f.

Metric system, 591.

Metternich, 634;

overthrow of, 644 f.

Metz, 452, 473, 663.

Mexican expedition, 662.

Mexico, 351, 358.

Michael Angelo, 342, 344 f.

Microscope, development of, 674.

Middle Ages, meaning of term, 5 f.;

character of, 42 f.

Middle kingdom of Lothaire, 94 f.

Milan, Edict of, 21;

married clergy in, 163;

destruction of, by Frederick I, 176 f.;

despots of, 324 f.;

claimed by France, 364 f.;

claimed by Charles V, 366, 417.

Miles Coverdale, 431.

Military service, feudal, 110.

Miniature, derivation of word, 262.

Minnesingers, 258.

Minor orders of the clergy, 20.

Minorca, 507.

Mirabeau, 564.

Miracles, frequency of, in Middle Ages, 46 f.

_Missi dominici_, 86, 102.

Missions, greatly increase the power of the pope, 66;

of the Jesuits, 442.

Model Parliament, 147.

Modern languages, origin of, 40, 250 ff.

Mohammed, 68 f.

Mohammedan conquests, _see_ Arabic conquests.

Mohammedan invasion of Italy, 150.

Mohammedanism, 69 f.

Mohammedans, 68 ff., 88;

gradual expulsion of, from Spain, 83, 356 f.;

commerce of, 199, 243.

Molière, 500.

Moluccas, 347, 348.

Monasteries, breaking up of, in Germany, 407 f.;

in England, 432 f.

Monasticism, attraction of, for many different classes, 56 f.

Money, scarcity of, in the Middle Ages, 98;

use of, 236, 247.

Mongol emperors of India, 529 and note.

Mongols, 510.

_Moniteur_, 578.

Monk, George, 490.

Monk of St. Gall, 78 and note.

Monks, 46;

origin and distinguished services of, 56 f., 219.

Monte Cassino, founding of, 57.

Montesquieu, 552.

Moors, in Spain, 357 f.;

expulsion of, 464.

Moravians, 149.

More, Sir Thomas, 427, 432.

Morgarten, battle of, 421.

_Mort d' Arthur_, Malory's, 255, note.

Moscow, 512, 514;

princes of, 510 f.;

Napoleon at, 621.

Mosque, 70.

Mountain party, 585 f.

Münster, 472.

Murat, king of Naples, 618.

Murten, battle of, 422.

Nantes, Edict of, granting of, 457;

revocation of, 504 f.

Nantes, massacre at, 589.

Naples, kingdom of, 180, 360, note, 363 f., 613;

revolution in, 635, 637 f.

Napoleon Bonaparte, 536, 574, 592 ff.;

idea of, of a European empire, 609;

_Memoirs_ of, 624.

Napoleon II, 620.

Napoleon III, 644;

intervenes in Italy, 654 f.;

position of, after 1866, 662.

Naseby, battle of, 486.

National Assembly, first French, 564, 570;

close of, 576 f.

National guard, 566.

National workshops, 643 f.

"Natural boundaries" of France, 501 f.

Natural laws, discovery of, 672 f.

Navigation Act, 488.

Necker, 556.

Nelson, 597 f., 615.

Netherlands, 295;

come into Austrian hands, 301;

revolt of, 445 ff.;

Louis XIV claims, 502;

Spanish, ceded to Austria, 507.

Neustria, 37 f.

New Testament, edition of, by Erasmus, 382.

New York, 492.

Newspapers, origin of French, 578;

Napoleon's attitude toward, 608 f.

Newton, Sir Isaac, 673.

Nicæa, Council of, 21;

during First Crusades, 188, 192.

Niccola of Pisa, 340.

Nicholas II, Pope, decree of, 162.

Nicholas V, 320, 337.

_Niebelungs, Song of the_, 253.

Nimwegen, Peace of, 503.

Nobility, origin of Frankish, 38;

titles of, 86;

character of feudal, 112, 234 f.;

in France under Louis XI, 299 f.;

established by Napoleon, 608, 617.

Nobles, privileges of, in France, 542 f.;

emigration of French, 575.

Nogaret, 306.

Non-juring clergy, 572 f., 579.

Nördlingen, battle of, 470.

Norman conquest of England, 136 ff.;

results of, 138 f.