of the secular clergy, led in Scotland, as it had done in Northumbria,
to the secularisation of the monasteries. Through the operation of the
Celtic rules of succession they fell into the hands of laymen, who
retained the title of abbot, and with it the possession of the monastic
lands, but without any pretence to clerical office.[32] The old Celtic
system of monasticism thus perished, first, from internal decay and
change to the eremitical system; and, second, from its being gradually
superseded by the introduction of the secular clergy on the Roman
system.
Meanwhile at Iona, and in all the Western Islands and coasts, a new
enemy to the Columban establishments sprung up. In 794 the Northern
Rovers made their first appearance, and during many succeeding years the
monastery of Iona was frequently attacked and pillaged, the monks being
slain or driven to seek safety in Ireland. The connection between
Ireland and Scotland was thus almost entirely severed during the ninth
century, and the Columbans having (as above stated) been expelled from
the Pictish kingdom, the previous active relations between the Church in
the two countries was for the time entirely brought to a close.
In Alban or Pictland a revolution seems to have occurred about the year
850, and Kenneth M‘Alpine, a king of the Scotic race, ascended the
throne of the Picts. By him an effort was made to re-establish the
Columban Church. For this purpose he erected a chief religious centre at
Dunkeld, and brought to it some of the relics of St. Columba, with the
view of making it an inland Iona. However, in the latter half of the
ninth century, the see of the primacy was removed to Abernethy, in
Perthshire. Here, Cellach, Abbot of Kildare and also of Iona, had sought
refuge from the persecution of the Norsemen in Ireland, and there he
died in 865. Irish clergy who had returned to Scotland are thus found at
this period at Abernethy, and Dr. Skene supposes that the round tower
which still stands there was probably erected about this date.[33] The
increasing strength of the Roman influence may be gathered from the fact
that in 878-89 King Giric is said to have “given liberty to the Scottish
Church;” the meaning of which is, that he decreed that all church lands
should be free from secular exactions.[34] In 908 the primacy was
transferred to St. Andrews, and Cellach was appointed first Bishop of
Alban.[35] A church was founded at Brechin about the year 1000, and was
dedicated to the Holy Trinity. It was probably a monastery after the
Irish model, with a College of Culdees. The round tower there is a mark
of its early association with Ireland.
The Culdees long continued to assert their position and maintain their
rights, but they became gradually absorbed into the cathedral chapters
established in the country. We thus finally arrive at the period when,
in the eleventh century, the adoption of the Roman system in Scotland,
under Malcolm Canmore and Queen Margaret, was completed.
We have now followed the history of the Church in Scotland up to the
point where the two streams of influence we have been observing, one
from Ireland and the other from Rome through England, meet. We have
noticed the powerful influence of the former in imparting to Scotland,
under the Columban system, its early rudiments of education, religion,
and art. Although this phase of culture did not display itself
prominently in architectural results, yet there are other departments in
which it excelled. It is to it we are indebted for the beautiful
examples of caligraphy and decorated metal work of which the relics are
preserved in the MSS., shrines, croziers, and ornaments of the Celtic
race.[36]
The marvellous sculptured ornaments and crosses in which Scotland still
abounds are also relics of the culture and artistic elements introduced
by the missionaries from Ireland. These features of Celtic art form one
of the most remarkable series of monuments in any country.
In Ireland, as we have already seen, this monumental art is chiefly
exhibited in the recumbent cross-bearing slabs at Clonmacnoise and other
ecclesiastical sites, while its later development assumes the form of
free standing crosses of the Celtic pattern carved with the interlacing
ornaments characteristic of the style, or with figure sculptures
enclosed in panels, each panel representing a Scriptural or symbolic
subject.
The Scottish sculptured monuments, although bearing a general
resemblance to the Irish, have several peculiarities. The earliest form
of sculptured monuments in Scotland, as in the other Celtic divisions of
Britain, consists of rude upright stones, engraved with an equal-armed
cross enclosed in a circle, accompanied with an inscription in debased
Roman capital letters, generally comprising the formula “hic jacet” and
the chi-rho symbol. The carving is invariably incised in the stone. We
have already met with examples of this class of monument, probably of
the fifth century, in the South-West of Scotland, in connection with the
_Candida Casa_ of St. Ninian. (See Fig. 1.)
Certain peculiar forms of sculptured symbols, carved on undressed
upright stones, seem to have originated amongst the Northern Picts.
These symbols (Fig. 3) consist of the well-known symbol of (_a_) the
“crescent and sceptre,” (_b_) the “double disc” or “spectacles,” (_c_)
the above with sceptre, (_d_) the oblong with sceptre, (_e_) the
“elephant,” and other forms which are very common in the East of
Scotland north of the Forth, but are unknown anywhere else. The meaning
of these symbols has never been satisfactorily explained. In the
earliest monuments the symbols and occasional figures are the only
ornaments found on the stones. They are invariably incised and plain,
containing no interlaced or other ornament. It has been pointed out by
Dr. J. Anderson that these simple incised symbols probably belong to the
period before the beginning of the eighth century, when the Columbans
were expelled from Pictland by King Nectan, while the later form of
decorated monuments which succeeded them possibly dates from the return
of the Columban clergy from Ireland in the middle of the ninth century,
when they were re-established in the land by King Kenneth.
That period probably marks the later style of ornamentation which is
found on the monuments. The original idea of an upright stone with
sculptured symbols is retained, but the monument is no longer a rough
unhewn block. It is now a shaped slab, dressed on both sides and on the
edges, and the ornamental work is no longer incised, but carved
[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Symbols. (From Stuart’s _Sculptured
Monuments_.)]
in relief (Fig. 4). The oblong slabs are always upright, and ornamented
on both sides, not recumbent like the Irish slabs. They generally bear
on the obverse a cross of the Celtic form occupying the full size of the
stone. This form of cross has the four angles at the junction of the
arms with the upright shaft hollowed out with a circular or square
recess, and the junction surrounded with a circular band. The oblong
form of the slab is preserved entire, and the portions of the surface on
each side of the cross are usually covered with sculptures representing
symbols or interlaced patterns arranged in panels (Fig. 5). The cross
itself and the other figures are carved with elaborate designs of
interlaced work, or with frets or divergent spirals. The reverse of the
slabs is also covered with sculpture representing symbols and
conventional or symbolic figures (Fig. 6). The sculpture on these stones
bears a close resemblance to the designs of the Celtic MSS., so close,
indeed, that each sculptured monument might be a page of MS. carved in
stone. This indicates, as pointed out by Dr. J. Anderson, that the
designs were first wrought out and brought to perfection on the pages of
the MSS., and reproduced at a subsequent
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Cross at St. Madoe’s, Perthshire.]
period on the stone monuments. The earliest Celtic MSS. date from the
end of the seventh century, while the decorated slabs are probably of
the ninth to the twelfth centuries.[37]
A distinct change or progressive development is observable in the forms
of the sculptures and ornaments of the above monuments. The Celtic
design gradually gives place to new features which bring it into
conformity with the decorations of the MSS. and metal work and the
general progress of the country. It thus at length becomes merged in the
general design of the twelfth century, as introduced from the South
along with the other effects of the Roman influence. The interlaced
work, spirlets, and fret work give place in course of time to scrolls
and leaf ornaments (Fig. 7). The crosses, formerly enriched with
divergent spirals, become carved with leaf or flower patterns, the
peculiar Pictish symbols disappear, and the Celtic cross gives place to
the more ordinary Norman form. Upright cross slabs are abandoned and
recumbent slabs take their place.
Amongst the later examples, Scripture scenes similar to those on the
Irish crosses are introduced in the panels, together with numerous
hunting pieces and figures of men and animals. Dr Anderson[38] shows
distinctly that the Scriptural scenes are debased and barely
intelligible representations of symbolic subjects from the Bible, such
as Adam and Eve, the Sacrifice of Isaac, David Slaying the Lion, &c.
Similar subjects are common in the Catacombs of Rome, where they are
painted so as to be easily recognised; but in course of time, and after
many imperfect efforts to copy them, they became reduced to the
conventional forms seen in the Celtic sculptures, the meaning of which
can only be explained by following the designs back to the originals.
Dr. Anderson also shows that the hunting scenes, with men on horseback,
dogs, &c., and the grotesque
[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Logierait, Perthshire. (From _Scotland in Early
Christian Times_.)]
animals represented, often with much spirit in the sculptures, are
derived from the symbolic mediæval bestiaries. These figures, which at
first sight might be regarded as secular or grotesque, are thus proved
to be symbolic of Christian doctrine and moral teaching, like many of
the later and more naturalistic carvings in the Gothic churches. In the
hunting scenes the hart panting after the waterbrooks represents the
soul pursued by its worldly enemies; the shooting of the wild boar with
arrows symbolises the conversion of heathen savages to Christianity; the
pelican, with its young, is a symbol of the Resurrection; the lion, the
eagle, the phœnix are types of Christ; the fox and hyena of the
devil.[39]
The above monuments of the East of Scotland are, as we have seen, almost
all of the upright slab form, bearing the cross on the obverse. Only a
very few free standing crosses exist in that region. Some examples of
transition character are, however, found which form a connecting link
between the upright slabs and the free standing crosses. These consist
of cross bearing slabs having the circles, at the junction of the arms
with the shaft, cut through the stone. It then only remained to cut away
the remainder of the slab and leave the cross free.
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--At Rossie Priory, Perthshire. (From _Scotland in
Early Christian Times_.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--St. Vigeans, Forfarshire.
(From _Scotland in Early Christian Times_.)]
In the West of Scotland, on the other hand, the principal form of cross
is the free standing one. In consequence of the invasions of the
Northmen, this part of the country was in a great state of disturbance
for a long period after the expulsion of the Columbans from the East,
and little monumental work seems to have been done.[40] There are,
however, a few fragments of free standing crosses at Iona, and one fine
specimen at Kildalton, in Islay, which exhibit the same characteristics
in their sculpture as the pure Celtic upright slabs of the East. (Fig.
8.) When monumental sculpture was revived in the West, at a considerably
later date, its style indicates connection with Ireland rather than with
the East of Scotland. Free standing crosses abound, and the upright
slabs carved on both sides are rare; the grave slabs being recumbent,
like those of Ireland. The symbols peculiar to the East are also
entirely wanting. It seems also that the monuments of Argyllshire and
the Western Islands (as at Iona, &c.) were influenced by a style of
sculpture imported from the Continent, of which examples exist at Durham
and Hexham. These “are not Celtic, but a debased local survival of
Romanesque forms.”[41]
The late Western crosses have, further, this peculiarity, that the
circular band round the head of the cross is not cut free, so as to
present an independent ring of stone, but forms a solid disc, from which
the ends of the arms and top project. (Figs. 9 and 9A.) These crosses
generally contain a representation of the Crucifixion, which is almost
unknown in pure Celtic work. The carving also ceases by degrees to be
distinctively Celtic, and consists generally of scroll work and foliage.
(Fig. 10.) These features were adhered to in this region for centuries
after the Celtic work of the East had entirely given place to the
general Gothic art of the rest of Europe. (Fig. 11.) The monuments of
the West thus retain a very special character, the foliage of the
designs being unique and original, and in many cases of much beauty.
This peculiar design continued as late as the sixteenth century, several
good dated examples of that period being still preserved, mixed with
debased Gothic features. The architecture of the locality is naturally
much influenced by this style, as will be pointed out when Iona is
described.
It can scarcely be doubted that many of the Scottish sculptured stones
are of about twelfth century date. The sculptures on them represent the
[Illustration: FIG. 8.--St. Martin’s Cross, Iona.]
[Illustration: FIG. 9.--M‘Lean’s Cross, Iona.]
same scenes, and are derived from the same source, as many of those
carved on the tympana and fonts of Norman churches. Such sculptures are
found on churches dating from 1135 to 1190, and almost no figure
sculpture is found on churches of an earlier date. The subjects carved
on the churches are similar to those on the crosses, such as Adam and
Eve, David and the lion, Daniel and the lions, hunting scenes, animals,
monsters, and symbolic figures derived from the bestiaries. (See Dalmeny
below.) The latter figures continued to be used on Gothic structures
till a comparatively late date.
[Illustration: FIG. 9A.--Island of Oronsay. (From _Scotland in Early
Christian Times_.)]
[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Kilchoman Cross, Islay.]
The sculptured crosses of the East of Scotland thus naturally connect
themselves with the current design of the period in other countries.
They are no longer the mysterious and unintelligible monuments they
[Illustration: FIG. 11.--From Iona.]
were once supposed to be. By the able investigations and expositions of
the writers above referred to, they are brought into harmony with the
general art of Europe prior to the twelfth century, and are shown to
hold a prominent place in the artistic history of the country.
It is remarkable, notwithstanding the abundance of sculpture on the
early monuments, that, until the advent of the Norman influence,
scarcely any indication of architectural details or sculpture occurs on
the churches of either Ireland or Scotland.
The earliest sign of decoration on buildings in Ireland is seen in the
form of a cross, composed of five white pebbles, inserted over the
doorway, in the dark stone of which the beehive cells of Ardoilean are
built. Some of the round towers contain very early instances of
symbolism in the Celtic cross carved on the lintel, while late examples
(such as Brechin) show a further advance in the introduction of a
Crucifixion on the lintel, and other figures on other parts of the
doorway. The carving of the cross on the above and other lintels is
probably symbolic of the blood of the lamb which was struck on the
doorposts of the Israelites in Egypt at the Passover.[42]
EARLY ECCLESIASTICAL STRUCTURES IN SCOTLAND.
The ecclesiastical structures of the early centuries which still survive
in Scotland are of the type of the stone erections above described in
the monasteries of Ireland. The beehive huts and oratories of the parent
eremitical establishments in the latter country are represented by a few
similar collections of structures which yet remain in the remote islands
and distant parts of Scotland.
Groups of dry-built beehive huts (or the remains of them), surrounding
one or more primitive churches, can still be pointed to in several
localities. These are surrounded with the wall or cashel which was
always present around the Irish monasteries.
Diminutive dry-built stone cells or oratories, with sloping or curved
walls, having the roof closed in with overlapping stones, converging
towards the centre, and covered with flag-stones, are still found in the
remote islands. One oratory also exists at Inchcolm where the stone roof
is supported by a true arch, as in some of the latest Irish examples. It
should, however, be pointed out that huts of similar construction to the
above are known to have been erected and inhabited in recent times in
the Outer Hebrides.[43] The hermitages above referred to, although
belonging to this oldest type of structure, may thus possibly not be the
oldest buildings in the country.
At a later time the rude monastic cells and hermitages were followed by
the churches established by the missionaries from Iona. The Scottish
churches erected by the Columbans were, like those of Ireland, of
extreme simplicity, and generally of small dimensions. They consisted of
a simple oblong chamber, with a single door and a single small window.
The walls were often built without mortar, and the wall apertures were
finished with undressed stones. These structures were sometimes covered
with a plain barrel vault, and sometimes with rafters and thatch. The
jambs of the doorway incline inwards and have straight lintels; the
windows are either square-headed or rudely arched. Until the Romanesque
influence is felt, not a trace of any kind of ornament is to be found on
these churches. Latterly, a few details resembling Norman work are
introduced.
In other examples of this type the details are more advanced. The door
jambs are upright and are covered with semi-circular arches, and the
windows are also similarly treated. The buildings, however, possess few
features to enable the date of their erection to be determined. They may
possibly have all been erected during a long course of years at
different times in different localities, according to local
circumstances; but it is natural to suppose that those of the more
refined type are the latest.
Another class of churches forms a distinctly later type than the above
simple quadrilateral structures. These are the churches consisting of a
nave and chancel. Not that the method of construction or the details of
these churches show any advance on the previous class. On the contrary,
the details are in many cases as simple and rude as those of the
one-chambered churches; but the alteration of the ground plan, by the
addition of a separate chancel, shows a development of the religious
service, leading to the inference that the type of churches with
chancels is later than the single-chambered ones. This, however, only
shows that the idea is later, not that single-chambered churches did not
continue to be erected after the chancel had, in some instances, been
introduced.[44] The persistence of an original form of plan is
remarkable and is well exemplified in the history of the castles of
Scotland, which shows how the primitive keep-plan of the thirteenth
century continued to be adopted up to the seventeenth century, long
after other and more developed forms of castles had been introduced.
The tendency in churches, however, seems to have been to adhere to the
chancel plan after its introduction, and even to alter older simple
churches by the addition of a chancel to one-chambered structures. Of
this we have mentioned an instance in Ireland at St. Kevin’s oratory at
Glendalough, and we shall meet with examples in Scotland as we proceed.
In other instances, primitive oratories have been converted into
churches with chancels by the addition of a nave, the original oratory
being retained as the chancel. We have thus a transitional plan forming
the link which connects these primitive single-chambered churches with
the more advanced type of church with nave and chancel. In most of these
early churches the chancel forms a separate apartment from the nave, the
entrance to the chancel being by a doorway only, generally similar in
size and form to that of the western entrance to the nave.
The chancel arch occurs, in some instances, as a later development.
This, together with a few other details, seems to point to the influence
of the Continental or Romanesque style which was slowly beginning to
make itself felt in some parts of the country. All the above types of
structures have been thoroughly examined and described by Mr. Muir, and
will be more fully dealt with in the detailed descriptions of the
churches derived from Mr. Muir’s works.
There still remain some special examples of Celtic structures to be
mentioned. These are the well-known round towers, of which those at
Abernethy and Brechin have already been referred to. A third round tower
is also found attached to the church of Egilsay, in Orkney.[45] These
towers are, undoubtedly, all examples of a style imported from Ireland.
They are detached specimens of a group, of which no fewer than
seventy-six examples still exist in that country, besides twenty-two
others which are known to have existed formerly. It has been shown by
Dr. Petrie that the Irish round towers were erected as places of refuge
in connection with monasteries, to which the monks might repair with
their relics and treasures in case of alarm. Such shelter was only too
much required, as the valuables of the monastic institutions formed a
very tempting bait for pillage by the Norsemen, whose depredations were
so alarming during the ninth century.
The history of the round towers of Ireland is easily traced in their
architecture, and has been fully explained and illustrated by Dr. Petrie
in his well-known book on the subject, and in the late Lord Dunraven’s
beautiful work on the early structures of Ireland. These towers are
always found associated with religious sites. The earliest examples are
comparatively rude in structure, while the later ones gradually improve
in style of masonry and finish, until the latest are built with ashlar
work, and contain some Romanesque ornaments and details. In all,
however, the leading principles of their construction are the same.
(Fig. 12.) The tower is round on plan, and is finished on top with a
conical roof. The door is narrow, and is placed, for security, at a
considerable height above the ground, and the lower floor is sometimes
built up solid, so as to resist conflagration. The windows are small,
except those on the top story, which are generally set facing the
cardinal points, and are larger, so as to allow the sound of the bell to
be heard--one of the uses of the tower being to serve as a belfry. The
Irish practice of inclining the jambs of the doors is maintained, and in
the early examples the lintel is straight, while in the later ones the
door is finished with a semi-circular arch, and enriched with several
orders of mouldings and ornaments bearing a markedly Norman character.
This remark applies also to the four windows of the top story, which are
plain in the early examples, and gradually become more ornamental and
Norman like. The Irish towers are almost invariably built alone, and
free from other structures; but some late examples are constructed in
connection with churches, and enter from them by a door on the level of
the floor of the church. The idea of using these towers as a place of
security is thus departed from, and they are then simply of use as
belfries.[46] Finally, they become absorbed into the structure of the
church, and are erected merely to serve as belfries on the gable.