THE ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE
OF SCOTLAND
FROM THE EARLIEST CHRISTIAN TIMES TO THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
_Edinburgh: Printed by George Waterston & Sons_
FOR
DAVID DOUGLAS.
LONDON, SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, AND CO., LIMITED
CAMBRIDGE, MACMILLAN AND BOWES
GLASGOW, JAMES MACLEHOSE AND SONS
THE
ECCLESIASTICAL
ARCHITECTURE
OF SCOTLAND
FROM THE EARLIEST CHRISTIAN TIMES TO THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
BY
DAVID MACGIBBON AND THOMAS ROSS
AUTHORS OF “THE CASTELLATED AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE OF SCOTLAND”
_VOLUME ONE_
[Illustration]
EDINBURGH: DAVID DOUGLAS
MDCCCXCVI
_All rights reserved._
PREFACE.
While engaged upon their work on _The Castellated and Domestic
Architecture of Scotland_, the authors were frequently brought in
contact with the various ecclesiastical structures throughout the
country, and they naturally availed themselves of such opportunities to
make notes and sketches of these interesting edifices.
These notes and sketches, together with others made during a long series
of years, formed a considerable fund of information and a collection of
drawings, the possession of which has induced the authors to undertake
the completion of the illustration and description of the Ancient
Architecture of Scotland, by adding an account of the Ecclesiastical to
that of the Castellated and Domestic Architecture of the country already
given to the public.
The size of the former book has been found to be somewhat restricted for
many of the illustrations of the churches, but it has been thought best,
for the sake of uniformity, to adhere to the same size and style as in
the former work.
The subject of the Castles and Mansions, having been previously little
investigated, afforded a fresh field for enquiry. The history and
gradual development of the design and construction of these buildings
had to be wrought out and arranged in periods according to the dates and
the peculiarities of the structures, and an appropriate nomenclature
had to be invented. These considerations added greatly to the interest
of the subject.
In Ecclesiastical Architecture the case is different. The various styles
and periods of Gothic architecture, both in this country and abroad,
have for long been carefully investigated and defined. It thus only
remains to apply to our Scottish edifices the system already adopted in
the rest of Europe. An attempt is made in this work to do so, and
attention is drawn to the various points in which Scottish Church
Architecture agrees with and differs from that of other countries.
It has been suggested that our Ecclesiastical Architecture might be
arranged in connection with the various orders of ecclesiastics by whom
it was employed, and the specialities of the architecture of the various
orders pointed out. This matter has not escaped attention; but it has
been found impossible to form a system of nomenclature on that
foundation.
The more this subject is investigated, the stronger is the conviction
that there is, in this country at least, practically no difference in
the style of architecture of the different orders of Churchmen from the
twelfth to the sixteenth century. The cathedrals and parish and other
churches were all built on general and well understood principles. The
monasteries also were all constructed on the same general plan. Whether
the occupants were Canons Regular or Monks of the Cistercian,
Tyronensian, Premonstratensian or other order, or even Franciscans or
Dominicans, their convents were all designed on one general system.
The plan consisted of an open court or cloister, surrounded by a
covered walk, having on one side (generally the north side) the nave of
the church; while on the east side, in connection with the transept, lay
the sacristy, chapter house, and frequently the fratery or day-room of
the monks, on the upper floor of which range extended the dormitory,
library, &c. The south side of the cloister was occupied by the
refectory and kitchen; and the west side contained cellars and stores,
and apartments for the lay brothers and guests.
These dispositions were sometimes extended and modified, but were
invariably adhered to on the whole.
None of our Scottish monasteries are sufficiently well preserved to
exhibit these arrangements in their entirety; but the various portions
of the different convents which survive always correspond with the parts
which would be expected in the positions they occupy.
As regards the style of the architecture and ornamentation, the only
difference observable is that which is common to all the structures of
the respective periods.
While it is intended to include in this work all the examples of ancient
church architecture discoverable in Scotland, such subjects as ancient
sites, demolished structures, and mere foundations do not fall within
its scope, and are only referred to incidentally. These matters belong
to the province of archæology, not to that of architecture.
Most of the ancient ecclesiastical structures of the West Highlands and
Islands, and also those of Orkney and Shetland, being of a special and
somewhat indefinite, although very interesting, character, are treated
separately, before the main subject of the work is entered on.
In connection with the churches of Orkney and Shetland, the authors have
to express their obligation to Sir HENRY E. L. DRYDEN for his kindness
in allowing his drawings and descriptions of these buildings to be
incorporated in this work. They have also to thank the COUNCIL of the
SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES OF SCOTLAND, with whom these drawings and
descriptions are deposited, for their permission to use them.
The descriptions of the churches of the Highlands and Islands are, as
stated in the book, chiefly abstracted from the late Mr. T. S. MUIR’S
interesting volumes.
The authors further take this opportunity of returning their sincere
thanks to the many friends and well-wishers who have rendered them
assistance in their labours. The names of many of these gentlemen are
mentioned in connection with a number of the different structures. They
would also express their indebtedness to all those whose permission was
necessary to enable them to visit and make drawings of public and
private buildings, which permission was invariably freely given.
They have specially to acknowledge their indebtedness to Dr. JOSEPH
ANDERSON, of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, for his goodness in
revising the portion of the work dealing with Celtic Art; to Mr. T. S.
ROBERTSON, Architect, Dundee, and Mr. WILLIAM GALLOWAY, Architect,
Wigton, for their assistance in supplying drawings, and otherwise; and
to Dr. DICKSON, late of the Register House, Edinburgh, for valuable aid
in many ways.
EDINBURGH, _January 1896_.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
Various branches of early art in Scotland--Cells of
Anchorites--Celtic art--Round towers and sculptured monuments,
succeeded by Norman and Gothic architecture--Native
developments--Previous writers on Celtic art (3)--Primitive
Christianity--_Candida Casa_--Crosses and caves--St.
Palladius--Irish monasteries--Wattles--Beehive cells
(7)--Cashels--“Deserts”--Christian structures (9)--Irish MSS. and
slabs--Symbolic sculptures--St. Columba--Iona--Missionaries from
Northumbria--Lindisfarne--Roman influence--St. Augustine--Benedict
Biscop--St. Winifred (12)--Pre-Norman churches--Columbans
expelled--Culdees--Roman system introduced (14)--Revival of Celtic
system--Celtic art (15)--Symbols (16)--Upright slabs
(17)--Development of design of--Sculptures, origin of--Western
crosses (20)--Early Ecclesiastical Structures in Scotland
(24)--Beehive huts--Churches--Round towers (26)--Brechin and
Abernethy--St. Regulus--Churches erected by Queen
Margaret--Alexander I.--David I.--Parochial system (31)--Romanesque
architecture (32)--Vaulting, development of (34)--Subordination of
members (35)--Norman Style, examples (36)--Norman Style in Scotland
(38)--First Pointed Style (39)--Salisbury Cathedral (41)--France
and England compared (43)--Examples of the style (45)--First
Pointed Style in Scotland (46)--Derived from England (47)--Examples
(48)--Architecture of Fourteenth, Fifteenth, and Sixteenth
Centuries in Scotland (50)--Divided into Decorated and Late Pointed
(52)--Middle Pointed or Decorated Style (53)--Middle Pointed or
Decorated Style in Scotland (55)--Examples--Third or Late Pointed
Style (58)--Examples--Third or Late Pointed Style in Scotland
(60)--Effects of English and French influence (62).
CELTIC MONASTIC AND ECCLESIASTICAL STRUCTURES IN SCOTLAND.
I. SIMPLE OBLONG CHURCHES, ASSOCIATED WITH BEEHIVE CELLS AND
CHURCHES IN GROUPS.
PAGE
Eilean Naomh, Argyleshire, 66
Skeabost, Skye, 68
Mugstot, Do., 69
Howmore, South Uist, 70
Kilbar, Barra, 71
II. HERMITS’ CELLS, 73
The Chapel of St. Ronan, North Rona, 73
Teampull Sula Sgeir, 75
Flannain Isles, or Seven Hunters, 77
Teampull Beannachadh, 77
III. CELTIC CHURCHES STANDING ALONE, 78
1. One oblong chamber. 2. Do., with modifications.
3. With architecturally distinguished chancel. 4. With
chancel or nave added. 5. With pointed arches, 79
(_A_) CHURCHES DRY-BUILT AND CHURCHES WITH SLOPING
JAMBS, 80
Tigh Beannachadh, Lewis, 80
Dun Othail, Do., 81
Carinish, North Uist, 81
(_B_) SIMPLE OBLONG CHURCHES WITH MODIFIED FEATURES, 82
Cara, off Gigha, Kintyre, 82
Eilean Munde, Lochleven, 83
Church of Holy Cross, South Galston, Lewis, 83
Teampull Pheadair, Lewis, 83
St. Aula, Gress, Do., 83
Toehead, Harris, 83
Nuntown, Benbecula, 83
Pabba, Sound of Harris, 84
Kilmuir, Skye, 84
Trumpan, Do., 84
_Churches showing signs of Norman influence_:--
St. Carmaig, Kiels, Knapdale, 84
Kilmory, Do., 85
Kirkapoll, Tiree (Ithica Terra), 87
Kilchenich, Do., 88
(_C_) CHURCHES WITH CHANCEL, OR NAVE ADDED TO AN OLDER STRUCTURE, 88
St. Columba, Balivanich, Benbecula, 88
Eilean Mor, Knapdale, 89
St. Columba’s, Ey., Lewis, 91
St. Columba, Kiels, Kintyre, 92
Kilchouslan, Campbeltown, Do., 92
Kilchenzie, Do., Do., 93
IV. CHURCHES BUILT WITH CHANCEL AND NAVE.
St. Mary’s, Lybster, Caithness, 93
Church of John the Baptist, South Bragair, Lewis, 95
St. Michael’s, Borve, Barra, 95
(_D_) CHURCHES WITH POINTED OR LATE FEATURES.
St. Catan’s, Gigha, Kintyre, 95
Kildalton, Islay, 96
Kilnaughton, Do., 96
Kilneave, Do., 96
Kilchieran, Do., 96
St. Ninian’s, Sanda, Kintyre, 97
St. Columba’s Isle, Lewis, 97
Pennygowan, Mull, 98
Laggan, Do., 98
Inchkenneth, Ulva, 98
St. Moluac, Raasay, 98
Killean, Kintyre, 98
Kilbride, Knapdale, 98
Eorrapidh, Lewis, 99
Olrig, Caithness, 99
Kilchieven or Kilcoiven, Kintyre, 100
CHURCHES IN ORKNEY AND SHETLAND.
DRAWN AND DESCRIBED BY SIR HENRY DRYDEN, BART.
Chapel on the Brough of Deerness, 101
Chapel on the North Shore of Head of Holland, 105
Halcro Chapel, South Ronaldshay, 105
St. Tredwell’s Chapel, Papa Westray, 106
Church at Swendro, Rousay, 108
St. Ola, Kirkwall, 109
CHURCHES OF TYPE CONTAINING CHANCEL AND NAVE.
Church on the Island of Wyre, 113
Church on the Island of Enhallow, 116
Chapel at Linton, Shapinsay, 122
Chapel in Westray, 124
Church on Island of Egilsey, 127
Church on Brough of Birsay, 135
Church at Orphir, 141
CHURCHES IN SHETLAND (145).
Chapel of Noss, Bressay, 146
Kirkaby, Westing, Unst, 147
Meal, Colvidale, Do., 148
St. John’s Kirk, Norwick, Do., 148
Church at Uya, 149
Kirk of Ness, North Yell, 151
Church at Culbinsbrough, Bressay, 157
General Characteristics, 159
Monuments, 160
Proportions, 161
Dates, 162
Chapel at Lybster, Reay, Caithness, 162
Chapel, Effigy, and Cross on Inch Kenneth, Mull, Argyleshire, 165
TRANSITION FROM CELTIC TO NORMAN
ARCHITECTURE.
Abernethy Round Tower, Perthshire, 175
Restennet Priory, Forfarshire, 178
St. Regulus’, or St. Rule’s, St. Andrews, Fifeshire, 185
NORMAN ARCHITECTURE.
Markinch Tower, Fifeshire, 193
Muthill Church, Perthshire, 196
St. Serf’s, Dunning, Do., 204
Cruggleton Church, Wigtonshire, 212
Monymusk Church, Aberdeenshire, 215
St. Brandon’s, Birnie, Morayshire, 218
St. Oran’s Chapel, Iona, Argyleshire, 220
Chapel in Edinburgh Castle (St. Margaret’s Chapel), 224
Dunfermline Abbey, Fifeshire, 230
St. Magnus’ Cathedral, Kirkwall, Orkney, Dunfermline Abbey, 259
St. Blane’s Church, Buteshire, 292
Dalmeny Church, Linlithgowshire, 298
Leuchars Church, Fifeshire, 309
Bunkle Church, Berwickshire, 314
Edrom Church, Do., 316
Legerwood Church, Do., 320
Chirnside Church, Do., 322
St. Helen’s Church, Do., 323
Tynninghame Church, Haddingtonshire, 326
Stobo Church, Peeblesshire, 329
Duddingston Church, Mid-Lothian, 333
St. Andrew’s, Gullane, Haddingtonshire, 339
Uphall Church and St. Nicholas’, Strathbroc, Linlithgowshire, 342
Abercorn Church, Linlithgowshire, 346
Kelso Abbey, Roxburghshire, 347
St. Martin’s Church, Haddington, 362
Kirkliston Church, Linlithgowshire, 366
St. Mary’s, Ratho, Mid-Lothian, 371
St. Peter’s, Peterhead, Aberdeenshire, 371
St. Mary’s, Rutherglen, Lanarkshire, 372
Lamington Church, Do., 376
St. Boswells Church, Roxburghshire, 377
Smailholm Church, Do., 378
Linton Church, Do., 379
Duns Church, Berwickshire, 381
St. Lawrence, Lundie, Forfarshire, 382
Kirkmaiden Church, Wigtonshire, 383
Herdmanston Font, Haddingtonshire, 384
THE TRANSITION STYLE.
Dundrennan Abbey, Kirkcudbrightshire, 388
Jedburgh Abbey, Roxburghshire, 398
Kinloss Abbey, Morayshire, 416
The Nunnery, Iona, Argyleshire, 421
St. Nicholas’, Aberdeen, 426
Coldingham Priory, Berwickshire, 437
Dryburgh Abbey, Do., 448
Airth Church, Stirlingshire, 465
Lasswade Church, Mid-Lothian, 471
Bathgate Church, Linlithgowshire, 474
THE ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE OF SCOTLAND
FROM THE EARLIEST CHRISTIAN TIMES TO THE REFORMATION.
INTRODUCTION.
Among the various branches of Mediæval Art in Europe, the Church
Architecture of Scotland fills an interesting and valuable place. This
country cannot claim to have originated a new style in the sense in
which the Ile de France gave birth to pointed Gothic, but it can show a
continuous series of Christian structures, beginning with the primitive
cells and oratories of the early Anchorites, and extending through all
the periods of Mediæval Art.
Two distinct phases of artistic development are exemplified in the
History of Scotland--the first comprises the rise and decline of Celtic
Art in early Christian times, and the second is allied to the various
stages of general European culture.
Of the former period abundant illustrations exist in the almost
prehistoric examples of Celtic structures of early Christian recluses,
together with specimens of round towers and innumerable sculptured
memorials and crosses, somewhat similar to those found in Ireland. These
indicate the intimate connection which formerly existed with that
country, whence Scotland derived her name, as well as her early
instruction in religion.
The round towers and sculptured monuments are followed by primitive
examples of Norman work, pointing to the direction from which the later
phases of religious and artistic development in the country took their
origin. The Saxon and Norman influence of the eleventh century produced
a complete revolution in the artistic elements of the country, and led
to a full development of the Romanesque or Norman style of
architecture--a style similar to the round arched architecture of other
countries of Europe in the twelfth century. Of this new departure the
signs are still visible in the numerous remains of Norman structures
which are spread over the country. These consist chiefly of small parish
churches, but they also include some large and elaborate buildings,
almost entirely monastic, and one cathedral.
The succeeding Gothic styles are also well represented in Scotland, and
include a great variety of churches, monasteries, and cathedrals. These
exhibit many fine examples of the various styles of Gothic art, and,
although comprising certain local peculiarities, show a general
correspondence with the arts of the different periods in France and
England.
The “first pointed” style is fully represented in Scotland during the
thirteenth century; but, owing to the disastrous situation of the
country during the fourteenth century, the number of “decorated”
buildings is comparatively small.
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, when the “perpendicular”
style prevailed in England and the “Flamboyant” in France, the
architecture of Scotland was distinguished by a style peculiar to the
country, in which many features derived from both the above styles may
be detected.
While the Mediæval Architecture of Scotland thus corresponds on the
whole with that of the rest of Europe, there exists in the Ecclesiology
of the country an amount of native development sufficient to give it a
special value as one of the exponents of the art of the Middle Ages. Its
buildings further contribute largely to the illustration of the history
of the country by showing in their remains the condition and growth of
its religious ideas and observances at different epochs, and the manner
in which its civilisation advanced. We observe striking evidences of the
Irish influence in the relics of the primitive Celtic Church. The Norman
and Early English influences are clearly traceable up to the invasion of
Edward I., and the political and commercial connection with France and
the Netherlands is distinctly observable in the period of the Jameses.
Till comparatively modern times the early history of Scotland was
involved in obscurity, but much light has within recent years been
thrown upon it by the works of Robertson, Skene, and others. The
religious and political conditions of the country have now been placed
upon a reliable historical basis, while its archæology has been
expounded in the works of the late Sir Daniel Wilson, and those of Dr.
Joseph Anderson and Mr. J. Romilly Allen. The numerous prehistoric
monuments of Scotland have been collected by the late Dr. John Stuart,
in his great work on the Sculptured Stories, and the Sepulchral Slabs of
the West Highlands have been beautifully illustrated by the late James
Drummond, R.S.A.
A wide field has been explored through the patient and devoted labours
of the late T. S. Muir, by his searching out the architectural fragments
scattered over the land, and especially by bringing to light many
unknown examples of the retreats and primitive oratories of the early
Anchorites which still exist in the remote and in many cases uninhabited
islands of the West. Similar explorations have been accomplished by Sir
Henry Dryden in Orkney and Shetland, and by Captain White and Captain
Thomas in Kintyre and the Hebrides. To all these authors we are indebted
for much valuable information and guidance, as will appear in the
following pages.
The structures and monuments of the early Celtic inhabitants of Scotland
have formed the special subject of careful investigation by Dr. Joseph
Anderson, and the exposition of the history of the remarkable and
previously mysterious Sculptured Stones has been successfully
accomplished by him in his lectures on Scotland in early Christian
times. In these lectures he has not only clearly explained the origin
and significance of these monuments and their order of succession, but
he has extended his view over the whole field of Celtic culture, both in
this country and in Ireland, and has explained the relations of its
different phases to one another, thus disclosing the unity and beauty of
that remarkable and independent development of art culture which existed
in these countries from the sixth to the twelfth centuries.
We have also the benefit of Dr. Reeves’ and Dr. Petrie’s well-known
works on Irish History and Archæology, and the magnificent volumes of
Lord Dunraven on Early Irish Architecture, so ably edited by Miss
Stokes. In the following introductory sketch of the Early History and
Artistic Development of Scotland, free use has been made of the above
and other works, in order to place before the reader a continuous
account of the religious and artistic progress of the country from the
earliest dawn of Christianity till the great Revolution of the sixteenth
century, which severed the connection between mediæval and modern times.
* * * * *
The earliest trace of Christianity in Scotland is connected with the
founding of a church, the name of which still survives in a structure of
a much later date. This primitive church was erected by St. Ninian, a
Briton, who seems to have settled in the end of the fourth century
amongst the Picts, on the south coast of Galloway, with the view of
there maintaining the Christian faith already introduced by the Romans.
St. Ninian is said to have studied in Rome, and, on his return journey,
to have visited St. Martin, at Tours, who supplied him with masons to
assist in the erection of a church, built of stone, in the Roman manner.
This was known as the _Candida Casa_ (now Whithorn), which was built
about the year 412, and dedicated to St. Martin of Tours. It became a
great school of instruction in Christian doctrine,[1] but after a time
the Christianity of this locality appears to have died out, or was
transferred to Ireland. It is believed that some of the emissaries from
this school in the fifth century may be traced in the dedications of
churches amongst the Picts, as, for example, St. Ternan, at
Banchory-Ternan; St. Mocholmoc, at Inchmahome; and St. Fillan, at the
place named after him on Loch Earn. At Abernethy, in Perthshire, King
Nectan is said to have been raised from the dead by St. Bœthius or
Buitte, who came from Ireland, accompanied by St. Bridget and her ten
virgins. The Saint, as a reward for his miracle, was presented with the
fortress which existed at the place, just as the Irish ecclesiastics
were established (as will be pointed out) by the chiefs in their raths
or strongholds.[2] This king also built a church at Abernethy in honour
of St. Bridget (about 480)--a foundation which afterwards became famous.
[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Early Crosses near Whithorn.]
It tends to confirm the truth of the early mission of St. Ninian to the
Southern Picts, that the monumental stones which still survive in that
region are engraved with incised crosses of the oldest form, and are
accompanied with inscriptions in debased Roman capital letters,
containing the formula “hic jacet”--all marks which indicate a very
early date.[3] Such are the crosses near Whithorn and those at
Kirkmadrine, in a neighbouring parish, which all bear the simple cross
with equal arms enclosed in a circle,[4] and contain the chi-rho symbol.
(Fig. 1.)
It should further be noted that on the south coast of the Bay of Luce,
not far from Whithorn, there exists a cave in the rocks which is
believed to have been the retreat of an early Anchorite, perhaps of St.
Ninian himself. Numerous crosses of early type, incised on the rocky
walls and on the steps of a short stair leading down to the cave, prove
that it has been occupied for religious purposes at an early date;[5]
while on the Isle of Whithorn are the ruins of a church, which may
possibly occupy the site of the original _Candida Casa_ of St.
Ninian.[6]
Another cave in the rocks on the shore of the opposite side of the Bay
of Luce, still known as St. Medan’s Cave,[7] has also apparently served
as the abode of an Anchorite. It consists, like the retreat of St.
Cuthbert at Farne (to be afterwards described), of an oratory and an
outer apartment for ordinary uses.
Numerous similar caves, which have been used for the like sacred
purpose, are still to be found in many parts of the country,
particularly on the West Coast.
After the decadence of the School of _Candida Casa_, Christianity in
Scotland seems to have been in abeyance, till it was revived in the
sixth century by the arrival of fresh light and energy from Ireland.
From that period till the twelfth century the religion and culture of
Scotland were entirely derived from that country. It is therefore
necessary, in order to follow the origin and development of ecclesiology
and art in Scotland, to trace generally their history in Ireland, and to
mark the influence of the latter country on the former.
Owing to the disturbed state of Britain after the withdrawal of the
Romans in the beginning of the fifth century, and the eruptions of the
Goths in Gaul, many Christian refugees found their way to Ireland.
Christianity was thus introduced, and, during the fifth century, spread
rapidly under the instructions of St. Palladius, a reputed emissary of
Rome, and St. Patrick, the patron Saint of Ireland. At first the Church
seems to have assumed a peculiar collegiate form, consisting of groups
of seven bishops placed together in one church; but in the sixth century
the monastic rules were introduced, and at once took root and spread
with wonderful rapidity amongst the various tribes. Under St. Finnian,
after a short time, there are said to have been three thousand monks in
the monastic school of Clonard. Columba, one of his twelve disciples,
born in 521, founded several monasteries in Ireland, amongst others
those of Derry and Kells, Raphoe in Donegal, and Durrow in Meath.
In 558 the great monastery of Bangor was founded by St. Comgall, one of
Columba’s companions, and is said to have contained thousands of
monks.[8]
These monasteries were tribal institutions, and were well suited to the
social relations of the country. The abbots were connected with the
leading families of the tribes, and succeeded one another according to
the rules of succession which prevailed amongst the chiefs. Many of the
monasteries were established with the consent of the chiefs, and it
frequently happened that on such occasions a “rath,” or native fortress,
was presented to the founder by the head of the tribe, as a place of
security in which his monastic dwellings might be erected.[9] These
structures were generally of a slight and simple nature, consisting of
huts made of branches or wattles, covered with turf or clay. The
churches or oratories were also constructed with wood. The whole
establishment seems to have resembled the primitive fortresses of the
Celts, consisting of a great enclosing wall or rampart, with temporary
erections within. At a later time wooden boards were substituted for
wattles, and the roofs were covered with thatch. Dr. Reeves states that
St. Palladius erected three churches of oak, while St. Patrick is said
to have built one with stone, because no wood was to be found in the
locality.[10]
The practice of building with wood was the favourite one amongst the
“Scots”[11] in Ireland, and we shall find further examples amongst their
disciples both in Scotland and England. Dr. Reeves states that the
“Scotic” attachment to wooden churches continued in Ireland till the
twelfth century, and that although stone churches existed, they were
regarded as of foreign introduction. These wooden structures, it is
needless to remark, have all long since disappeared, having been
replaced by more permanent edifices.
Although building with wattles and wood was the usual form of
construction in Ireland in the early centuries, it was not the only one.
When monasteries were established (as above mentioned) within the
“raths” or fortresses by the chiefs, certain native forms of building in
stone were found to exist in connection with these structures.[12] The
rath was invariably surrounded with a lofty wall of great thickness,
composed of unhewn stones mingled with earth. The exterior face of the
wall was carefully built with “headers,” and in many instances chambers
were constructed in the thickness of the wall, and roofed with
overlapping stones in the form of an arch, but without the radiating
structure of a true arch.[13] Chambers of similar construction are also
often found in the walls of the brochs, and in the Eirde houses and
other Celtic structures in Scotland.
[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Beehive Cell on Skellig Mhichel. (From _Scotland
in Early Christian Times_.)]
Besides the great “cashel” or enclosing rampart, other stone buildings
existed within the rath. These consisted of circular or oval huts, built
with unhewn stones without mortar. They are generally about 6 to 10 feet
in diameter, and the interior has sometimes square angles. The walls are
3 to 4 feet in thickness, and rise perpendicularly to about 6 feet in
height, when they begin to converge towards the centre, the stones
overlapping as they rise with a curve till they nearly meet, when the
aperture is covered in on top with flagstones. The external appearance
of these primitive abodes presents a domed form like that of a beehive,
from which circumstance they are called “beehive huts” (Fig. 2). There
is invariably a small doorway about 4 feet high, with a straight lintel
on top, and the jambs are always built, not perpendicularly, but with an
inclination inwards as they rise. A small square opening in the roof,
greatly splayed towards the interior, forms the window of the hut. Stone
structures of this description were common in certain parts of Ireland
in Pagan times.[14] These were the native originals from which the Irish
monks derived the style of stone building which was afterwards adopted
by them in certain localities, with modifications as time progressed.
The Celtic monks of the early centuries showed a strong predilection for
islands as the sites of their monasteries. Almost every loch and river
show evidence of this choice in the ruins scattered over the country,
and some small detached and rocky islands situated a few miles from the
West Coast of Ireland (where they have been little exposed to
disturbance) yet contain specimens of the above primitive structures.
The great enclosing cashels and the singular beehive huts have been
beautifully illustrated and described in the splendid work of the late
Lord Dunraven on Ancient Irish Architecture, edited by Miss Stokes.
It was one of the peculiarities of the Irish monastic system to
encourage the members to retire occasionally for a lengthened period to
some solitary place, where they might do penance and worship
undisturbed. These places of retreat were called “deserts,” and were
sought for in the uninhabited and rocky islands lying at a distance from
the mainland. It is surmised that the islands of St. Michael, Ardoilean,
and others in a similar position off the West Coast of Ireland,
containing monastic remains, were retreats of this description.
We have seen that these establishments exhibit in their beehive huts and
cashels the tradition of the native Pagan style of building derived from
the raths of the converted chiefs. In addition to these primitive
erections, they further contain evidences of certain structural elements
imported in connection with the introduction of Christianity.[15] For,
besides the circular cells of the monks, they invariably comprise one or
more small churches or oratories. These are structurally distinguished
by having square angles on plan, both externally and internally, and by
having the joints of the stones generally cemented with a certain amount
of mortar. The roofs were constructed like those of the huts, with
overlapping stones carried up with a curve to a pointed ridge. These
churches are of small dimensions, and form a simple oblong chamber set
with its greater length towards the east and west. They have a small
door in the west end with inclined jambs and straight lintel, and a
small square-headed window to the east. The above Christian form of
church was, however, not fully adopted at first, many of the early
Irish churches retaining the native form of construction--_i.e._, the
walls, both of sides and ends, rise in a curve from the foundation to
the ridge of the roof, which is formed of overlapping stones, and the
whole presents the appearance of an inverted boat with a sharp keel.
These churches are built with dry stones, carefully constructed.[16]
They are often associated with pillar stones, inscribed with crosses and
inscriptions in Roman letters of the most ancient form,[17] and are
supposed to be of the age of the Saints whose names they bear, dating
from the fifth to the seventh centuries.[18] They were succeeded in the
seventh and eighth centuries by a somewhat more advanced type, forming a
transition from the dry-built and rough stone structures to buildings
cemented with mortar, and having the stones dressed. To these were added
chancels in the ninth and tenth centuries, having radiating chancel
arches, which are invariably semi-circular, and have inclined jambs. The
church of St. Kevin at Glendalough presents a good example of a chancel
added to a primitive single-chambered church. Ornament was gradually
introduced, but the Irish characteristic of the stone roof, supported on
an arch, was retained in small structures up to the twelfth century. As
time progressed the original overlapping form of arch was superseded by
the true radiating arch. In the case of the larger churches, however,
the roof seems generally to have been constructed with wooden rafters
and shingles.[19]
The radiating arch appears to have been introduced about the same time
as the chancel, and was by degrees applied both to doors and windows,
but the sloping form of the jambs continued in use till the introduction
of the Norman style.[20]
The religious enthusiasm which pervaded the Irish monasteries was very
great, and displayed itself in the numerous offshoots and missions which
they sent out, not only to the neighbouring countries of England and
Scotland, but also to Gaul, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy. Rude and
primitive as were their dwellings, the Celtic monks excelled in several
departments of art and literature. Their chronicles of events are almost
our only guide to the history of the country in those early times, and
the writings and illuminations of their religious books are marvels of
beautiful caligraphy and design. The forms and features of their
drawings and illuminations are of a marked and special character, and
are found prominently displayed not only in their MSS., but on all
objects of Celtic production, such as gold and silver ornaments and
shrines, and the sculptured crosses and architectural enrichments of a
somewhat later date.[21]
The earliest stone monuments in Ireland consist, as in Scotland, of rude
pillar stones, bearing plain incised crosses, accompanied with
inscriptions in debased Roman capitals. These are succeeded by
sepulchral slabs, shaped and dressed, which were laid flat over the
graves, and were carved with various forms of the cross extending over
the entire surface, and sometimes covered with interlacing ornament. But
the upright cross-bearing slabs, which we shall find are so common in
Scotland, were almost unknown in Ireland. At Clonmacnoise there are 179
of these recumbent cross-bearing slabs, the ascertained dates of which
extend from 628 to 1278; of these only sixty-seven bear any ornament
except the cross. The earliest with ornament dates from 806, and many
others belong to the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries.[22] Free
standing crosses of fine design are also numerous in Ireland. They are
generally covered with pictorial sculpture of Scriptural subjects; they
date from the tenth to the twelfth centuries. They usually bear on the
obverse a representation of the Crucifixion,[23] and on the reverse a
figure of Christ in glory. These sculptures occupy the principal place
at the junction of the arms with the upright shaft, and the remainder of
the cross contains figure subjects, arranged in panels, representing
events symbolical of the Redemption, and leading the mind up to the
principal subject. Amongst the most common are the Temptation of Adam
and Eve, the Sacrifice of Isaac, Jonah and the Whale, Daniel in the
Lions’ Den, &c.
Symbolic sculptures, representing hunting scenes, grotesque animals,
&c., so common on the Scottish monuments, are also occasionally found on
the Irish crosses, but do not occur so frequently as on the former. The
peculiar and unexplained symbols so universally found on the Scottish
monuments are, however, entirely absent from those of Ireland.
* * * * *
Amongst the earliest fields in which the energy and enterprise of the
Irish monastic missionaries found an outlet were naturally the adjoining
lands of Kintyre and the islands on the West Coast of Scotland. From the
beginning of the sixth century an emigration had been going on from
Dalriada, in Ulster, to these regions, and settlements had been formed
and a large part of the country taken possession of, extending as far
north as Mull, and including part of the mainland of Argyll. In 560,
however, Brude, King of the Northern Picts, led an expedition against
the invaders, and drove them back from most of their possessions. A
desire to retrieve this reverse, combined with zeal to spread the
benefits of religion amongst the heathen Picts, is supposed to have led
to St. Columba’s mission, and to the foundation of the Monastic Church
in Scotland. In 563 St. Columba, with twelve disciples, sailed from
Ireland for Dalriada, in Scotland. After visiting some of the islands
and founding a cave-chapel at Loch Coalisport, which is still traceable,
he finally, with consent of the Picts, settled at Iona. There he found a
remnant of an early Church of Secular Bishops, but they yielded to the
stronger monastic element now prevailing.[24]
The monastery founded by Columba at Iona was of the ordinary style of
the Irish establishments above described. Adamnan, in his _Life of
Columba_, mentions that the buildings were constructed with wattles and
turf, and the roofs covered with thatch. Besides the church and the huts
for the brethren, there was a special cell for the abbot, a larger hut
for a refectory, and another for strangers. The whole was enclosed, as
usual, with a high wall or rampart. About a century after Columba’s time
some improvement seems to have been made on the rude system of building
with wattles. Adamnan, who lived about that date, describes how, in
renewing the structures of the monastery, oak boards were used, and the
roof was covered with thatch.
The Church established in Iona followed the example of its Irish
founders, and sent out missionaries in all directions. In 565 St.
Columba visited King Brude in his stronghold on the river Ness, and
succeeded in converting the king and the Northern Picts. This mission
seems to have been partly political, as it was also successful in
establishing the Irish colony of Dalriada in possession of its territory
under its own king.[25] During the sixth century numerous churches were
founded throughout Scotland and in the Western Islands by St. Columba
and his companions, St. Brendan, St. Comgall, and St. Cainnech,[26]
whose names still survive in the dedications of many of these
structures.
The Pictish King Brude was succeeded by King Gartnaid, who fixed his
royal seat at Abernethy, in Perthshire. There he is said to have built a
monastery (580-590) and dedicated it to St. Bridget, to whom, as we have
seen, an earlier church had been dedicated in the same locality. St.
Cainnech is said to have established himself in a “desert” at Kilrimont
(St. Andrews),[27] thus indicating the early foundation of these
well-known religious sites. The Cumbrian Church was also founded about
this time at Glasgow by St. Kentigern, a friend of Columba’s. St.
Columba died in 597, and, after his death, Iona was acknowledged as the
head of all the churches and monasteries which had been established in
Scotland.
But the influence of this Church soon spread beyond the boundaries of
that kingdom. Oswald, son of Aidilfrid, having been driven from
Northumbria, found refuge in Iona, and there acquired a knowledge of
religion and literature. Having regained his throne, he sent, in 635, to
Iona for monks to introduce the Christian faith amongst his people. St.
Aidan was the first of these missionaries sent, and, with the king’s
consent, he fixed his monastery on the island of Lindisfarne. He also
founded monasteries at Old Melrose and Coldingham, then within the
bounds of Northumbria. It was to the Columban Church thus established
that the Angles between the Humber and the Forth owed their permanent
conversion to Christianity. After a time St. Aidan was succeeded by St.
Cuthbert, who continued and extended this pious work. But after being
twelve years in charge of Lindisfarne, St. Cuthbert retired, like so
many of the same monastic school, to a “desert” or hermitage, situated
on the solitary island of Farne, more distant from the mainland than
Lindisfarne. Here he erected his hermit’s cell, the account of which,
given by Bede,[28] is most interesting, as it so fully explains the
nature of such structures. The enclosure was circular, and about 4 or 5
perches in diameter. Externally the wall was about the height of a man,
but in the interior somewhat higher, owing to the soil and rock having
been excavated. The wall was composed of massive unwrought stones and
turf. The enclosure contained a dwelling-place divided into two parts,
one being an oratory and the other a room suitable for common uses. The
roof was formed of rough beams and thatched with straw. At the
landing-place outside the enclosure a large house was erected to give
shelter to the monks when they visited the hermit. Although called for a
time to the Bishopric of Lindisfarne, St. Cuthbert again retired to his
hermitage, and there expired A.D. 687.
When the Columban Church had existed in Northumbria for about thirty
years, new influences arose, before which that monastic form gradually
declined. The principal of these influences came from the South, and was
part of that steady pressure from Rome which by degrees brought all
Churches into uniformity of doctrine and observance. England was to a
great extent the spiritual child of Rome, having been reconverted to the
faith by the direct intervention of the Pope after the desolation caused
by the heathen Danes. This was accomplished by the mission of St.
Augustine, who was sent by Pope Gregory to England in 596 for the
reformation of religion. The ecclesiastics from Rome brought with them
the Roman forms and observances and the Roman mode of building. Thus St.
Augustine, so soon as he was established in Kent, set about the
erection, at Canterbury, of a cathedral, with two towers attached to the
nave and a circular baptistry, in imitation of St. Peter’s at Rome.
Other instances occur of the introduction of building with stone after
the Roman manner. Bede describes how Benedict Biscop, in 676, brought
masons from Gaul to carry out buildings in stone, and how the churches
of St. Peter at Monkwearmouth, and St. Paul at Jarrow, were erected by
Benedict Biscop (670-80) with stone, “according to the manner of the
Romans.” Bede further mentions that Nectan, King of the Northern Picts,
sought, in 710, for masons to be sent to him from Monkwearmouth, who
should build churches for him according to the fashion of the Romans.
St. Winifred, Bishop of York, the great opponent of the Columbans in
Northumbria, had also erected stone churches in the seventh century
after the Roman manner at Hexham, York, and Ripon.
Northumbria was at this period (during the seventh and part of the
eighth centuries) the most powerful and advanced portion of England. It
was the nursery of learning and poetry, the home of Bede and Caedmon.
Religion also flourished, as is proved by the remains of the
pre-Conquest churches which still survive.[29] Many of these show traces
of the works of the ancient Romans in the country, being built, partly
at least, with Roman wrought stones from the ruins in the district. The
influence of the Columban period is observable in the numerous crosses
carved with Celtic work which still survive in Northumbria.
The pre-Norman churches have some peculiarities. They are remarkable for
the height of the walls, as compared with the width of the building.
Thus at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow (erected by Benedict Biscop in the
seventh century), the width of the nave is 18 feet, while the height of
the walls is 30 feet. The carved lacertine figures of the porch at
Monkwearmouth have likewise a Celtic character. Square towers at the
west end of the nave form common features of these churches, and the
jambs of the doors and windows are often inclining, like those of
Ireland. Some of these features may be observed in one or two of our
Scottish churches, such as that of St. Regulus at St. Andrews and
Restenot Priory.
As the Roman influence prevailed, that of the Columbans waned, till,
finally, that of Rome was, after the Synod of Whitby in 664, definitely
adopted, and the Columbans were driven off. After the expulsion of the
Columbans from Northumbria, the Roman forms and observances were
gradually extended over the southern parts of Scotland, then included in
the dominions of Oswy, King of Northumbria. Various circumstances tended
to aid this process. When the victory of the Picts at Dunichen, in 685,
terminated the rule of the Angles in Scotland, Nectan, king of the
Celtic kingdom, was brought into contact with the Roman missionaries,
whom he found in his extended southern provinces, and became, in 710, a
convert to their ideas. He seems to have warmly espoused their cause,
and desired that their rules and forms should be universally adopted
throughout his kingdom. But the Columbans still clinging to their own
observances, King Nectan at length, in 717, issued a decree, expelling
from his dominions all ecclesiastics who refused to conform to the Roman
practices.
Up to this period there had been an increasing tendency to asceticism in
the Columban Church, leading the monks to forsake the cœnobitical or
monastic life in common, and to adopt that of the hermit or Anchorite.
This had the effect of breaking up the monastic system which had
hitherto succeeded so well amongst the Celtic tribes of Ireland and
Scotland, and also tended to encourage the introduction of the secular
hierarchy of the Roman system.[30]
The hermits were known on the Continent as Deicolæ, or Worshippers of
God, and in this country by the title of Keledei or Culdees. The similar
order which arose in the Celtic Church afterwards played an important
part in Scottish ecclesiastical matters. They first appear in Scotland
after the expulsion of the Columbans--the establishment of St. Serf on
an island in Lochleven being of this school.
The Deicolæ were organised in 747 as an order of Secular Canons with the
object of bringing the secular clergy into a cœnobitical life, so as to
help to counteract the then prevailing tendency to the eremitical mode
of living. The nature of the structures erected under the latter form of
religious observance is well illustrated in the cells and oratories
already alluded to, which were erected in such numbers on the lonely and
deserted islands on the West Coasts of Ireland and Scotland.
The advent of the Roman emissaries in Scotland is embodied in several
mythical legends. Such is the story of the arrival of St. Boniface with
a complete following of persons representing all the offices of the
Roman service, and his favourable reception by King Nectan indicates the
goodwill with which they were welcomed.[31] The dedications of churches
to St. Peter, superseding the dedication to the ancient native Saints,
further mark the change from Iona to Rome.