THE CHURCH IN COLONIAL DAYS
[Illustration: ARMS OF THE CATHEDRAL OF LIMA.]
When the devout and fearless protector of the Indians presented his
memorable appeal to the Crown of Spain in behalf of the conquered races
of the New World, he gave expression to the lofty purpose which animated
the true missionaries of the Cross in their labors among the Indians of
Spanish-America. With the courage born of pious zeal, he dared to say to
the most powerful monarch in Europe words which must have jarred on the
delicate sensibilities of a sovereign accustomed only to flattery; but
which, nevertheless, could not be ignored. It is said that Charles V.
was “stricken in conscience” as the venerable apostle of righteousness,
who had devoted more than a quarter of a century to missionary labor in
America, thus proceeded in his arraignment: “The highest Pontiff
conceded the conquest of the Indies to the Catholic sovereigns under the
solemn promise that with their accustomed zeal they would promote the
conversion of those idolatrous people for the greatest glory of the
faith and for the salvation of immortal souls. Such an important
commission, confided to the Crown itself, cannot be delegated to private
individuals. For this reason Queen Isabella was indignant when Columbus
gave his followers a number of the natives to serve them, and she
obliged those who had brought Indians to Spain to send them back to
their own land. The Sovereign Pontiff granted permission to conquer the
Indies for the benefit of the inhabitants, and in no case to increase
the power and wealth of the monarchs of Castile. Moreover, by the
enslaving of the Indians, all that has been gained is the ruin of a
population that covered more than two thousand five hundred leagues of
land. The object of the administration is not to preserve the territory,
the walls, and the houses, but the people. With such an end in view,
Queen Isabella declared in her will that all harm to the natives should
be avoided, and all damages should be repaired; but the death of that
august princess was the signal for the destruction of the Indies!” The
spirit of consecration to a sacred task breathes in every syllable of
the lengthy document, which concludes with the significant sentence:
“The law of God prohibits the doing of evil that good may come of it.”
It is said that the worthy priest exaggerated the amount of evil, which
he depicted in frightful hues; yet the very excess of his vehemence is
to be admired in a cause so just and noble.
Not all the missionaries who accompanied the conquerors joined Father
Las Casas in denouncing the _encomiendas_; on the contrary, some of the
worst abuses of the system were charged against the Christian teachers
themselves. But, as a rule, the priests stood between the unfortunate
Indians and their rapacious masters, and protected the victims of
impatient greed. After the abolition of _encomiendas_, when the natives
were settled in communities, the religious orders, to whose care their
spiritual welfare was chiefly intrusted,—the Franciscans, Dominicans,
Augustinians, and Jesuits,—had frequent controversies with the secular
authorities, the former claiming the right to protect the Indians
against oppression, while the latter declared that this right was abused
in favor of the orders themselves, and that they were growing rich and
powerful through the labor and contributions of their protégés. In a
land where gold and silver flowed out of the mountains in a constant
stream, apparently inexhaustible, it is not surprising that the Church,
which was the controlling power in the state, should profit by such
blessings; though the wealth of the religious communities was gained
through the products of agriculture rather than those of the mines. It
was chiefly under the direction of the Christian fathers that the fields
were cultivated and orchards planted while the conquerors were occupying
themselves solely with the extraction of ores.
The power of the clergy has always been stronger in Spain than in any
other Catholic land, and the national religion has been its most
cherished institution ever since the Visigoths followed up their
conquest of the country, after the fall of the Roman Empire, by
embracing Christianity early in the sixth century. Their ecclesiastical
synods were not only Councils of the Church but parliaments of the
realm, and so great was the power of the clergy at that early date, we
are told, that even the kings prostrated themselves before the bishops.
Then followed the struggle against the Moors, which was first a fight
for independence and later a campaign for conquest, but always a
religious war. It is not strange that the final victory, won after a
crusade that lasted eight hundred years, should have been signalized by
a union of Church and State in the closest bonds, and that the pride of
the people should be concentrated in the religion they had so
tenaciously upheld and defended, and in the military prowess they had so
gloriously vindicated.
The prestige of both the Church and the army was at the zenith when
Pizarro conquered Peru; and as soon as Spain took formal possession of
the country, the Church established its authority throughout the
land,—an authority that dominated all the affairs of the colony, secular
as well as spiritual. The viceroy was, in reality, head of the
government only by right of his office as vice-patron of the Church. The
Sovereign of Spain, as patron of the Church,—an honor granted by Pope
Julius IV.,—reserved the right to provide all ecclesiastical benefices;
the building of churches, monasteries, and other places of worship was
prohibited without royal licence; and papal briefs, resolutions of the
generals of religious orders, or any other decision issued under
ecclesiastical authority required the sanction of the Council of the
Indies to give it value. The viceroy Toledo was the first to be
appointed vice-patron of the Church, receiving the royal seal in 1574.
The bishops of Peru were the chief authorities in their dioceses, the
priests had full charge of the schools, and the missionaries represented
the government in the _reducciones_. A historian of the viceroyalty
estimates that the clergy, friars, and nuns formed more than the seventh
part of the entire population of Lima.
[Illustration: THE CATHEDRAL, LIMA.]
When Pizarro founded the capital of Peru, his first act was to fix the
site of the metropolitan church, of which he, himself, laid the
corner-stone. As materials were scarce at that time and there were few
facilities for such a work, the building was very unpretentious, though
five years were spent in its construction. The ceremony of dedication
was performed in 1540 by Father Valverde, then bishop of Cuzco and all
Peru. According to the chronicles of the period, “the Emperor Charles V.
humbly besought His Holiness, Pope Paul III., to grant the title of
‘city’ to the town denominated ‘of the Kings,’ which had been erected in
the provinces of Peru, and to establish in it a cathedral church.” The
pope granted this request and made Lima a metropolitan see, Fray
Geronimo Loayza being appointed the first archbishop of the colony.
Within a short time it was found necessary to rebuild the Cathedral, and
the work was begun under the most favorable auspices; but so many were
the interruptions, changes of plans, and other causes of delay that not
until 1625 was the edifice completed, the consecration being solemnized
by Archbishop Ocampo, with such pomp and grandeur that the ceremony
lasted from sunrise to sunset. As soon as the Spanish sovereign was
informed of the completion and consecration of the Cathedral, he ordered
that the bones of the Conqueror, Francisco Pizarro, should be
disinterred and removed to the sacred edifice, where all that is mortal
of the great discoverer of Peru is still preserved.
To the construction and adornment of the Cathedral of Lima, Archbishops
Loayza, Santo Toribio de Mogrovejo, and Bartolomé Lobo Guerrero devoted
their talents and their fortune with pious zeal; Archbishop Loayza made
the church a gift of rich ornaments in silver, and a _custodia_, or
tabernacle, of gold and silver, valued at several thousand dollars. The
cost of construction of this magnificent edifice was estimated at half a
million dollars gold, and the interior was a repository of such enormous
riches that their reputed value passes credibility. The balustrades
surrounding the altar,—which was itself a marvel of exquisite
wood-carving,—as well as the pipes of the organ, were of silver, and the
candlesticks, also of silver, were of remarkable size and weight. The
wood-carving of the chancel was not excelled even by that of the famous
Cathedral of Seville. The terrible earthquake of 1746 converted the
great structure into a mountain of ruins, though the present edifice,
which is built on the same site, is an imposing monument of architecture
still, after the lapse of more than a century and a half, and
notwithstanding the destructive effects of time and the elements. It
overlooks the principal plaza of the city, occupying the eastern side of
the square. The Cathedral has five naves, each with nine arches, or
vaults, and along the sides are ten chapels, in one of which repose the
remains of Pizarro. The main altar occupies the centre of the principal
nave, and although not now so rich in gold and silver ornaments as
formerly, it still represents a fortune, being of silver, as are also
the magnificent candlesticks that adorn it. The wonderfully carved
pulpit and chancel, of mahogany and cedar, have survived the numerous
catastrophes through which the venerable edifice has passed, and show
only the wear caused through their use by generations of worshippers.
When Archbishop Loayza, the first incumbent of the see of Lima, died, in
1575, his successor was not appointed until three years later, when
Archbishop Toribio Mogrovejo was named for the exalted office. His
extraordinary simplicity and piety were recognized even in a capital so
gay and pleasure-loving as the City of the Kings, and his name became a
synonym of goodness. Many incidents are related of his charitable acts,
done without ostentation, and solely from brotherly love and Christian
kindness. It is said that one night he was carrying on his back a man
whom he had found wounded in the street, when the watchman called out in
peremptory tones: “Who goes there?” “Toribio,” was the tranquil answer,
the guardian of the law immediately recognizing the good samaritan. The
story of his saintly life and his many works of benevolence reveals the
spirit of self-sacrifice and devotion which characterizes the best type
of Spanish priest. Buckle, in his history of the civilization of Europe,
says, in reference to the long list of holy men who have made Spain
famous throughout the centuries as the land of _beatos_: “No other
European country has produced so many ardent and disinterested
missionaries, zealous, self-denying martyrs, who have cheerfully
sacrificed their lives in order to propagate truths which they thought
necessary to be known.” Not only in the ranks of the humble
missionaries, who penetrated the forests of the Amazon and made their
way through the cañons and across the mountain passes of the Andes to
find their flocks among the “idolaters,” but in the highest princes of
the realm, descendants of kings and lords of proud domains, were to be
found examples of Christian piety and unselfishness worthy of the
reverence of posterity.
[Illustration: INTERIOR OF THE CATHEDRAL, LIMA.]
[Illustration: CHURCH AND PLAZUELA OF SAN FRANCISCO, LIMA.]
Archbishop Toribio began his work by learning the Quichua language, so
that he might be the better able to acquaint himself with the condition
and needs of the Indians, whom he protected and guarded with especial
care. As soon as he could converse in Quichua, he started out on a long
journey through the interior of Peru, on foot, accompanied only by two
of his chaplains, and taking a packmule to carry his baggage. His route
led him along the sandy plains of the coast, across snow-clad mountains
and into the forests of the Upper Amazon. As he passed through the
various towns, he visited the churches, monasteries, and convents,
holding services and encouraging the labors of his people, while he
reproved all abuses of power, and used his high authority to remedy the
evils that necessarily crept into a system so vast in scope and
scattered over an almost untraversable territory. In the remote
districts, the devoted pastor visited the little _chozas_, or huts, of
the natives, instructed the inmates in the catechism and administered
the sacraments. Not only did the archbishop make himself familiar with
everything connected with his extensive diocese, but he held two
diocesan synods and three ecclesiastical councils, for the purpose of
considering church matters of importance; he also founded a seminary in
Lima for the instruction of the clergy, which was afterward named the
Seminary of Santo Toribio. While engaged in his apostolic labors in the
north, the illustrious prelate was attacked by fever and died on the
23rd of March, 1606, at the age of seventy. In recognition of his
saintly life and character, the Church canonized him a century later.
[Illustration: CONVENT OF SANTO DOMINGO, CUZCO, BUILT ON THE FOUNDATIONS
OF THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN.]
A contemporary of Saint Toribio is celebrated in the annals of the
Church as the only American Saint of the Calendar, known to Catholics as
Saint Rose of Lima, the patron of the Peruvian capital and of all
Catholic America. She was born in 1586 in the city of Lima and was
baptized by Archbishop Toribio with the name of Rosa. From her girlhood,
she practised the most austere piety, devoting her young life
exclusively to the duties of religion. She was very beautiful, and as
she grew older many admirers sought her in marriage, her refusal being
greatly resented by her parents, who treated the poor girl with cruelty
in order to punish her. At last, however, they were won by her angelic
goodness and permitted her to enter a convent of the Dominican order,
where she remained until her death in 1617. The 30th day of August, her
feast day, is still observed in Lima with great ceremony. The
canonization of Saint Rose was decreed by Pope Clement X. in 1671, and
its celebration took place in Lima during the government of the Count de
Lemos, with such brilliant and imposing ceremonies as the City of the
Kings was accustomed to provide in those days. The pontifical bull was
read in the Cathedral, in front of a marble statue of the saint, which
stood on a silver pedestal and was adorned with priceless jewels. The
following day the image was carried in a procession to its present
resting place in the Dominican church, where an altar is dedicated to
Saint Rose. This church is one of the oldest and most interesting
edifices in Lima, and has been as richly adorned with silver at various
times as the Cathedral itself. A silver altar of Our Lady of the Rosary
which stands at the foot of the presbytery, on the right, is superb; in
the centre of the altar is the niche of the Madonna, of exquisite
workmanship, her rosary being of large pearls. On the feast day of the
Virgin this altar is beautiful beyond description.
[Illustration: CLOISTER OF LA MERCED, CUZCO.]
The Dominican order came into especial prominence in ecclesiastical
matters in Peru during the seventeenth century through its persistent
determination not to accept the dogma of the Immaculate Conception,
which was proclaimed throughout the Spanish possessions by order of King
Philip II. The controversy rose to a great height in Spanish-America,
and processions of thousands of people marched through the streets of
Lima singing in chorus _La virgen fué concebida sin pecado
original_.—“The Virgin was conceived without original sin.” So enduring
was the impression created on the public mind by the controversy, that
to this day the popular salutation in some of the country districts of
Paraguay and Argentina is “_Ave Maria!_” to which the invariable
response is “_Sin pecado concebida!_” It was not, however, until 1854,
as is well known, that the Immaculate Conception was declared a dogma of
the Church, by Pope Pius IX.
The missionaries of Saint Dominic were among the first to come to
America, the venerable Las Casas being of this order as well as Fray
Valverde, Bishop of Cuzco. Las Casas had been named for the diocese of
Cuzco, but he was too intent on his work of reform to desire a benefice,
and Fray Solano of the Franciscan order was appointed to the office. The
Franciscans were prominent during the entire period of the viceroyalty
for their extensive pioneer work in the wilds of America, their devout
pilgrims traversing the southern continent from Panamá to Cape Horn. The
saintly Fray Francisco Solano, who was a contemporary of Saint Toribio
and Saint Rose of Lima, made a journey, barefooted, walking the whole
distance, from Paraguay, through the Chaco—which is still inhabited by
savage tribes, the terror of travellers—and across what is now Bolivia
to the headwaters of the Amazon; his life was spent in Christianizing
the savage tribes of the remote interior, a task much more difficult
than that of instructing the cultured Indians of the Inca’s country. He
died in 1610 and was canonized by the Church.
[Illustration: CHURCH OF SAN AGUSTIN, LIMA.]
The church, chapels, and convents of the Franciscans are the largest and
handsomest in Lima. It is said that more than two million dollars were
spent in the construction of their principal edifice, which was built in
the sixteenth century and reconstructed after the earthquake of 1746,
the interior being richly ornamented; the high altar was encased with
silver and the niche of the Madonna beautifully wrought of the same
material. The cloisters of the convent are supported on stone pillars,
the roof being of panel-work, and, with the beams, exquisitely carved.
In colonial days it used to be said that the four best offices in Lima
were the viceroyalty, the archbishopric, the ecclesiastical province of
the Dominicans and the office of the Mother Abbess of Concepcion. This
nunnery commanded an income of one hundred thousand dollars annually,
the dowry of each nun, on taking the veil, being three thousand dollars.
The order of San Agustin built many handsome churches and convents
during the viceroyalty, and the church of Nuestra Señora de la Merced
(Our Lady of Mercy) is still among the most attractive of the city’s
sacred edifices. There are at present sixty-six religious establishments
existing in Lima, twelve of which are nunneries, each with its
respective church.
[Illustration: CHOIR OF THE CATHEDRAL OF CUZCO.]
The Jesuits, who first came to Peru in 1567, were conspicuously noted
for their scholarship and their great ability as teachers among the
Indians. In every city they established a church and a college; and at
Juli, on the border of Lake Titicaca, they founded a training school for
missionaries, in 1577. Here the students were taught the native tongues,
and were provided with catechisms, grammars, dictionaries, and other
text books necessary for their work, the order having introduced the
printing press into Peru at that early date. The first book issued from
the press of Juli was a catechism, which is now a valued possession of
the National Library of Lima. Among their number were some of the most
celebrated historians of the Conquest, as well as noted naturalists,
geographers, and philologists. Their institutions became renowned,
especially those established in Misiones, in the seventeenth century,
the ruins of which are visited by hundreds of tourists annually. They
accumulated such enormous wealth and their influence was so powerful
throughout colonial Spain, that a royal decree of 1769 ordered their
banishment. The command of the king was carried out with remarkable
secrecy and expedition under the direction of the Viceroy Amat. The
chief difficulty threatened the attempt to arrest the Jesuits of the
capital and convey them on board the vessel which had been sent to the
Peruvian port to receive them. However, the task was completed between
midnight and sunrise, the viceroy himself heading the troops,—which were
divided into four sections, each with a numerous force of infantry and
cavalry—and marching to the four strongholds of the Jesuits in the city,
viz., the convent of San Pablo, the Novitiate, the house of the
_Desamparados_ and that of the _Cercado_. As soon as the door of each
institution opened, the purpose of the viceroy’s visit was made known
and the establishment was placed under guard of the royal troops until
the inmates could be taken on board. The same method was followed in
Chuquisaca, Potosí, and in Chile, though many of the unfortunate exiles
met their death while crossing the snowbound passes of the Andes or in
transportation by sea. Sixty were drowned on the voyage from Valparaiso
to Callao, and the loss of life from shipwreck and other causes greatly
reduced the number who arrived at their destination.
[Illustration: OLD CHURCH AT URCOS.]
At the time of their expulsion from Peru, the Jesuits were in possession
of the college of San Pablo, the Novitiate, the house of probation of
the Cercado, the house of the Desamparados, and the royal colleges of
San Martin and the Caciques, in Lima; the colleges of the
Transfiguration, San Bernardo, and San Francisco de Borja in Cuzco; the
celebrated University of San Francisco Javier and the royal college of
San Juan Bautista in Chuquisaca; and colleges in Potosí, Arequipa,
Cochabamba, Bellavista, Huancavelica, Huamanga, Ica, Moquegua, Oruro, La
Paz, Pisco, and Trujillo, as well as the missions of Mojos and
Chiquitos, the residence of Santa Cruz de la Sierra and five parishes of
Juli. The landed estates of the Jesuits numbered more than two hundred
at the time of their banishment, and were valued at six hundred and
fifty thousand dollars. It was believed that the order succeeded in
hiding vast treasure, and the government made a persistent search, but
it has never been found, nor is there anything to prove that all their
wealth was not employed in the support of their colleges, missions and
other immense and constantly increasing religious establishments. The
estates of the banished order were sold at auction, and the proceeds,
together with the gold and silver confiscated by the Crown, were used to
pay the costs of their deportation, amounting to half a million dollars,
the surplus, eight hundred thousand dollars, being sent to the King of
Spain. The sacred relics and ornaments of the temples were distributed
among the public institutions, and the collections of books were given
to the University of Lima to form the basis of a public library. All the
revenues of the order reverted to the Crown.
Under the viceroyalty there were five bishoprics subject to the
metropolitan See of Lima, the first having been established in Cuzco and
the second in Lima, at the time of the Conquest, to which were added
those of Trujillo (1611), Arequipa (1612) and Huamanga (1615). In each
diocese the ecclesiastical government was divided into parochial
districts, under the authority of the priests. The religious labors of
the Christian fathers were by no means light during the early days, as
the former subjects of the Children of the Sun, though apparently easily
converted, confounded the worship of God with that of Pachacámac, giving
a most unorthodox interpretation to the dogma of the Trinity and the
Immaculate Conception.
The office of the Inquisition was established in Lima during the
sixteenth century and its victims included all ranks and classes of
society, though the Indians were exempt from its terrors. In the present
day, such an institution as the Inquisition seems a blot on religion;
but centuries ago, it was regarded as an instrument of great power in
keeping the Church free from the contamination of evil beliefs. Its most
earnest and relentless supporters were not hypocrites, bent on revenge,
but enthusiasts, who believed they were justified in taking even the
cruellest measures to protect the faith. The seventeenth century was an
intolerant age, and at the same time that the Inquisition was holding
the _auto de fé_ with fatal frequency, the Salem Puritans were burning
witches, and the Kirk of Scotland was banishing one of its members for
having travelled through a Catholic country.
The viceroy Abascal received the order from the Cortes of Spain to
abolish the Inquisition in the year 1811; and the hall in which so many
judgments had been pronounced contrary to the best laws of human
liberty, was abandoned by the Holy Office, to be occupied in years to
come by the representative authorities of a government pledged to
recognize the right of every man to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness.” The same year that witnessed the abolition of the _Santo
Oficio_, saw the first military gathering of the patriots of Tacna, led
by a Limeño, preparing to join the forces of their fellow colonists on
the tableland of Alto Peru, where they were to encounter the royalist
army.
[Illustration: CHURCH OF THE COMPAÑIA AT PISCO.]
[Illustration: PLAZA DE ARMAS, THE PRINCIPAL PUBLIC SQUARE OF LIMA.]