THE REIGN OF THE VICEROYS
[Illustration: THE FIRST COAT-OF-ARMS BESTOWED ON LIMA BY CHARLES V.]
After the Conquest, all the Spanish dominions in the New World were
divided under two governments, one of which was subject to the Viceroy
of Mexico and the other to the Viceroy of Peru. As representatives of
His Catholic Majesty, and directly appointed by him, the viceroys were
chosen from the noblest families of Spain, especially distinguished for
their services to the Church and the army. These proud grandees
established their court in the colonial capitals on a scale of
magnificence hardly excelled by that of their royal master; and the City
of the Kings grew even to rival Madrid in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries as a metropolis of Spanish fashion and culture.
But the period immediately following the Conquest gave little promise of
peace and prosperity for the colony of Peru. Revolution and anarchy
prevailed even after the ignoble strife between the Pizarros and the
Almagros was ended by the tragic death of the Conqueror and the
execution of the younger Almagro. The firm authority of Governor Vaca de
Castro sufficed to maintain order and tranquillity as long as he
remained in the country, but with the arrival of his successor, the
first viceroy, a storm of revolt broke over the colony with such
tumultuous force that it threatened to overthrow permanently the
authority of the Spanish king in his richest and most valued possession.
Blasco Nuñez de Vela, the first viceroy of Peru, who was appointed to
succeed Vaca de Castro in 1544, is described as a brave, honorable, and
devout man, but arrogant and imperious, utterly incapable of
understanding and dealing with the turbulent spirit of the adventurers,
in whom ambition, avarice, and jealousy were the ruling passions,
fostered by the peculiar circumstances which had governed Peru ever
since the capture of Atahuallpa. It was especially unfortunate that a
man of the temperament and prejudices of the new viceroy should have
been chosen to effect a change in existing conditions, requiring the
most judicious and delicate management.
The harsh treatment to which the Indians were subjected under the
Conquerors was brought to the attention of the King of Spain by a
Dominican friar, Las Casas,—whose benevolent labors gained for him the
title of “Protector of the Indians,”—in a remarkable document,
containing such an appalling record of the wickedness practised against
these helpless wards of the Crown that the king, deeply impressed,
called a council to devise means of ameliorating their condition. As a
result, the Viceroy Blasco Nuñez de Vela was the bearer of strict orders
from Spain to abolish the system of _encomiendas_, by which the Indians
had been made ostensibly the protégés but really the slaves of the
Conquerors, not only their lands but their persons being appropriated as
the legitimate spoils of victory. It is true that, under the Incas, the
people had possessed no freedom, but they had been given no tasks too
heavy for their strength and they had been kindly treated and well
provided with food and clothing; under their new masters they were both
abused and neglected. The granaries which formerly were well filled
after every harvest were allowed to become empty, because tillage was
abandoned for the more profitable labor in the mines; and the llamas,
whose wool furnished the Indian with clothing, were slaughtered so
recklessly that, within four years, more of these animals perished than
in four centuries under the Incas.
According to the royal decree, the viceroy was to declare the Indians
vassals of the Crown, though the present _encomenderos_, or owners, were
to retain their privileges, except in the case of public functionaries,
ecclesiastics, religious corporations, all who, by cruelty and neglect,
had shown themselves unworthy of the privilege, and all who were
implicated in the crimes resulting from the quarrel between Pizarro and
Almagro. On the death of the present proprietors, their Indians reverted
to the Crown. The viceroy, although representing the supreme authority,
was accompanied by a Real Audiencia consisting of four _oidores_, or
judges, clothed with extensive powers both civil and criminal, the
viceroy being president of their council. At the same time the Real
Audiencia of Charcas was appointed to have jurisdiction in Alto Peru and
its dependencies. It was largely owing to the differences which arose
between Blasco Nuñez de Vela and the Real Audiencia of Lima that his
mission was a failure.
The order abolishing _encomiendas_ was received with demonstrations of
discontent throughout the colony. Few of the Conquerors could hope to
retain their Indians under the new law, and they were furious at what
they considered an effort to despoil them of the fruits of their
hard-earned victory. In the streets, plazas, and churches, indignant
crowds gathered to protest against the decree, news of which reached
Peru some months before the viceroy’s arrival. The governor, Vaca de
Castro, succeeded in calming the turbulent leaders by explaining that it
would be the wisest course to petition the Crown asking for the repeal
of the law, and then patiently to await the arrival of the viceroy, who
might be prevailed upon to delay action until the answer to their
petition should be received from Spain. Vaca de Castro was not slow to
recognize that the most powerful friend of the malcontents was Gonzalo
Pizarro, at that time engaged in exploiting rich silver mines in Charcas
(now Bolivia), to whom they had already appealed for protection; and in
a diplomatic letter, he cautioned Pizarro not to be drawn into the
revolt. By his judicious policy, public order was maintained and
preparations were made to welcome the viceroy with the imposing ceremony
due to the highest representative of His Catholic Majesty.
[Illustration: LIMA RESIDENCE OF THE MARQUIS OF TORRE-TAGLE DURING THE
VICEREGAL PERIOD, SHOWING “MIRADORES,” OR BALCONIES.]
The innate love of pomp and etiquette, characteristic of the Latin race,
was displayed in all its attractiveness on such occasions as the
reception of a viceroy; and during the entire period of colonial rule
the arrival of these dignitaries was marked by grand festivities. Blasco
Nuñez de Vela entered Lima in magnificent state, under a canopy of
crimson velvet, richly embroidered with the arms of Spain, and supported
on poles of solid silver, which were carried by officials of the
municipality, dressed in crimson satin robes that sparkled with jewels.
The brilliant procession was met three leagues from the capital by the
Bishop of Cuzco, Vaca de Castro, and the principal cavaliers of Lima,
and on crossing the Rimac River was joined by the Bishop of Quito, the
ecclesiastical council and remaining clergy, while at the entrance to
the city the municipal corporation awaited the illustrious guest. An
imposing pageant was presented as the viceroy, preceded by a cavalier in
full armor bearing the mace of authority, and attended by a handsome
retinue, passed under the triumphal arch at the city gates and proceeded
to the Cathedral, along streets strewn with flowers, while the church
bells chimed a joyous welcome and bands of music made a gay
accompaniment. At the Cathedral _Te Deum_ was sung, after which the
procession moved on to the Palace, where the new viceroy took the oath
of office. He inspired confidence by announcing that he would await the
arrival of the Oidores and the installation of the Real Audiencia before
proceeding with the question of the new ordinance.
When the Oidores entered Lima bearing the royal seal, the city was again
the scene of a grand and imposing display. By order of the king, the
royal seal was received with as much ceremony as attended a visit of his
majesty to the cities of his kingdom. It was placed in a box covered
with cloth of gold, and was borne by a magnificent charger, richly
caparisoned and led by one of the city aldermen in gala dress, while
four other officials in robes of crimson velvet carried above the royal
insignia the canopy of state embroidered with the arms of Spain.
The Real Audiencia was duly installed, and everything went well in the
beginning under the newly established authority, the council having
decided to suspend the ordinance against _encomiendas_ until word should
arrive from Spain in answer to the petition for its repeal; except that
immediate enforcement was made in the case of public functionaries. But,
unfortunately, the viceroy and the Real Audiencia did not long agree on
the policy of government, and their quarrels weakened the prestige of
the colonial authority at a time when all its strength was needed to
cope with the disaffected soldiers of the Conquest, who bitterly
resented the way in which they were thrust aside, now that their
services were no longer of prime necessity to the Crown. Gonzalo Pizarro
saw that he was to have no share in the dignities and honors of the
colonial government, and he took advantage of the quarrel between the
viceroy and the Real Audiencia to raise a large army and march on Lima,
the _oidores_ treacherously aiding him; the viceroy escaped to Tumbes
and marched to Quito, whither Pizarro followed, engaging the royal army
in a fierce battle near that city, during which the sovereign’s
representative was defeated and slain. The victor was then lord of Peru,
and more independent of the royal authority than his illustrious
brother, the Conqueror himself, had ever been; he could raise a powerful
army, could control a large squadron, had at his disposal a million
dollars annually, and his friends guarded the national ports of entry.
He was acclaimed the liberator of Peru and made a grand triumphal march
into the capital, amid the vivas of the multitude, the chime of church
bells, and the strains of martial music. His companions would have
crowned him king; but whether Pizarro vacillated because he knew too
well the fickle character of his enthusiastic supporters, or whether the
moment did not seem opportune for such a step, he never assumed the
purple robes of royalty, though his authority was as absolute as that of
a king.
[Illustration: DOORWAY OF A COLONIAL PALACE IN CUZCO. PERIOD FOLLOWING
THE CONQUEST.]
When the tidings reached Spain that the viceroy had been killed on the
battlefield and that Gonzalo Pizarro reigned supreme in the colony, it
caused the greatest consternation. A policy of conciliation was at once
adopted, the law abolishing _encomiendas_ was revoked, and a priest,
Pedro Gasca, was appointed, not as viceroy, but as president of the
Audiencia, with full power to represent the interests of the Crown in
this difficult situation. Though an ecclesiastic, he was a brave
soldier, added to which, he possessed a wonderful knowledge of human
nature. By his tact he won many of Pizarro’s followers as soon as he
landed at Tumbes, where he appeared clothed in the simple garb of a
priest, with a breviary in his hand and the king’s pardon for all who
would help him to establish peace in the country. His ranks were rapidly
filled with deserters from Pizarro’s army as he marched across the
mountains to meet the enemy, whom he encountered at Sacsahuaman, near
Cuzco, and defeated. Pizarro was taken prisoner and executed. Gasca and
his army then marched on to Lima, where the victor was received with
even greater welcome and rejoicing than had greeted the victorious
Pizarro. But it was not until some years later that the civil wars of
the Conquerors finally came to an end. When Gasca returned to Spain, the
second viceroy, Don Antonio de Mendoza, who had previously held the same
high office in Mexico, was appointed to take charge of affairs in Peru.
He died the following year and the government passed into the hands of
the Real Audiencia, until, in 1555, the third viceroy was named, Don
Andres Hurtado de Mendoza, Marquis de Cañete, under whose judicious and
energetic rule the country was pacified and the authority of the Crown
of Spain securely established. During the administration of this able
statesman the son of the Inca Manco, whose following was great in the
sierra and around Cuzco, made a formal abdication in favor of the King
of Spain, receiving in return an annuity of twenty thousand ducats and
other grants. It is related that when the Inca went to Lima to take the
oath of allegiance he was carried from Cuzco to the capital in a litter,
borne on the shoulders of his faithful subjects, and that he received
the homage of his people wherever he stopped along the route; but the
poverty of his own state and the empty-handed greeting of his unhappy
compatriots made his progress a _via dolorosa_ of poignant significance.
He survived the ordeal only three years, which he passed in melancholy
seclusion. The successor of the Marquis de Cañete, the Count de Nieva,
occupied the viceregal office for only a short time; he was assassinated
by order of a jealous husband. His post was taken by an ecclesiastic,
Lope Garcia de Castro, who, as President of the Real Audiencia,
continued the work of organizing the various political institutions of
the colony. Peru was divided into provinces governed by _corregidores_;
the towns peopled by Spaniards had _cabildos_, or municipal councils,
with _alcaldes_, or mayors, and aldermen; the Indians were governed
through their _caciques_, whose authority was, and still is, recognized
by the central government.
One of the most illustrious of the viceroys, Don Francisco de Toledo,
son of the Count of Oropesa, ruled Peru from 1567 to 1580, and his
rigorous though well-ordered government marked a new epoch in the
history of the colony. He began his administration by making a grand
tour of all the provinces, during which he informed himself as to the
needs of the people and the laws required for their well-being.
Accompanied by the priests Ondegardo and Acosta, both of whom became
celebrated afterward as historians of the Conquest, and having in his
suite an _oidor_ and several eminent personages of his court, the great
viceroy made an imposing progress, being received everywhere with a
welcome fit for a king. Though autocratic in his methods, he was
eminently successful in reforming the political organization of the
country; the _corregidores_, _alcaldes_, municipal police, in fact,
every employee of the government, received positive instructions as to
the duties of his office. He abolished _encomiendas_ and obliged the
Indians to live in communities, in each of which a church was built and
priests were appointed to give the inhabitants religious instruction.
Hundreds of these communities or _reducciones_ were founded by the
viceroy’s order, and built up with adobe houses, straight, though
narrow, streets, _cabildos_, jails, hospitals, and a tract of land to be
held as community property and worked on shares. The viceroy also
established a regular system for the labor by _mita_, or rotation,
required of the Indians, as well as for the tribute they were obliged to
pay from the age of eighteen to fifty; more than twelve thousand
_mitayos_, as the rotation laborers were called, were consigned to the
silver mines of Potosi, then at the height of their production, and
three thousand to the mines of quicksilver in Huancavelica, recently
discovered. The Crown granted ownership of the mines to any Spaniards
who would guarantee to work them and to deliver to the king one-fifth of
all the ores extracted, and the _mita_ was established in order to
supply the necessary labor to work the mines; but so cruel was the
oppression of the unhappy _mitayos_ that, it is said, only a tenth of
them ever returned to their homes, the rest dying a miserable death
under the heavy tasks inflicted on them by greedy and inhuman masters.
The viceroys were charged, on the one hand, to protect the Indians, and
on the other to increase by all means the royal fifth from the mines;
their office was no sinecure.
[Illustration: CHURCH OF THE COMPAÑIA, AREQUIPA, SHOWING EXQUISITE HAND
CARVING.]
Not only did the Viceroy Toledo make laws to improve the Indian’s
condition as far as was consistent with his duty to increase the “King’s
fifth” to the utmost extent, but he also introduced reforms for the
benefit of the Spanish colonists, establishing new schools, hospitals
and other institutions. Social life began to show more distinctive
features in the colonial capital than had been possible during the
turbulent period immediately following the Conquest; the viceroy and
ecclesiastics entertained with sumptuous festivals, and luxurious tastes
and habits appeared among the nobility.
But the zeal of the viceroy went farther than the royal mandate
intended, and over-reached itself in the execution of an Inca chief, who
had assumed the _masca paicha_ on the death of Inca Manco’s son, and
who, according to the viceroy, constantly stimulated among the Indians a
spirit of revolt, which might break out in open insurrection at any
moment. The Inca had refused to consider any offer as the price of his
claim to royalty, and the viceroy ordered him to be seized and put to
death, in spite of the intercession of the bishop, the municipal council
and other notable authorities of Cuzco. When Toledo returned to Spain,
expecting the thanks of his sovereign for the services he had rendered
the Crown in twelve years of arduous labor under the most adverse
conditions, Philip II. greeted the aged cavalier coldly and requested
him to withdraw from court, saying, “I did not send you to Peru to kill
Kings, but to serve Kings.” Yet the Viceroy Toledo has been called the
Solon of Peru, for the wisdom displayed in his government. During his
administration, the colony made wonderful progress in wealth and
culture, and the “royal fifth” was greater than it had ever been before.
The Spanish monarchs apparently did not esteem very highly the
sacrifices made by their discoverers, conquerors and pioneers of
authority, who contributed to the sovereign possessions so handsomely,
by the annexation of a continent, the gift of a houseful of gold, and
the collection of “royal fifths” large enough to pay for building the
Invincible Armada!
During the last year of the Viceroy Toledo’s rule, the port of Callao
was sacked by the English corsair, Sir Francis Drake; and in order to
avoid a repetition of such a catastrophe, the viceroy fitted out ships
and sent his pilot Sarmiento to explore the Pacific Coast as far as the
Strait of Magellan; Sarmiento recommended the fortification of the
Strait and the establishment of a colony, for which preparations were
being made at the time of Toledo’s return to Spain. Upon his departure,
Don Martin Enriquez, a former viceroy of Mexico, was appointed to the
vacant post, but he died after two years, the affairs of the colony
being left in charge of the Real Audiencia of Lima for two years, when
the Count del Villar Don Pardo was named viceroy.
The expedition which was sent out by Spain to form a colony on the shore
of the Strait of Magellan, encountered a fierce tempest and only
eighteen of the colonists survived. Their leader abandoned them to join
the first pirate ships that appeared, which were those of Cavendish,
following in the track of Drake, though with less success, as the
Pacific ports were better protected than they had been eight years
before. But if the pirates took little treasure, their departure was
soon followed by the appearance of an epidemic of smallpox, which
wrought terrible havoc in the colony. Whole families and even towns were
destroyed by the plague, the fields remained uncultivated, the cattle
neglected, even the mines were abandoned, the horrors of famine being
added to those of the plague. This was in the year that witnessed the
defeat of the “Invincible Armada,” a catastrophe that brought in its
train many others for the proud monarch of Spain, whose power was no
longer in the ascendant among the arbiters of European destiny, as it
had been when he was crowned king. But, although Peru suffered much from
the plague, the natural riches of the country were so abundant that the
worst effects soon disappeared and prosperity reigned, more flourishing
than ever. The viceroy did all in his power to promote the best
interests of the colony, though his humane laws made him many enemies.
He prohibited the forcing of _mitayos_ to do excessive labor and to live
in unhealthy localities, and forbade the treating of _yanaconas_
(Indians who carried burdens) as slaves. During his administration the
king accorded to graduates of the University of San Marcos in Lima
honors and privileges equal to those of Salamanca, the great centre of
learning in Spain.
The second Marquis de Cañete was appointed viceroy to succeed the Count
del Villar in 1589. He came accompanied by his wife and a large suite of
Spanish nobility. Their arrival marked a new era in the social life of
the capital, which became brilliant with gay functions and the
fashionable amusements of a court. The noble Marquis and his retinue
were not only received with great ceremony under the crimson canopy of
state, but the festivities attending their arrival were of the most
elaborate description throughout the whole colony. The viceroy
established a strict court etiquette, according to the historian
Lorente, giving special instructions “that the women of the court should
maintain the greatest reserve, not receiving attentions or seeking
husbands, and should pay to the vicereine all the respect which court
etiquette demanded.” In harmony with the viceregal grandeur, a royal
chapel was erected in the palace and the religious ceremonies of the
court were observed with imposing formality. The number of _oidores_ was
increased and the Real Audiencia assumed a greater importance, as the
growing prosperity of the colony added to its responsibilities and
influence.
On many occasions the viceroy reproved the arrogance of the clergy, his
high office giving him the authority of vice-patron of the Church; and
he never forgot that his first duty was to his sovereign, whose
coat-of-arms he caused to be placed above the Archbishop’s on the façade
of the seminary, in opposition to clerical opinion, while he did not
hesitate to reprimand even the saintly Toribio for carrying complaints
to Rome. But it was as his sovereign’s Superintendent of the Exchequer
that the Marquis de Cañete made his government memorable. By every
possible means the declining revenues of the mother country were
reinforced from the resources of her colonial treasury, and the genius
of the viceroy was displayed in the success with which he devised plans
for collecting new taxes. Excise duties, the sale of deeds to illegal
landholders and of privileges to office-seekers, extraordinary service
from the Indians, the extension of tribute claims to include negroes and
mulattoes, the income from legitimatizing _mestizos_, who paid large
sums to enjoy the privileges of inheritance, the confiscation of the
property of ecclesiastics who died intestate,—these were only a few of
the sources from which the king’s coffers were filled. The proceeds of
the mines of Huancavelica, which continued to increase in wealth at this
time, yielded an important share of the accumulated wealth, and
Castrovireina, named in honor of the vicereine, whose maiden name was
Castro, became an important mining centre and a valuable source of
revenue to Spain. The numerous exactions of the viceroy met with little
opposition in an age when the most liberal governments did not hesitate
to tax the subjects of the Crown to any extent required by the demands
of the royal exchequer. The placing of restrictions on colonial
commerce, from which foreigners, heretics and Spaniards without a
license were altogether prohibited by the Spanish Crown, was not unusual
in those days, and it was only at the beginning of the nineteenth
century that any American colony under European sovereignty was
permitted to open its ports to the commerce of the world. During the
viceroyalty, Seville was the centre of the commercial monopoly, a royal
board of trade regulating the sailings of ships, their condition, length
of voyage and other matters relating to transportation.
[Illustration: THE KEY OF THE CITY OF LIMA.]
The death of Philip II. of Spain, which occurred in 1598, left the
fortunes of the rapidly declining monarchy in the hands of a weak and
indolent prince, his son, Philip III., during whose reign the colonies
obtained little protection from the Crown, but were continually called
upon to contribute funds to its depleted treasury. The Marquis de Cañete
was succeeded in the viceroyalty of Peru by Don Luis de Velasco, Marquis
de las Salinas, during whose administration the colony enjoyed great
prosperity and wealth through the increased production of the mines; a
new theatre was built in Lima, the streets and plazas were improved and
beautified and many handsome churches and other buildings were erected.
The Count de Monterey, appointed viceroy on the retirement of Velasco,
lived only a year after his arrival in Peru, and was succeeded by the
Marquis de Montes Claros. Like many of his predecessors, this viceroy
had previously held the same office in Mexico. He was one of the best
financiers the Court of Spain had ever sent to the Indies, and so
zealous were his labors in behalf of the royal exchequer that he was
nicknamed the king’s steward. He went himself to visit the mines of
Huancavelica, the product of which amounted to eight thousand two
hundred quintals annually, and he sent _mitayos_ to the gold mines of
Carabaya and Zaruma and to the silver mines of Castrovireina,
Vilcabamba, and Potosí. His successor, the Prince of Esquilache, who
arrived in Lima with a numerous suite in 1615, devoted particular
attention to the defense of the maritime ports, especially Callao, which
he fortified with three cannons and a garrison of five hundred men. He
also organized a navy. But he was a poet and a connoisseur rather than a
statesman and his financial ability was not equal to the demands put
upon it. Although the annual budget of the colony showed its receipts to
be nearly three million ducats, hardly enough remained to meet current
expenses after the “royal fifth,” amounting to a million ducats, had
been sent to Spain and the cost of various improvements effected by the
viceroy had been paid. His court was, however, distinguished for its
brilliancy and culture, and he entertained many noted scientists and
litterateurs. During his rule, several copies of celebrated paintings,
and even some masterpieces, were purchased to adorn the churches of
Peru.
[Illustration: DOORWAY OF A CHURCH IN AREQUIPA, BUILT DURING THE
COLONIAL PERIOD.]
The constant drain put on the resources of Peru by the Spanish kings
during the entire period of the viceroyalty could have been supported
only by a country of inexhaustible wealth and a people of long-suffering
loyalty. Each successive viceroy came to his office with instructions to
increase the king’s revenues, while the protection and aid from the
mother country diminished as its demands grew more urgent and arrogant.
Philip III. died in 1621 and Philip IV. ascended the throne, naming as
viceroy of Peru the Marquis de Guadalcazar, a descendant of _El Gran
Capitan_. During his administration and that of his successor, the Count
de Chinchon, the demands of the court were so excessive that one wonders
the colonists did not rebel against the extortions. The taxes were
doubled, the sale of offices and privileges was increased, donations
were solicited, duties were placed on vicuña wool, salaries were
reduced, expenditures curtailed, and all manners of means resorted to in
order to raise the sum required by the King of Spain for his fruitless
enterprises and his extravagant pastimes; for although new mines were
discovered in Cerro de Pasco and Cailloma, Potosí and Huancavelica began
to show symptoms of decline, owing to the primitive and wasteful mining
system employed.
The name of the Count de Chinchon is associated with the important
discovery of quinine. His countess, who suffered from malarial fever,
was cured by using a remedy that one of the _corregidores_ had received
from the Indians, a preparation made from the bark of a tree, and now
popularly known as Chinchona bark. It is said the Indians had known its
merits from time immemorial. The Count de Chinchon returned to Spain in
1640, and the Marquis de Mancera, of the illustrious family of Toledo,
occupied the throne of the viceroys in Lima for the nine years
following, during which he gave to Peru the best squadron in the Pacific
and protected Buenos Aires, Paraguay, and southern Chile from invasion
by building strong fortifications and providing weapons of defence. His
successor was the Count de Salvatierra, formerly viceroy of Mexico,
during whose administration the capital was beautified by many
improvements. The handsome bronze fountain which still adorns the plaza
in front of the government palace was erected by his order. He died in
Lima soon after the arrival of the viceroy named to succeed him, the
Count de Alva. The funeral of the Count de Salvatierra was an occasion
of magnificent ceremony, the widowed countess observing with great pomp
and formality the strictest court etiquette of mourning.
The Count de Alva and his successor, the Count de Santisteban, gave
especial attention to the reform of laws affecting the Indians employed
in the mines. The discovery of new mines at Laicacota, in the province
of Puno, which produced one hundred thousand dollars in one night,
revived abuses that had been quelled in other districts, and resulted in
terrible fighting and bloodshed. In the midst of these conditions news
was received that Philip IV. was dead and that his son Charles II. had
ascended the throne. A few months later the Count de Santisteban died
and the pious Count de Lemos, who is said to have lacked only the frock
to make him a perfect Jesuit, was appointed viceroy of Peru. He came,
accompanied by his wife and two children, with a retinue worthy of one
of the royal families of Europe, both the count and countess being
descendants of Pope Alexander VI. When the viceroy made his official
entry, the keys of the city were presented to him on a gold salver, and
he received a gold-headed staff encrusted with diamonds, that cost five
thousand dollars. The triumphal arch through which he passed was made
entirely of silver plate, and the space beneath it was paved with five
hundred and fifty bars of silver, worth more than a million dollars.
During an absence of six months, which the count spent in Alto Peru, the
countess ruled as vicereine, her sagacity and energy being called into
requisition on more than one occasion during that time. The greatest
labor of the viceroy was devoted to the interests of the Church, and the
religious festivals held during his administration were of surpassing
pomp and splendor. Not even the gorgeous display that attended a royal
progress under the Inca dynasty rivalled in magnificence the processions
of the Virgin in Lima, held by order of the Count de Lemos. His
successor, the Count de Castellar, viceroy of Peru from 1674 to 1678,
possessed little of the temperament of a _religieux_, though he was an
experienced statesman and an able financier; during the four years of
his government he secured for the treasury of Lima twelve million
dollars, and sent seven million dollars to Spain.
As the wealth and importance of the viceroyalty increased, the Court of
Spain sent representatives to the colonial capital whose rank and
previous services to the Crown entitled them to the most exalted
position in the realm, next to that of the sovereign himself; the salary
of a viceroy was seventy thousand dollars, his official income being
double that amount from various other sources. The Duke de la Palata and
Prince of Masa, who succeeded the Count de Castellar, had held high
offices of state for thirty years prior to his appointment as Viceroy of
Peru. He belonged to the royal house of Navarre and had been a member of
the council of regency during the minority of Charles II. of Spain. With
such prestige and renown, it was to be expected that his reception in
the colonial capital would be of the most magnificent description. The
chronicles of the period state that the noble duke was welcomed with
such pomp and splendor as his royal master might have envied, the street
along which he was conducted to the palace being paved with ingots of
silver, while the triumphal arch through which he made his entry to the
city was supported on silver pillars. The robes of the high
functionaries who received the viceroy and his suite sparkled with
costly jewels, and in the Cathedral and the palace enough gold and
silver were displayed to pave another _calle_. And all this wealth
existed in spite of the millions sent annually to Spain, and the
misfortunes the colony had suffered from time to time in consequence of
interruptions in the working of the mines, epidemics, earthquakes, and
attacks from filibustering expeditions, that increased as the precious
galleons of Spain were more and more heavily laden with gold and silver
to attract their cupidity.
The Duke de la Palata spent the first years of his viceroyalty in
resisting the powerful attacks of a party of a thousand filibusters who
arrived on the Pacific Coast with a fleet of ships under the command of
a Flemish captain named Davis. The viceroy sent a squadron of six ships,
provided with one hundred and sixteen cannons and abundant ammunition,
to disperse them, and when their scattered forces formed in groups and
sacked the ports of Guayaquil, Paita, Pisco, Arica, and others, the duke
sent out additional ships, a squadron of volunteers formed of merchants
and capitalists gave their aid to the royal authorities, and the enemy
was completely vanquished and driven from the coast. In order to be
secure against disasters from future attacks, a wall was built around
the cities of Lima and Trujillo, by order of the viceroy. The wall of
Lima covered about six miles in extent, and had five bastions, and six
gates, the work having been completed in three years. In the year 1687 a
disastrous earthquake visited Lima, causing the destruction of many
edifices and the loss of some lives. The Cathedral was destroyed, and
the damage to property was tremendous. But the city recuperated with
astonishing rapidity and was soon as gay as ever.
[Illustration: ENTRANCE TO A COLONIAL INN, CUZCO.]
The question of rebuilding the Cathedral led to a clash of opinion
between the viceroy and the Archbishop of Lima, the latter refusing to
employ any of his enormous revenues in the work. The viceroy had a
powerful enemy in the archbishop, who had held the office of viceroy
during the three years that elapsed between the departure of the Duke de
Castellar and his own arrival, and the quarrels of these two great
dignitaries furnished abundant material for scandal and gossip in the
gay capital. Lorente, who has given a graphic and charming description
of social life under the viceroys, relates several amusing incidents. On
one occasion, during a great national fiesta, when the duke was
witnessing the bull fight from the viceregal box, under the crimson
canopy of state, it was called to his attention that the Archbishop of
Lima sat under a crimson canopy also; the duke at once sent him word
that that honor was exclusively reserved for the viceroy of His Catholic
Majesty, and the archbishop was obliged to retire from the scene. The
state coach, drawn by six horses, which presented an imposing spectacle
of luxury in those days, was another object of envy to the eminent
ecclesiastic, who realized that as vice-patron of the church his rival
exerted an authority which otherwise could not have been claimed by the
viceroy. But the archbishop possessed great power and used it
effectively in thwarting the viceroy’s plans for various reforms, though
the administration was marked by consistent and resolute efforts to
improve the condition of the colony. The Real Audiencia was enabled to
exercise its authority with greater freedom, and the entire country was
brought under a more systematic order of government.
The death of Charles II. of Spain, which took place in 1700, was the
occasion of impressive mourning ceremonies throughout the vast empire
over which the House of Austria had maintained its sway for nearly two
centuries. The Duke de la Palata had died ten years before at Panamá,
where he was attacked with yellow fever while on his way to Spain, and
his successor, the Count de la Monclova, a nephew of the Cardinal
Portocarrero, had already won the clergy of the colony to his support
and coöperation by his protection and liberal donations. He was greatly
beloved and esteemed, and remained in Peru as viceroy after the fall of
the Austrian dynasty and the accession of the House of Bourbon in the
person of Philip V., grandson of Louis XIV. of France; his government
was marked by tolerance and the encouragement of social and commercial
development throughout the colony.
[Illustration: ONE OF THE COLONIAL PALACES OF AREQUIPA, BUILT TWO
CENTURIES AGO.]
Five viceroys, two of whom were ecclesiastics, governed Peru during the
reign of Philip V.; they made a determined fight against the evils of
contraband trade, which had grown to enormous proportions, but their
efforts met with little success. The Marquis de Torre-Tagle and Don
Angel Calderon, two wealthy Limeños, fitted out warships at their own
cost to fight the Dutch contrabandists, and took rich prizes; but
although the viceroys punished with great severity all who were
captured, the traffic seemed to increase rather than diminish. In the
meantime, the mines continued to yield great treasure, four million
dollars being coined annually. During the government of the Marquis de
Villagarcia, who was viceroy from 1736 to 1745, the royal fifth was
reduced to a tenth, and colonial commerce was stimulated by the service
of registered vessels that sailed _via_ Cape Horn. Many comforts and
luxuries, which had previously been too expensive for any but the
wealthiest colonists to afford, now appeared in the markets of Lima; the
houses began to be better furnished, and the _calèche_,—a two-wheeled
vehicle, drawn by one horse, on which the coachman rode,—gave place to
the coach and pair. The viceroyalty of Santa Fé was separated from that
of Peru in 1740.
Peru was enjoying the blessings of peace and progress under the rule of
the Viceroy Velasco, Count de Superunda, when a terrible calamity befell
the gay capital: its seaport, Callao, being completely destroyed, and
Lima reduced to the most deplorable condition by an earthquake which
occurred on the 28th of October, 1746. The palace, the university, the
cathedral, the mint, and the municipal buildings, sixteen colleges,
thirty-six convents, and seventy churches, as well as hospitals, and
more than twelve thousand homes were destroyed in Lima; while Callao was
totally submerged with its five thousand inhabitants. The historian of
this dreadful catastrophe relates that the earth rocked and tossed like
a ship in a storm. The clergy took advantage of the opportunity to
preach against the worldliness and luxury of the pleasure-loving people
of Lima; and for weeks society did penance for its sins by fastings and
mortifications. Through the active energy of the viceroy, the capital
was rapidly rebuilt, less than twelve years being required in the
reconstruction of the Cathedral, which it had taken nearly a century to
build originally. Callao was also rebuilt and the town of Bellavista,
which lies between the capital and the port, was founded. The viceroy
had the satisfaction of seeing Lima once more a gay and prosperous city,
the centre of luxury and fashion, the metropolis toward which gravitated
all the wealth of a colony whose resources were no longer confined to
the product of its mines, but began to be derived from agriculture and
other industries.
[Illustration: A COLONIAL AQUEDUCT.]
While the enthusiastic patriots of North America were planning a
revolution that was to bring independence to the colonies of New
England, and to encourage throughout all America that spirit of freedom
which has since grown to dominate the western world, the viceroyalty of
Peru was in the height of its power, under the government of Don Manuel
Amat, who ruled from 1761 to 1775. A military commander of iron will and
severe discipline, he reorganized the army, which consisted of one
hundred thousand men, the navy and the police service of the colony, and
was himself chief of a brilliant regiment composed of the highest nobles
of his court. By his order, the Plaza de Acho was laid out and reserved
for public amusements, such as bull fights, ball games, etc.; the
beautiful Paseo de Aguas was also built during his administration and
became the favorite promenade of fashionable society. It is said that
the Paseo was constructed to please the Pompadour of his merry court,
who was known in the scandals of the viceroyalty—and there were many—as
_La Perricholi_.
It has been said that the first blow in the battle for the independence
of the South American colonies was struck by the hand of the monarchy
itself, when the order was given to expel the Jesuits from the Spanish
possessions, in 1767. It was shortly after this event that the old-time
enmity between _Vascongado_ and _Vicuña_ began to reappear in their
descendants, the Spanish authorities and the Creole students of the
University of San Francisco Javier,—years before the first patriots
announced their campaign. According to some authorities, the revolution
was fostered by the Jesuits, who resented as an injustice the edict
issued against them, and helped to sow the first seeds of republicanism
in the minds of the South American subjects of Spain. In Lima, the
centre of colonial power, there was little more than a rumor of the
discontent that had developed out of the quarrels between _criollos_
(Spanish-Americans) and _chapetones_ (Spaniards) in Potosí and Sucre; at
the time of the Jesuits’ banishment, Lima was apparently happy in the
enjoyment of peace and plenty. The capital was constantly becoming
richer and more attractive with its brilliant court functions, its gay
carnivals, its fashionable promenades, its theatre, balls and splendid
religious festivities. In 1778, during the administration of the Viceroy
Guirior, Amat’s successor, the viceroyalty of Buenos Aires was formed,
embracing the former Audiencia of Charcas.
A final attempt was made in 1780, by the descendants of the Incas, to
regain their lost empire. It was carefully planned, boldly initiated,
and bravely carried forward, assuming formidable proportions under the
leadership of an Indian cacique, who called himself Tupac Amaru, and
claimed descent from the Inca Manco. Goaded to desperation on account of
the iniquities committed against his people by the minor authorities,
who could never be brought to justice, he determined to take the law in
his own hands, and one night seized a ruthless offender, the
_corregidor_ of his community in the province of Cuzco, whom he
overpowered and dragged to his house. After forcing the magistrate to
issue orders that Indians and Spaniards should obey the orders of the
Inca, he hanged the unfortunate official in the plaza and robbed his
house, securing thirty thousand dollars, which he used to promote his
campaign. He collected an army of sixty thousand followers, intending to
march on Cuzco, seize the city and reëstablish the Inca empire; but his
followers were undisciplined, his troops badly organized, and in the
first encounter with the regiments of the colonial army he lost twenty
thousand men. The Bishop of Cuzco threatened with excommunication all
who remained in the rebel ranks, and many leading supporters withdrew,
leaving Tupac Amaru to meet seventeen thousand drilled soldiers in a
battle in which his ranks were thrown into utter confusion, and he was
defeated and captured by the enemy. He was put to the torture of being
fastened by his arms and legs to the saddle girths of four horses, which
were then driven in opposite directions, tearing him limb from limb.
Those of his followers who escaped continued to make sporadic attempts
at revolt and were the first to join the ranks of the patriots when the
war of Independence was launched. But none of the partisans of this
brave Indian possessed his qualities of leadership and their fate is
unknown.
The prosperity of Peru continued under the rule of the viceroys Teodoro
de Croix and Francisco Gil de Lemos, though the influence of the French
revolution was beginning to make itself felt in Venezuela, Alto Peru,
and other districts remote from the capital. During De Croix’s
administration, the viceroyalty was divided into seven _intendencias_:
Trujillo, Lima, Huancavelica, Tarma, Huamanga, Cuzco, and Arequipa; and
an Audiencia was established in Cuzco. The Count de Osorno became
viceroy in 1796, and was succeeded four years later by the Marquis de
Aviles, who devoted particular attention to the military and religious
institutions of the country; during his time, Baron von Humboldt, the
noted scientist, arrived in Lima, and was accorded a most hospitable
welcome.
The immediate proximity of monarchical authority prevented the
development of conspiracies in the capital in favor of independence; but
in Cuzco, Moquegua, Tacna, Huánuco, and other provinces, patriotism,
stimulated by the example of the French and the North American
revolutionists, began to give demonstrations of its strength and
purpose. With the retirement of the Marquis de Aviles in 1806, and the
arrival of his successor, Don Fernando Abascal, the supremacy of the
viceroyalty in Peru may be said to have begun to decline, the government
of the succeeding representatives of the Crown of Spain being occupied
rather in an effort to maintain their authority against the increasing
and, finally, overwhelming force of the patriotic movement, than in
public administration. The viceroy Abascal realized the importance of
making concessions to the now thoroughly aroused spirit of liberty, and
his government was marked by benevolence and conciliation. He founded
colleges, repaired the city walls, built a pantheon, prohibited any
further burials in the church vaults, and was zealous in the promotion
of public enterprises. But the most liberal and devoted efforts could
not stay the hand of destiny. The brilliant court of the viceroys was
doomed to extinction, and the grandeur of colonial aristocracy was to
give place to the simplicity of republican ideals.
[Illustration: PATIO OF A COLONIAL HOUSE, LIMA.]
[Illustration: THE CHOIR AND ALTAR OF THE CATHEDRAL OF LIMA—THE ALTAR OF
SOLID SILVER.]