THE VAST EMPIRE OF THE INCAS
[Illustration: CORNER-STONE OF AN ANCIENT FORTRESS, CUZCO.]
Although Viracocha was one of the greatest monarchs of Cuzco, it was his
son who brought the Inca dynasty to such a high degree of prestige and
power that the great empire gained unprecedented wealth and territory.
Pachacutec has been called the second Manco-Ccapac, and his name
signifies “he who creates the world anew,” showing what an exalted place
he occupied among the Inca emperors in the annals of his country. He was
an accomplished diplomatist as well as a skilful warrior, a statesman of
far-seeing judgment, and a philosopher. It was as a diplomatist that he
gained the coöperation and loyal service of the curacas of newly
conquered provinces, and by his skill as a warrior that his armies were
so well organized and disciplined as to win victories in all the
campaigns which the heir-apparent led against the tribes of the coast,
carrying his conquests from Pisco, Nasca, Ica, and Pachacámac to the
realm of the hitherto much dreaded and altogether invincible Grand
Chimu. The name of the young prince, Tupac-Yupanqui, is particularly
associated with the conquest of Cajamarca; and the return of the hero to
Cuzco at the close of that campaign was made the occasion of a national
celebration throughout the empire.
It must have been an imposing and magnificent spectacle when the Emperor
Pachacutec met the victorious prince outside of the capital on his
return from Cajamarca, and entered the city with the royal heir, the
latter “borne in a gold litter on the shoulders of conquered chiefs and
preceded by troops of newly gained vassals, who sang the glories of the
prince, with the triumphant ‘Haylli!’ to thrill the heart of the
multitude and carry them beyond bounds as they caught its victorious
note.” The pathway of the prince was covered with flowers, and crossed
at short intervals by triumphal arches. The curacas marched at the head
of processions from the different provinces, each in their local
costumes, dancing and singing songs of victory; these were followed by
the legions of the army, who filled the air with cheers for their
general. The nobility came next in line, splendid in court dress and
brilliant ornaments; and, lastly, the royal litter of the emperor side
by side with that of the prince, gave to the pageant its culminating
glory. The procession wound its way through the streets to the Temple of
the Sun, where, with impressive ceremonies, thanks were rendered to the
deity whose protection they believed had won the great victory.
The Inca’s armies entered the valleys of Pachacámac, Rimac, and Chancay
late in the fourteenth century, and effected the allegiance of all that
territory with little resistance; though it was an alliance rather than
a conquest which the monarch of Cuzco proposed to the powerful ruler of
the Yungas, as the people of that region were called. According to their
treaty, the lord of Pachacámac was to keep his dominions, though under
the authority of the imperial government; and the religion of Pachacámac
was to be protected, on condition that the people also worshipped the
Sun. It was after this alliance that the Temple of the Sun and the
Convent of the Vestal Virgins were erected near the ancient edifice
dedicated to the Creator. Later, the chiefs of this part of the coast
region united their forces with the armies of Cuzco and marched against
the Grand Chimu, glad to render assistance in an effort to crush their
common enemy. The trained legions of Cuzco suffered greatly at first, on
account of the intense heat, and their general was forced to send to his
father for reinforcements; the resistance was stronger and more resolute
than that of any enemy the Incas had hitherto encountered; but repeated
reinforcements arrived, and the archers, lancers, and catapult regiments
made havoc in the Chimu’s dominions, which was intensified when the
enemy turned the course of the rivers that flowed from the sierra, to
drain their plantations, and famine added to the horrors of combat.
Capitulations were made, the Inca permitting the Grand Chimu to govern
his dominions, as had been done in the treaty of Pachacámac, and
exacting only that the people should render homage to the Inca and
worship the Sun. A general edict was issued by Pachacutec at this time
which proved one of the most powerful agencies in the consolidation of
his great empire; it was decreed that all vassals of the realm should
learn Quichua, and teachers were appointed in every province to see that
the language was taught and used throughout the country. All government
officials were obliged to know the national idiom and no one was
permitted to occupy a place of authority or to have dignities or
seignory conferred upon him if he could not speak it. Every soldier of
the army, which grew to number two hundred thousand men, spoke this
language.
[Illustration: ANCIENT STREET OF CUZCO, SHOWING INCAIC WALLS.]
During the reign of Pachacutec, the government of the empire was
established on a firmer basis than ever, and legislation, though in
reality only an expression of the supreme will of the Inca (there was no
word for “law,” which was rendered _apupsimi_, “the word of the chief”),
made clear to every subject what his duties were to his sovereign and to
the state. The Inca Pachacutec ordered that all children over five years
of age should have some employment appropriate to their age and their
father’s profession. The blind, mute, and lame were given light work,
and even the most ignorant and weak-minded were employed, as a safeguard
against laziness. On the other hand, he set aside three days in each
month for fiestas, and harvest time was a season of general rejoicing.
The lands of the empire were all owned by the Inca and agriculture was
the chief occupation of his subjects; the Inca himself turned the first
furrow every year, with a golden plough. The products of the harvest
were divided into three parts; first, the Inca’s share was set aside to
sustain the splendor of the throne and tomeet public necessities; then
the share for the Sun was devoted to the needs of the church, the
priests and all who served in the temples; and finally the communities
received their share, out of which each tiller of the soil was provided
with what he needed. Private property did not exist, and no one had any
individual rights whatever; on the other hand, every subject was given
food and clothing and a house in which to live, though only as the
Inca’s dependent ward, who could never hope to outgrow his “minority.”
It is not surprising that patience and obedience became the
predominating virtues of the race! The system of administration, which
made it possible for the Inca to maintain his absolute authority over
such a vast territory and population is explained partly in the frequent
transporting of _mitimaes_, or colonists, from their native province to
another, which prevented concerted plans for revolt, and partly in the
division of the population into decades, or groups of ten, five of these
groups constituting a body of fifty, two of these bodies making a
centenary, and so on, the whole empire being governed in provinces of
ten thousand inhabitants; each of the subdivisions had an officer in
authority who was answerable to the chief officer of the larger group of
which his division formed a part, until the supreme authority was
reached. As may be supposed, the larger divisions were under the
direction and control of the nobles, the provinces of ten thousand being
governed by the Inca nobility, who had command over the curacas and
other territorial officers of his district.
The subjects of the Inca could not even choose their life partners;
matrimony was obligatory and, as its results affected the well-being of
the state, the Inca maintained the right to govern in this as in all
other matters. In the royal family, the ceremony was performed by the
emperor himself, though in marriages of lesser importance his officers
discharged this formality, appointing a day for a general ceremony, when
all the young men of from twenty to twenty-five and girls of from
eighteen to twenty presented themselves in a row, the men in front;
after the wedding, the young people took possession of the houses which
their community was obliged to build for them, the furniture being
supplied by their family. No one could marry outside of his or her
_parcialidad_, or township, and, as it was obligatory to wear the dress
of one’s forefathers and not to move from any town to another without
leave from the authorities, it may readily be understood that the
costumes worn in the various sections of Peru were as distinctive of
class and locality as is the Scotch tartan. The custom still remains in
the sierra, and the effect is most picturesque.
[Illustration: PRINCIPAL HALL OF THE INCA OBSERVATORY. INTI-HUATANA.]
Throughout the long reign of sixty years which is given by the
historians to Pachacutec, his sagacity and benevolence were seen in
every branch of his administration. He died at the age of eighty years,
and left the throne to Tupac-Yupanqui, the tenth emperor of Cuzco, who
made the conquest of Chile as far south as the Maule River, and spent
three years visiting his kingdom. The royal progress was of the most
magnificent description; the litter of the great monarch was resplendant
with gold and precious jewels, displaying in its adornment the sacred
symbols of sun worship, as it was borne on the shoulders of the Inca’s
proudest nobles. With a gorgeous retinue the great lord of Cuzco
proceeded along the highway, which was lined throughout the route by
adoring subjects, who strewed the pathway of their deity-king with
flowers and sang songs in his praise; when the transcendent glory of the
Son of the Sun was revealed to them for a brief moment, as the curtains
of the litter were raised and the royal countenance became visible,
their acclamations were joyous and fervent beyond words. According to
Sarmiento, one of the early historians, the royal guard and retinue that
accompanied the Incas always made a splendid spectacle. Close to the
litter of the emperor, and forming a brilliant and impenetrable guard,
were his majesty’s halberdiers and archers on each side, five thousand
soldiers in front, with catapults (weapons used with unfailing effect by
the armies of Cuzco), and as many lancers with their captains behind,
while heralds hurried back and forth, clearing the way and announcing
the approach of the mighty lord. The people were glad to see their
monarch, not only to witness the glory and splendor in which he
appeared, but also because it was the royal custom, observed by
Manco-Ccapac and all his successors, for the Inca to take this
opportunity of hearing his people’s grievances and regulating matters
referred to his decision by the provincial tribunals. Wherever he halted
grand fiestas were celebrated in his honor; and so well stocked with
provisions were the royal _tambos_, that all the Inca’s suite, as well
as his troops, could be served with their accustomed food and all
comforts. The Inca was kept in constant communication with Cuzco—no
matter how far away from the capital his travels might lead him—by his
_chasquis_, or postboys. On all the principal roads leading from Cuzco
post offices were established, not like the modern repositories of
letters, but small huts, in which a number of _chasquis_ were stationed
to receive and carry forward messages of the government. These posts
were only a few miles apart, and the _chasquis_, who were chosen for
their fleetness as runners as well as for their fidelity, were relieved
by a perfect system of relays, so that it was possible for messages to
be carried fifty leagues in a day. The _chasquis_ were of great value in
times of war, as may readily be seen, and they were also pressed into
the domestic service of the royal palace, being employed to bring
fruits, game, and (we are seriously informed by the historian) even
fish, from the tropical coast region, for the imperial table.
[Illustration: SHOWING THE TWELVE-ANGLE STONE, RUINS AT CUZCO.]
Tupac-Yupanqui is named by some authorities as the successor of Inca
Yupanqui, to whom they give all the glory of the long and brilliant
reign which others credit to Tupac-Yupanqui. On the other hand, many
historians say that Inca Yupanqui’s reign was brief and uneventful,
except for his campaigns, undertaken to subdue the Mojos of the region
of the Beni and the Chiriguanas of the Bolivian Chaco. He failed in both
enterprises and then turned his armies toward Quito, though with little
better success. Tupac-Yupanqui had a young son, however, who was
destined to bring the power and prestige of the Children of the Sun to
the very zenith of glory. This prince, whose name was Huayna-Ccapac,
took command of the imperial forces in the later years of his father’s
life and marched against the king of Quito, whom he defeated, gaining
possession of his kingdom. Alas, the conquest of Quito, the most
brilliant victory yet won by the Children of the Sun, proved to be “the
beginning of the end,” the source of the disunion of the great Inca
empire, a calamity which contributed in an important degree to make it
possible for a small group of invaders to accomplish the downfall of one
of the most powerful monarchies that ever developed among a primitive
people!
[Illustration: THE INCA’S BATH, OLLANTAYTAMBO.]
The historical records of the reign of Huayna-Ccapac are generally
regarded as reliable, since he died only a few years before the arrival
of the Spaniards, and the events of his government were still fresh in
the minds of his people. Not only did this monarch add to the number of
magnificent temples and palaces erected throughout the empire, but he
built a new highway from Cuzco to Quito and completed the great road
from the capital to Chile. The famous tradition of Ollantaytambo is said
to have its origin in the rebellion of one of the nobles of the court of
Huayna-Ccapac, named Ollanta, who resisted the power of the Inca in his
stronghold until finally conquered by the superior strength of the
emperor’s forces. The ruins of Ollantaytambo, forty miles north of
Cuzco, are among the most imposing in Peru, though according to some
archæologists the edifice was built in pre-Incaic times, and was only
restored and embellished by the Incas. The same is said of nearly all
the great temples, except Coricancha, the Temple of the Sun, in Cuzco,
and a few others, though it is not certain in whose reign Coricancha was
built; probably the work of construction extended over several reigns.
Huayna-Ccapac is said to have had a strong leaning toward philosophy,
and, like some of his predecessors, he gave numerous proverbs and
mottoes to his people, which the early historians were able to get from
the quipucamayos. He was the first to declare that he believed in the
existence of a higher power than the Sun, and the reason he gave for
this disloyalty to the deity of the Incas is very interesting. It is
related that he first gave expression to his new creed during a visit to
his subjects of Collasuyo. He had gone with his court to spend some time
on the sacred island of the Sun in Lake Titicaca, where he is said to
have devoted much attention to plans of reform, in religion, industries,
and other features of administration. From this point he had visited the
monuments of Tiahuanaco, and was celebrating the great annual feast of
Raymi at Chuquiapu (La Paz, Bolivia). His uncle, the chief priest of the
temple, observed that the Inca spent much time gazing at the sun, and
said to him, “Thou knowest, Inca, that it is not permitted to look so
freely at our father, the Sun, and thou art causing a grand scandal in
the court and among all thy subjects assembled to worship our supreme
lord.” In return, the emperor asked: “Is there anyone in the empire who
could oblige me to make a long journey? Is there anyone who would dare
to disobey me if I ordered him to journey to Chile?” “No,” was the
answer of the priest; “No one would dare to give orders to his
sovereign, nor to disobey him.” “Then I tell you,” replied the Inca,
“that our father, the Sun, has a ruler greater and more powerful than
himself; for the sun never rests on the journey which he makes every
day, and the supreme lord no doubt does things leisurely and halts when
it pleases him, even though he has no need of repose.”
The feast of Raymi was the most brilliant and popular of all the
national celebrations. It usually took place at Cuzco, as the permanent
residence of the Inca was in that city, and was held at the period of
the summer solstice, which, south of the equator, occurs in December.
Three other fiestas of especial importance were held during the year to
celebrate the solstices of June, March, and September, though none of
these equalled in elaborate ceremony and display the “Ccapac-Raymi.” For
three days previous to the 21st of December there was a general fast,
and on the morning of that day the Inca, in company with his family and
the nobles of his court, attired in gala dress and wearing their most
gorgeous adornments, awaited the appearance of the rising sun. A
multitude filled the plaza, presenting in the variety of their dress and
ornaments,—as they represented the different tribes gathered under the
standard of the rainbow in many campaigns,—the aspect of an assembly
gathered from the four corners of the globe. As the sun rose, smiling on
the sacred city in benediction, the crowd broke forth in a shout of
praise and thanksgiving; while joyous songs and the melody of music from
a thousand curious instruments throbbed on the air. Dr. Lorente in
describing this feast says: “The Inca, filling two glasses with
_chicha_, (a fermented liquor of maize, the popular drink of the Indians
in the sierra to-day as it was hundreds of years ago,) offered them to
his divine father, the Sun, and then poured the contents of the glass he
held in his right hand into a golden receptacle, which by a secret
channel flowed into the Temple of the Sun. The contents of the other
glass were first sipped by the Inca, who passed it to his nobles that
they might do the same.” After this libation, all repaired to the
temple, which they entered barefooted, the multitude being required to
remove their sandals two hundred steps from the sacred portal, which
they might not enter. After the Inca’s invocation to the Sun, the
procession made its way to the plaza where the sacrificial offerings of
llamas were made and the feasting began in all its intensity. It lasted
for a week, during which the chicha jars—huge earthenware vessels—were
increased and refilled constantly, and dancing was kept up day and night
without ceasing. The feast of the harvest, held the 21st of March, was
regarded with great reverence, as it was then the fire was drawn from
the Sun’s rays to light the sacred flame for the altar; the rays were
focussed on a metallic mirror which the Inca wore in a bracelet on his
right arm, and by this means a small piece of cotton was ignited, the
fire being then guarded by the Virgins of the Sun until the feast of the
ensuing year.
[Illustration: THE HOUSE OF THE SERPENTS, CUZCO.]
Under the influence of a common religion, a common language, and a
common government the consolidation of the great Inca empire was
effected, and it must be conceded that the benevolent character of the
despotism which its sovereigns exercised was the saving feature of a
system which must seem, to the freedom-loving spirit of the twentieth
century, the worst species of barbarism. Yet for a primitive people, who
shall say that the government of Cuzco did not accomplish more toward
civilizing them than a less autocratic but more oppressive system would
have done? In the course of time, might not Inca philosophers, such as
Pachacutec and Huayna-Ccapac, more advanced in their ideas by social
evolution, gradually extend more privileges to their subjects and lift
them up to a higher level? The empire had apparently reached its
farthest boundaries with the conquests of Chile and Quito, and the
period of insurrection and insubordination had passed, as a result of
wise measures taken to bind all the Inca’s subjects together in a common
interest, through the practice of a common religion and the exclusive
use of a common language. It was the most promising moment in the
development of the race.
The story of Huayna-Ccapac’s fear and foreboding when the news was
carried to him in his palace on the island of Lake Titicaca that “white
and bearded men” had been seen in the region of the coast, and of his
retirement to Quito to pass the remainder of his days in the society of
his favorite Pacha, the mother of Atahuallpa, is well known.
Unfortunately, the poetical romance of Atahuallpa’s birth in the
conquered city of his mother’s people, and of his winning the proud
heart of his father, so that the rightful heir to the throne of Cuzco
was relegated to a second place in the Inca’s affections, has been
pronounced a fable; because Atahuallpa was twelve years old when
Huayna-Ccapac conquered Quito. But, on the other hand, there is no proof
that Huayna-Ccapac did not invade Quito previous to its conquest. At any
rate, the story is _bien trouvée_. The question of disposing of his
empire vexed the great Inca, who wished to provide well for his favorite
son, but was bound to recognize the exalted rights of the Coya’s heir,
Huascar, at whose birth the national rejoicings had been greater than on
the natal day of any other prince of Cuzco. The legend of Huascar’s
golden chain, which was long enough to encircle the plaza of Cuzco three
times, is still repeated, and expeditions still seek it in the various
places where it is said to have been concealed on the approach of the
Spaniards. Finally the throne of Cuzco was given to Huascar, and that of
Quito to Atahuallpa. Neither was satisfied, and their quarrels and
combats resulted in dividing the empire under rival powers at the
supreme moment when unity was its only hope for salvation.
[Illustration: DOORWAY OF THE OBSERVATORY, INTI-HUATANA.]
[Illustration: THE INCA’S THRONE, OVERLOOKING THE CITY OF CUZCO.]