The knowledge of the Dutch hold upon Japan inspired other nations with
a desire to secure similar benefits. Russia, in particular, strove to
secure a footing, but all her attempts were unavailing. British and
Americans met with a like fate; there was no Government that would deal
with them, the law of isolation had gone forth, and isolated Japan
remained. So greatly, too, did the nation esteem its state, that a law
long existed whereby the building of a ship of any size was a crime
punishable by death.
At last, in 1848, the United States, which had deep interests in the
whale fisheries in Far Eastern waters, and was also concerned in
establishing a line of steamers between California and the recently
opened free ports in China, took official instead of merely individual
measures to open up communication with Japan. A coaling station in
Japan was an absolute necessity if the projected line of steamers was
to be realised; but the reaching of any governing body with power to
grant such a station was the difficulty. However, in 1852, Commodore
Perry was sent with a squadron to Japan, and reached the Bay of Yeddo
in July, 1853, bearing a friendly letter from the President of the
United States to the Emperor of Japan.[1] The commodore had orders to
use force, if necessary, as a last resort;[2] but the thousands of
troops that were gathered to meet him made no attack. Having managed to
deliver his message and impress the authorities with the fact that an
answer would be required, the commodore left.
[1] The message was to the Shogun, whom all foreigners regarded as the
Emperor.
[2] “Official Narrative of the Japan Expedition.”
So soon as he had gone the Shogun’s Government found itself on the
horns of a dilemma. If a treaty were made with the foreigners, internal
trouble from a people already permeated with a desire to restore to
power the real Emperor might be expected to a certainty; if they
refused, the American show of force convinced them that grave trouble
would lie ahead, trouble which the Japanese, with their old-fashioned
fighting methods, could never successfully combat.
The most prominent personage in Japan at that moment was the Daimio of
Mito. He advocated absolute refusal of the American demands, and the
exclusion of all foreigners by force of arms, if necessary. He recalled
the famous wars of the past, and nearly every Daimio in the country
followed his lead. Forts were erected on the shore, the bells of
temples melted and made into cannon, and as many Samaurai as possible
were drilled with the most modern fire-arms procurable. They got these
through the Dutch at Nagasaki.
In the midst of this a Russian squadron appeared, also demanding a
treaty and the opening up of the country, but again no force was used.
Seven months after his first visit, Commodore Perry returned for his
answer, and the war fever having evaporated to some extent, a treaty
was actually signed on March 31, 1854.
This treaty provided for peace and goodwill between the United States
and Japan, the opening of Shimoda as a treaty port, and the similar
opening of Hakodate after an interval, the Americans agreeing that
their ships should visit no other ports except from necessity. The
other articles dealt with the care of shipwrecked mariners and the
like, and “the most favoured nation” clause. England, Russia, and
Holland soon secured similar treaties, Russia having the same ports as
America, England and Holland having Nagasaki instead of Shimoda.
All this split Japan into two hostile parties, the _Jo-i_ and the
_Kai-koku_. The former, under the leadership of the Daimio of Mito,
were bitterly anti-foreign, and also desirous of restoring the Emperor.
The _Kai-koku_, on the other hand, supported the Shogun action, and had
as their watchword the words spoken by one of them at the debate over
Commodore Perry’s demands: “As we are not the equals of the foreigners
in the mechanical arts, let us have intercourse with foreign lands, let
us learn their drill and tactics. Then, when we shall have made our
nation united as one family, we shall be able to go abroad, and give
lands in foreign countries to those who have distinguished themselves
in battle.”
For a time this party had the upper hand. Commercial treaties were
made, and by 1860 Ni-igata, Hyogo, and Yokohama had been opened, with
the Consuls of most nations established there. Ii-Kamon-no-kami, head
of the _Kai-Koku_ party, imprisoned the Daimio of Mito, and executed
several Samaurai who had killed his adherents. Then, in 1860, on
March 23, Ii-Kamon-no-kami was assassinated, and his party, no longer
with a powerful head, made isolated preparations for civil war. Ships
were purchased and manned by the retainers of the local governors of
provinces, and troops raised. Meanwhile the foreign Legations were
attacked, an American secretary was murdered, and other foreigners
injured. Other murders, notably that of an English merchant named
Richardson, followed, and an indemnity was refused. This led to the
arrival of Admiral Kuper with seven ships at Kagoshima, August 11,
1863. He bombarded the forts and city, and also sank or burned three
steamers belonging to the Daimio of Satsuma, whose men had committed
the murder. After this the indemnity was forthcoming, but the Daimio
promptly ordered more warships, and sent many of his naval officers to
Holland to learn European methods.
In this same year the Daimio of Choshu, a member of the Jo-i, who had
also secured a small fleet for himself, fired upon an American steamer,
and afterwards upon the French gunboat Kienchang, which latter he
damaged severely. The Dutch frigate Medusa was also roughly handled by
his shore batteries at Shimonoseki, but replying, silenced them.
Both these acts led to reprisals. The United States warship Wyoming at
once proceeded to Shimonoseki, where she blew up one Japanese steam
warship, and sank a second, a small brig. The French warships Sémiramis
and Tancrède followed, and subjected Shimonoseki to a bombardment that
did considerable damage.
An indemnity was demanded and paid by the Shogun’s Government for these
attacks of foreign shipping, while the suppression of the Daimio of
Choshu at Shimonoseki was also promised. This, however, was a task
beyond the power of the Government, and finally the Powers interested
decided to take action. A combined fleet, consisting of nine British,
four Dutch, three French, and one hired United States steamer, went to
Shimonoseki to reduce this bar to passage on the Inland Sea.