THE FAILURE OF THE SPANISH CAMPAIGN[28]
[Footnote 28: See Jomini: Napoleon, III. Cevallos: Exposicion
de los hechos y maquinaciones que han preparado la usurpation
de la corona de Espana, y los medios que el emperador de los
franzeses ha puesto en obra para realizarla. Suchet: Memoires
sur ses campagnes en Espagne, 1808-1814. Rocca: Memoirs,
1808-1812. Also Memoirs of Godoy, Marbot, Massena, and
Murat.]
The Grand Army in France -- Their Entrance to Spain -- The
Opposing Forces -- Napoleon's Strategic Plan -- French Victories
-- Sir John Moore -- The British and the Spaniards -- Napoleon's
Advance to Madrid -- His Return Northward -- Moore's Retreat --
Napoleon at Paris -- Death of Moore -- The Napoleonic
Constitution for Spain -- Spanish Resistance -- Joseph's Weakness
-- Establishment of the New Monarchy.
[Sidenote: 1808-09]
While Alexander was hastening the preparations for his sister's
marriage, Napoleon was hurrying toward Spain, whither, too, the
legions of the grand army, released by the evacuation of Prussia, had
already been ordered. Baylen and Cintra must be retrieved at any cost.
As the splendid array of soldiers passed through France they were
received like men who had already conquered. The civil authorities
spread banquets for them, compliments rained from the honeyed lips of
chosen orators, poets sang sweet strains on the theme of their
glories. This appeared a spontaneous outburst to the troops, and they
marched with the elasticity of enthusiasm to their task. The curious
may read to-day what the army could not know--that by Napoleon's
personal decree the ministry of war had prepared every detail of that
triumph, that the prefects acted under stringent orders, that three
sets of warlike songs were written by commission in Paris, and
forwarded one each to various points, so that, as the Emperor wrote,
"the soldier may not hear the same thing twice." The success of the
plan was complete, and the jubilations had every appearance of being
genuine.
It was therefore not a tired and disheartened army which was gathered
under the walls of Burgos early in November, but a body of picked and
energetic veterans. Joseph, to be sure, had done little in the
interval to take advantage of the foolish and careless tumult into
which the joy of victory had thrown the Spanish people. In spite of
the minute directions which had been received almost daily from
Napoleon, Jourdan, who, having been the King's military adviser in
Naples, had come in the same capacity to Spain, gradually lost every
advantage of position. But the French boys who had fought in the
summer were older and more experienced. The defensive attitude of
their leader had given them the training of camp life, and had secured
the recuperation of their strength. When, therefore, they were mingled
with the newcomers, they might be considered almost as good soldiers
as those who had arrived from Germany.
Moreover, the best generals were now in command: Victor was at
Amurrio, Bessieres at Miranda on the Ebro, Moncey at Tafalla, Lefebvre
near Bilbao, Ney at Logrono on the Ebro, Saint-Cyr at La Junquera,
each with a corps, the smallest of twenty, the largest of thirty
thousand men. Duhesme was shut up in Barcelona with ten thousand.
There was a reserve of thirty-five thousand, the guard and cavalry, at
Tolosa and Vitoria. Mortier's corps of twenty-four thousand was in the
rear, and Junot, who had been better received in Paris than he
expected, was coming up with nineteen thousand more. In all, there
were about two hundred and forty thousand troops. Napoleon, reaching
Bayonne on November third, had it announced that there were between
three and four hundred thousand! With such a numerous and efficient
fighting force, there was no need of exaggeration. To oppose it Blake
had thirty-two thousand Spaniards at Valmaseda as the left wing of the
Spanish army, and La Romana, having disembarked at Santander, soon
arrived with eight thousand more; the center, twenty-five thousand
strong, lay between Calahorra and Tudela under Castanos; the right
seventeen thousand in number, was at and near Saragossa under Palafox.
Before Barcelona was Vives, with twenty thousand, and near Burgos was
a reserve of eighteen thousand under Belvedere--about a hundred and
twenty thousand men, all told. In addition to this regular army, there
was another irregular one of vast but vague dimensions, consisting of
the entire nation.
[Illustration: Map of the Spanish Campaign.]
Amid the exciting cares of Erfurt, Napoleon had still found time to
study the military situation in Spain with minuteness, and he finally
wrote to Joseph that he was coming in person to end the war by one
skilful stroke. This hope was founded on the position held by Blake,
advanced as it was beyond the Spanish line, and remote enough to be
exposed. By a swift blow that general's army might therefore be cut
off from its support, and annihilated; the center and right would
successively meet the same fate. This plan had been jeopardized by the
rashness of Lefebvre. On October thirty-first Blake had advanced from
Durango for an attack. He had not only been routed, but in the heat of
victory had been thrown far back to Valmaseda by the over-zealous
French general. Although the Emperor had hoped for something quite
different, having given orders to draw him forward toward Biscay and
Navarre, he still did not abandon his strategic plan. The Spaniards
had grown warlike in a day, but their victories had intoxicated
them, and of military science they had only what they had learned by
experience. There was no harmony among the generals--not even a
preconcerted plan of operation. Accordingly the mass of the French
army was directed toward Burgos to cut off and overwhelm Blake, while
two corps under Soult were directed to intercept his retreat.
Burgos fell almost without opposition on November tenth; Blake was
defeated the next day at Espinosa, and his scattered columns, turned
but not captured by Soult, fled into Asturias, where they joined the
force of La Romana. Without a moment's hesitation Ney was now
despatched to the southeast in order to fall on Castanos's rear, while
Lannes was to unite Moncey's corps with Lagrange's division and attack
his front. The Spanish general was posted, as has been said, on the
Ebro between Calahorra and Tudela. Before the twentieth the two moves
had been executed and all was in readiness. The Spaniards fled before
Lannes's attack on the twenty-third, but Ney with his cavalry remained
inexplicably stationary, and did not cut off their retreat. They were
therefore able to reassemble at Siguenza, while Palafox withdrew to
Saragossa. This was seemingly an easy triumph for Napoleon's matchless
strategy; his plan worked without real resistance, for his
self-sufficient and ignorant enemy was scattered. Nevertheless, it
will be observed that the execution was deficient and the result
disproportionate. Neither Soult on the right nor Ney on the left
showed such vigor or promptness as of old; there was no general
surrender by the Spaniards, nor was any portion of their force
annihilated. All that was gained--and for a common general it would
have been much--was the ability to take another step.
The capitulation at Cintra, the affair at Bayonne, and the uprising of
the Spaniards had combined to intensify rebellion in Portugal. She was
now in full sympathy with Spain, and her people were scarcely less
bitter or less active than the Spaniards. The easy terms secured by
Junot had infuriated England, and not only Dalrymple and Burrard, but
Wellesley himself, had been recalled to give an account of their
conduct. The last was triumphantly vindicated; but while the others
were not convicted of dereliction in duty, they were virtually
withdrawn from active life. Sir John Moore was now in command of the
English troops in the Peninsula. He had been reinforced with ten
thousand men, and feeling sure of Portugal, had advanced into Spain.
To Napoleon it seemed evident that his intention was to seize Madrid.
This was a mistake. The jubilant Spaniards, expecting to treat
Napoleon as they had treated Dupont, had summoned the English to join
them. Moore's orders were to assist them, and he prepared to obey,
although he well knew what would be the consequences of Spanish
hallucination. With one column he reached Salamanca on November
thirteenth; the head of the other was at Astorga. His own division
numbered only fifteen thousand men; the other was even smaller--ten
thousand at the most. It was on that date that he learned of
Napoleon's victories. Accordingly he halted to await the next move of
the French. That move was against Madrid. Saragossa was besieged by
Moncey, Lefebvre was thrown out to guard the right flank, and Ney to
protect the left of the advancing columns; the march began on November
twenty-eighth.
The first obstacle was the mountain-range of Guadarrama, which had to
be crossed by the pass of Somosierra. This defile was found to be
strongly guarded; there were not only infantry stationed on the
heights, but artillery also, sixteen guns being below the turn of the
pass in a most advantageous position. In the early morning of the
thirtieth the French infantry began to climb the cliffs on each side
of the narrow gorge, and as the mists were heavy their movements were
successfully concealed until the Spanish bivouacs were reached
surprised, and dislodged. Simultaneously a regiment of Polish light
horse was launched against the battery. Their charge was magnificent,
and the gunners could fire only a single round before they were
overpowered. By the ordinary breakfast hour the pass was free. On the
evening of December second the whole army--infantry, cavalry, and
artillery--was united on the heights of Chamartin before the gates of
Madrid. Two days later, after a gallant resistance by its little
garrison and the undaunted inhabitants, the city yielded to the
superior strength of Napoleon, and proposed terms. After some parley
these were accepted, but under the circumstances the Emperor felt that
mildness must be seasoned by menace. There were disorders in the
streets, incident to the new occupation by the French, and that fact
he used as a plea to declare the capitulation null and the Spanish
officers prisoners of war. Their men had escaped the day before.
The military operations of the campaign were of course not yet ended,
for Moore had not appeared in the valley of the Tagus, marching, as it
was believed he would, toward Madrid. The first task was to find him.
The different corps were sent out in all directions, but it was not
until the middle of the month that the British position was even
approximately ascertained. Napoleon was surprised by what he learned,
and concluded that the English were about to abandon Portugal in order
to secure Ferrol as a base of supplies. His first impulse was to
march out himself and prevent such a disaster; on the twentieth half
of his army set forth from Madrid, and on the twenty-second he led
them through the snows of the Guadarrama.
Meanwhile Moore had made his decision. It was to attract the attention
of the French, draw them toward him, and then slowly retreat
northward, thus leaving Andalusia free from interference, and giving
the southern Spaniards time to organize once more and equip themselves
for a second Baylen. To this end he prepared on the twenty-third to
attack Soult, but, learning of Napoleon's rapid advance, he promptly
changed his plan and began his retreat; three days later he led his
troops safely across the Esla. Then began a famous chase. The Emperor
hurried forward, marching on foot through cold and snow to encourage
his tired men. He was eager to strike a blow at his enemy's rear
before they should get too far away, and Soult was urged onward to
Mansilla, to flank the retreating column. On the twenty-ninth the
French cavalry reached the Esla and were driven back by the English
rear-guard, while Moore stopped only long enough to destroy the
magazines at Benevento, and then hurried on to Astorga.
For two days longer the retreat continued. Moore, after many
successful skirmishes, reached Corunna, where he hoped to embark.
Soult crossed the Esla at last, and on New Year's day, 1809, the
Emperor found himself at Astorga. He believed there was an English
fleet at Ferrol; the weather was bitter, and his health was
jeopardized by the severity of the cold; moreover, disquieting letters
arrived, and he determined that this game was not worth the candle.
Soult was intrusted with the pursuit, Ney was stationed at Astorga as
a reserve, and Napoleon, putting himself at the head of his guards,
set out for Valladolid, which he reached on the sixth. After a rest
of ten days, new and more disquieting despatches made clear the urgent
need for his presence in Paris, though his task in Spain was far from
ended. On January twenty-third he reached the Tuileries.
The tale of Moore's splendid retreat, of his courage and calmness in
loss and disaster, of his superb control of his men in their
disappointment when Corunna was reached and no fleet was found there,
of his brave fight with Soult on January sixteenth, of the mortal
wound which struck him down in the hour of victory, and of the
self-forgetfulness which enabled him in the agonies of death to make
all necessary arrangements for his men to embark on the belated
ships--all this is a brilliant page of English history, perhaps the
finest record in its entire course of glory won in retreat, of
patience, moderation, and success in the very hour of bitterest
disappointment. It was the spirit and example of Moore which made
possible the victories of Wellington.
The French interests in Spain were left in a most deplorable
condition. The populace of Madrid had received the hero of the age
with coldness, and shut themselves up in their houses to avoid forming
a crowd or creating any enthusiasm in the streets. They would not even
come out to see the gorgeous military parade which was arranged for
their benefit. The gentry and nobility had been alike distant and
cold. It was clear that Spain could neither be wheedled, cajoled, nor
threatened into even passive acquiescence in the new conquest. It was
essential, therefore, that another course should be tried. On December
fourth, Napoleon, in the role of reformer-statesman, pronounced and
issued from Chamartin a series of the most thoroughgoing edicts. All
feudal privileges, all interprovincial customs dues, were swept away;
the Inquisition was abolished, and the number of convents was reduced
to a third. These measures were in themselves most salutary, and
struck at the very root of the upas-tree under the baneful shade of
which Spain had been slowly perishing. But to do good they must be
enforced; there must be a complete military conquest of the country,
and a capable administration.
There was neither. The Spanish army had been defeated, but, severe as
had been its punishment, its power of resistance was not destroyed;
the occupation of the country was also sadly incomplete, and it made
no difference whither French soldiers marched, or what strategic
points they held, some kind of Spanish fighting force, no matter how
irregular, sprang up behind them and on their sides. The complete
military centralization of Prussia had made Jena decisive for the
whole loose-jointed territory of that kingdom; the compact territory
of Spain and the local independence of her peoples made regular
victories utterly fruitless so far as the open country was concerned.
Moreover, Joseph, although he had been driven from his capital, and
had enjoyed neither power nor consequence except as the general of
Napoleon's armies, now asserted that he, and not his brother, was the
king of Spain. He was angry and hurt by the Emperor's assumption of
superior sovereignty. He was the one, he felt, who could best deal
with the Spaniards, win their affection, and consolidate his power. To
be shouldered off his throne, and compelled to stand by while such
radical measures were taken, embittered him. Shame, he said, covered
his face before his pretended subjects; he renounced all rights to the
throne, preferring honor and honesty to power so dearly bought. This
angered Napoleon, and he threatened to divide the land into military
provinces; but, like his gentler brother, he himself recoiled before
the utter annihilation of a nationality so ancient and dignified as
that of Spain.
As the price for the evacuation of Madrid, the people of the capital
swore to accept Joseph once more as their king. Similar oaths of
allegiance came from all the provinces occupied by the French.
Although these oaths were not considered binding by those who took
them, inasmuch as they held themselves to be acting under compulsion,
yet at least the shadow of Joseph's monarchy reappeared under the
imperial protection, and a so-called liberal constitution, modeled on
that of France, was given to the people as a boon. "It depends on
yourselves," was the Emperor's language, "to make this charter yours.
If all my endeavors prove vain, and you do not justify my confidence,
then I have nothing left but to treat you as a conquered province, and
create another throne for my brother. In that case I shall put the
crown of Spain on my own head, and teach the ill-disposed to respect
it; for God has given me the power and the will to overcome all
obstacles."