_Boundaries and Areas._--Egypt is bounded N. by the Mediterranean, S. by
the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, N.E. by Palestine, E. by the Red Sea, W. by
Tripoli and the Sahara. The western frontier is ill-defined. The
boundary line between Tripoli and Egypt is usually taken to start from a
point in the Gulf of Sollum and to run S. by E. so as to leave the oasis
of Siwa to Egypt. South of Siwa the frontier, according to the Turkish
firman of 1841, bends eastward, approaching the cultivated Nile-land
near Wadi Halfa, i.e. the southern frontier. This southern frontier is
fixed by agreement between Great Britain and Egypt at the 22 deg. N. The
N.E. frontier is an almost direct line drawn from Taba, near the head of
the Gulf of Akaba, the eastern of the two gulfs into which the Red Sea
divides, to the Mediterranean at Rafa in 34 deg. 15' E. The peninsula of
Sinai, geographically part of Asia, is thus included in the Egyptian
dominions. The total area of the country is about 400,000 sq. m., or
more than three times the size of the British Isles. Of this area
14/15ths is desert. Canals, roads, date plantations, &c., cover 1900 sq.
m.; 2850 sq. m. are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes,
lakes, &c. A line corresponding with the 30 deg. N., drawn just S. of
Cairo, divides the country into Lower and Upper Egypt, natural
designations in common use, Lower Egypt being the Delta and Upper Egypt
the Nile valley. By the Arabs Lower Egypt is called Er-Rif, the
cultivated or fertile; Upper Egypt Es Sa'id, the happy or fortunate.
Another division of the country is into Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt,
Middle Egypt in this classification being the district between Cairo and
Assiut.
_General Character._--The distinguishing features of Egypt are the Nile
and the desert. But for the river there would be nothing to
differentiate the country from other parts of the Sahara. The Nile,
however, has transformed the land through which it passes. Piercing the
desert, and at its annual overflow depositing rich sediment brought from
the Abyssinian highlands, the river has created the Delta and the
fertile strip in Upper Egypt. This cultivable land is Egypt proper; to
it alone is applicable the ancient name--"the black land." The _Misr_ of
the Arabs is restricted to the same territory. Beyond the Nile valley
east and west stretch great deserts, containing here and there fertile
oases. The general appearance of the country is remarkably uniform. The
Delta is a level plain, richly cultivated, and varied alone by the lofty
dark-brown mounds of ancient cities, and the villages set in groves of
palm-trees, standing on mounds often, if not always, ancient. Groves of
palm-trees are occasionally seen besides those around the villages, but
other trees are rare. In Upper Egypt the Nile valley is very narrow and
is bounded by mountains of no great height. They form the edge of the
desert on either side of the valley, of which the bottom is level rock.
The mountains rarely take the form of peaks. Sometimes they approach the
river in bold promontories, and at others are divided by the dry beds of
ancient watercourses. The bright green of the fields, the reddish-brown
or dull green of the great river, contrasting with the bare yellow
rocks, seen beneath a brilliant sun and a deep-blue sky, present views
of great beauty. In form the landscape varies little and is not
remarkable; in colour its qualities are always splendid, and under a
general uniformity show a continual variety.
_The Coast Region._--Egypt has a coast-line of over 600 m. on the
Mediterranean and about 1200 m. on the Red Sea. The Mediterranean
coast extends from the Gulf of Sollum on the west to Rafa on the east.
From the gulf to the beginning of the Delta the coast is rock-bound,
but slightly indented, and possesses no good harbourage. The cliffs
attain in places a height of 1000 ft. They are the termination of a
stony plateau, containing several small oases, which southward joins
the more arid and uninhabitable wastes of the Libyan Desert. The Delta
coast-line, composed of sandhills and, occasionally, limestone rocks,
is low, with cape-like projections at the Nile mouths formed by the
river silt. Two bays are thus formed, the western being the famous Bay
of Aboukir. It is bounded W. by a point near the ancient Canopic
mouth, eastward by the Rosetta mouth. Beyond the Delta eastward the
coast is again barren and without harbours. It rises gradually
southward, merging into the plateau of the Sinai peninsula. The Red
Sea coast is everywhere mountainous. The mountains are the northern
continuation of the Abyssinian table-land, and some of the peaks are
over 6000 ft. above the sea. The highest peaks, going from north to
south, are Jebels Gharib, Dukhan, Es Shayib, Fatira, Abu Tiur, Zubara
and Hammada (Hamata). The coast has a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. trend,
and, save for the two gulfs into which it is divided by the massif of
Sinai, is not deeply indented. Where the frontier between Egypt and
the Sudan reaches the sea is Ras Elba (see further RED SEA).
_The Nile Valley_ (see also NILE).--Entering Egypt proper, a little
north of the Second Cataract, the Nile flows through a valley in
sandstone beds of Cretaceous age as far as 25 deg. N., and throughout
this part of its course the valley is extremely narrow, rarely
exceeding 2 m. in width. At two points, namely, Kalabsha--the valley
here being only 170 yds. wide and the river over 100 ft. deep--and
Assuan (First Cataract), the course of the river is interrupted by
outcrops of granites and other crystalline rocks, which have been
uncovered by the erosion of the overlying sandstone, and to-day form
the mass of islands, with numerous small rapids, which are described
not very accurately as cataracts; no good evidence exists in support
of the view that they are the remains of a massive barrier, broken
down and carried away by some sudden convulsion. From 25 deg. N.
northwards for 518 m. the valley is of the "rift-valley" type, a level
depression in a limestone plateau, enclosed usually by steep cliffs,
except where the tributary valleys drained into the main valley in
early times, when there was a larger rainfall, and now carry off the
occasional rainstorms that burst on the desert. The cliffs are highest
between Esna and Kena, where they reach 1800 ft. above sea-level. The
average width of the cultivated land is about 10 m., of which the
greater part lies on the left (western) bank of the river; and outside
this is a belt, varying from a few hundred yards to 3 or 4 m., of
stony and sandy ground, reaching up to the foot of the limestone
cliffs, which rise in places to as much as 1000 ft. above the valley.
This continues as far as 29 deg. N., after which the hills that close
in the valley become lower, and the higher plateaus lie at a distance
of 10 or 15 m. back in the desert.
_The Fayum._--The fertile province of the Fayum, west of the Nile and
separated from it by some 6 m. of desert, seems to owe its existence
to movements similar to those which determined the valley itself.
Lying in a basin sloping in a series of terraces from an altitude of
65 ft. above sea-level in the east to about 140 ft. _below_ sea-level
on the north-west, at the margin of the Birket-el-Kerun, this province
is wholly irrigated by a canalized channel, the Bahr Yusuf, which,
leaving the Nile at Derut esh Sherif in Upper Egypt, follows the
western margin of the cultivation in the Nile valley, and at length
enters the Fayum through a gap in the desert hills by the XIIth
Dynasty pyramids of Lahun and Hawara (see FAYUM).
_The Delta._--About 30 deg. N., where the city of Cairo stands, the
hills which have hitherto run parallel with the Nile turn W.N.W. and
E.N.E., and the triangular area between them is wholly deltaic. The
Delta measures 100 m. from S. to N., having a width of 155 m. on the
shore of the Mediterranean between Alexandria on the west and Port
Said on the east. The low sandy shore of the Delta, slowly increasing
by the annual deposit of silt by the river, is mostly a barren area of
sand-hills and salty waste land. This is the region of the lagoons and
marshes immediately behind the coast-line. Southwards the quality of
the soil rapidly improves, and becomes the most fertile part of Egypt.
This area is watered by the Damietta and the Rosetta branches of the
Nile, and by a network of canals. The soil of the Delta is a dark grey
fine sandy soil, becoming at times almost a stiff clay by reason of
the fineness of its particles, which consist almost wholly of
extremely small grains of quartz with a few other minerals, and often
numerous flakes of mica. This deposit varies in thickness, as a rule,
from 55 to 70 ft., at which depth it is underlain by a series of
coarse and fine yellow quartz sands, with occasional pebbles, or even
banks of gravel, while here and there thin beds of clay occur. These
sand-beds are sharply distinguished by their colour from the overlying
Nile deposit, and are of considerable thickness. A boring made in 1886
for the Royal Society at Zagazig attained a depth of 375 ft. without
reaching rock, and another, subsequently sunk near Lake Aboukir (close
to Alexandria), reached a depth of 405 ft. with the same result.
Numerous other borings to depths of 100 to 200 ft. have given similar
results, showing the Nile deposit to rest generally on these yellow
sands, which provide a constant though not a very large supply of good
water; near the northern limits of the Delta this cannot, however, be
depended on, since the well water at these depths has proved on
several occasions to be salt. The surface of the Delta is a wide
alluvial plain sloping gently towards the sea, and having an altitude
of 29 ft. above it at its southern extremity. Its limits east and west
are determined by the higher ground of the deserts, to which the
silt-laden waters of the Nile in flood time cannot reach. This silt
consists largely of alumina (about 48%) and calcium carbonate (18%)
with smaller quantities of silica, oxide of iron and carbon. Although
the Nile water is abundantly charged with alluvium, the annual deposit
by the river, except under extraordinary circumstances, is smaller
than might be supposed. The mean ordinary rate of the increase of the
soil of Egypt is calculated as about 4-1/2 in. in a century.
_The Lakes._--The lagoons or lakes of the Delta, going from west to
east, are Mareotis (Mariut), Edku, Burlus and Menzala. The land
separating them from the Mediterranean is nowhere more than 10 m.
wide. East of the Damietta mouth of the Nile this strip is in places
not more than 200 yds. broad. All the lakes are shallow and the water
in them salt or brackish. Mareotis, which bounds Alexandria on the
south side, varies considerably in area according to the rise or fall
of the Nile; when the Nile is low there is a wide expanse of marsh,
when at its highest the lake covers about 100 sq. m. In ancient times
Mareotis was navigable and was joined by various canals to the Nile.
The country around was cultivated and produced the famous Mareotic
wine. The canals being neglected, the lake decreased in size, though
it was still of considerable area in the 15th and 16th centuries, and
was then noted for the value of its fisheries. When the French army
occupied Egypt in 1798, Mareotis was found to be largely a sandy
plain. In April 1801 the British army besieging Alexandria cut through
the land between Aboukir and the lake, admitting the waters of the sea
into the ancient bed of Mareotis and laying under water a large area
then in cultivation. This precedent was twice imitated, first by the
Turks in 1803 and a second time by the British in 1807. Mareotis has
no outlet, and the water is kept at a uniform level by means of
powerful pumps which neutralize the effect of the Nile flood. A
western arm has been cut off from the lake by a dyke, and in this arm
a thick crust of salt is formed each year after the evaporation of the
flood water. Near the shores of the lake wild flowers grow in rich
profusion. Like all the Delta lakes, Mareotis abounds in wild-fowl.
North-east of Mareotis was Lake Aboukir, a small sheet of water, now
dry, lying S.W. of Aboukir Bay. East of this reclaimed marsh and
reaching to within 4 m. of the Rosetta branch of the Nile, lies Edku,
22 m. long and in places 16 wide, with an opening, supposed to be the
ancient Canopic mouth of the Nile, into Aboukir Bay. Burlus begins a
little eastward of the Rosetta channel, and stretches bow-shaped for
64 m. Its greatest width is about 16 m. Adjoining it S.E. is an
expanse of sandy marsh. Several canals or canalized channels enter the
lake. Opposite the spot where the Bahr-mit Yezir enters is an opening
into the Mediterranean. Canal and opening indicate the course of the
ancient Sebennytic branch of the Nile. Burlus is noted for its
water-melons, which are yellow within and come into season after those
grown on the banks of the Nile.
Menzala greatly exceeds the other Delta lakes in size, covering over
780 sq. m. It extends from very near the Damietta branch of the Nile
to Port Said. It receives the waters of the canalized channels which
were once the Tanitic, Mendesian and Pelusiac branches. The northern
shore is separated from the sea by an extremely narrow strip of land,
across which, when the Mediterranean is stormy and the lake full, the
waters meet. Its average length is about 40 m., and its average
breadth about 15. The depth is greater than that of the other lakes,
and the water is salt, though mixed with fresh. It contains a large
number of islands, and the whole lake abounds in reeds of various
kinds. Of the islands Tennis (anciently Tennesus) contains ruins of
the Roman period. The lake supports a considerable population of
fishermen, who dwell in villages on the shore and islands and live
upon the fish of the lake. The reeds are cover for waterfowl of
various kinds, which the traveller sees in great numbers, and wild
boars are found in the marshes to the south. The Suez Canal runs in a
straight line for 20 m. along the eastern edge of the lake. That part
of the lake east of where the canal was excavated is now marshy plain,
and the Tanitic and Pelusiac mouths of the Nile are dry. East of
Menzala is the site of Serbonis, another dried-up lake, which had the
general characteristics of the Delta lagoons. In the Isthmus of Suez
are Lake Timsa and the Great and Little Bitter Lakes, occupying part
of the ancient bed of the Red Sea. All three were dry or marshy
depressions previously to the cutting of the Suez Canal, at which time
the waters of the Mediterranean and Red Sea were let into them (see
SUEZ CANAL).
A chain of natron lakes (seven in number) lies in a valley in the
western desert, 70 to 90 m. W.N.W. of Cairo. In the Fayum province
farther south is the Birket-el-Kerun, a lake, lying below the level of
the Nile, some 30 m. long and 5 wide at its broadest part. Kerun is
all that is left of the Lake of Moeris, an ancient artificial sheet of
water which played an important part in the irrigation schemes of the
Pharaohs. The water of el-Kerun is brackish, though derived from the
Nile, which has at all seasons a much higher level. It is bounded on
the north by the Libyan Desert, above which rises a bold range of
mountains; and it has a strange and picturesque wildness. Near the
lake are several sites of ancient towns, and the temple called
Kasr-Karun, dating from Roman times, distinguishes the most important
of these. South-west of the Fayum is the Wadi Rayan, a large and deep
depression, utilizable in modern schemes for re-creating the Lake of
Moeris (q.v.).
[Illustration: Nile Delta.]
_The Desert Plateaus._--From the southern borders of Egypt to the
Delta in the north, the desert plateaus extend on either side of the
Nile valley. The eastern region, between the Nile and the Red Sea,
varies in width from 90 to 350 m. and is known in its northern part as
the Arabian Desert. The western region has no natural barrier for many
hundreds of miles; it is part of the vast Sahara. On its eastern edge,
a few miles west of Cairo, stand the great pyramids (q.v.) of Gizeh or
Giza. North of Assuan it is called the Libyan Desert. In the north the
desert plateaus are comparatively low, but from Cairo southwards they
rise to 1000 and even 1500 ft. above sea-level. Formed mostly of
horizontal strata of varying hardness, they present a series of
terraces of minor plateaus, rising one above the other, and
intersected by small ravines worn by the occasional rainstorms which
burst in their neighbourhood. The weathering of this desert area is
probably fairly rapid, and the agents at work are principally the
rapid heating and cooling of the rocks by day and night, and the
erosive action of sand-laden wind on the softer layers; these, aided
by the occasional rain, are ceaselessly at work, and produce the
successive plateaus, dotted with small isolated hills and cut up by
valleys (wadis) which occasionally become deep ravines, thus forming
the principal type of scenery of these deserts. From this it will be
seen that the desert in Egypt is mainly a rock desert, where the
surface is formed of disintegrated rock, the finer particles of which
have been carried away by the wind; and east of the Nile this is
almost exclusively the case. Here the desert meets the line of
mountains which runs parallel to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez. In
the western desert, however, those large sand accumulations which are
usually associated with a desert are met with. They occur as lines of
dunes formed of rounded grains of quartz, and lie in the direction of
the prevalent wind, usually being of small breadth as compared with
their length; but in certain areas, such as that lying S.W. and W. of
the oases of Farafra and Dakhla, these lines of dunes, lying parallel
to each other and about half a mile apart, cover immense areas,
rendering them absolutely impassable except in a direction parallel
to the lines themselves. East of the oases of Baharia and Farafra is a
very striking line of these sand dunes; rarely more than 3 miles wide,
it extends almost continuously from Moghara in the north, passing
along the west side of Kharga Oasis to a point near the Nile in the
neighbourhood of Abu Simbel--having thus a length of nearly 550 m. In
the northern part of this desert the dunes lie about N.W.-S.E., but
farther south incline more towards the meridian, becoming at last very
nearly north and south.
_Oases._--In the western desert lie the five large oases of Egypt,
namely, Siwa, Baharia, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga or Great Oasis,
occupying depressions in the plateau or, in the case of the last
three, large indentations in the face of limestone escarpments which
form the western versant of the Nile valley hills. Their fertility is
due to a plentiful supply of water furnished by a sandstone bed 300 to
500 ft. below the surface, whence the water rises through natural
fissures or artificial boreholes to the surface, and sometimes to
several feet above it. These oases were known and occupied by the
Egyptians as early as 1600 B.C., and Kharga (q.v.) rose to special
importance at the time of the Persian occupation. Here, near the town
of Kharga, the ancient Hebi, is a temple of Ammon built by Darius I.,
and in the same oasis are other ruins of the period of the Ptolemies
and Caesars. The oasis of Siwa (Jupiter Ammon) is about 150 m. S. of
the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Sollum and about 300 m. W. of the
Nile (see SIWA). The other four oases lie parallel to and distant 100
to 150 m. from the Nile, between 25 deg. and 29 deg. N., Baharia being
the most northerly and Kharga the most southerly.
Besides the oases the desert is remarkable for two other valleys. The
first is that of the natron lakes already mentioned. It contains four
monasteries, the remains of the famous anchorite settlement of
Nitriae. South of the Wadi Natron, and parallel to it, is a sterile
valley called the Bahr-bela-Ma, or "River without Water."
_The Sinai Peninsula._--The triangular-shaped Sinai peninsula has its
base on the Mediterranean, the northern part being an arid plateau,
the desert of Tih. The apex is occupied by a massif of crystalline
rocks. The principal peaks rise over 8500 ft. Owing to the slight
rainfall, and the rapid weathering of the rocks by the great range of
temperature, these hills rise steeply from the valleys at their feet
as almost bare rock, supporting hardly any vegetation. In some of the
valleys wells or rock-pools filled by rain occur, and furnish
drinking-water to the few Arabs who wander in these hills (see also
SINAI).
[_Geology._--Just as the Nile valley forms the chief geographical
feature of Egypt, so the geology of the country is intimately related
to it. The north and south direction of the river has been largely
determined by faults, though the geologists of the Egyptian Survey are
finding that the influence of faulting in determining physical outline
has, in some cases, been overestimated. The oldest rocks, consisting
of crystalline schists with numerous intrusions of granite, porphyry
and diorite, occupy the eastern portion of the country between the
Nile south of Assuan and the Red Sea. The intrusive rocks predominate
over the schists in extent of area covered. They furnished the chief
material for the ancient monuments. At Assuan (Syene) the well-known
syenite of Werner occurs. It is, however, a hornblende granite and
does not possess the mineralogical composition of the syenites of
modern petrology. Between Thebes and Khartum the western banks of the
Nile are composed of Nubian Sandstone, which extends westward from the
river to the edge of the great Libyan Desert, where it forms the bed
rock. The age of this sandstone has given rise to much dispute. The
upper part certainly belongs to the Cretaceous formation; the lower
part has been considered to be of Karroo age by some geologists, while
others regard the whole formation to be of Cretaceous age. In the
Kharga Oasis the upper portion consists of variously coloured
unfossiliferous clays with intercalated bands of sandstone containing
fossil silicified woods (_Nicolia Aegyptiaca_ and _Araucarioxylon
Aegypticum_). They are conformably overlain by clays and limestones
with _Exogyra Overwegi_ belonging to the Lower Danian, and these by
clays and white chalk with _Ananchytes ovata_ of the Upper Danian. In
many instances the Tertiary formation, which occurs between Esna and
Cairo, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous, the Lower Eocene being
absent. The fluvio-marine deposits of the Upper Eocene and Oligocene
formations contain an interesting mammalian fauna, proving that the
African continent formed a centre of radiation for the mammalia in
early Tertiary times. _Arsinoitherium_ is the precursor of the horned
Ungulata; while _Moeritherium_ and _Palaeomastodon_ undoubtedly
include the oldest known elephants. Miocene strata are absent in the
southern Tertiary areas, but are present at Moghara and in the north.
Marine Pliocene strata occur to the south of the pyramids of Giza and
in the Fayum province, where, in addition, some gravel terraces, at a
height of 500 ft. above sea-level, are attributed to the Pliocene
period. The Lake of Moeris, as a large body of fresh water, appears to
have come into existence in Pleistocene times. It is represented now
by the brackish-water lake of the Birket-el-Kerun. The superficial
sands of the deserts and the Nile mud form the chief recent
formations. The Nile deposits its mud over the valley before reaching
the sea, and consequently the Delta receives little additional
material. At Memphis the alluvial deposits are over 50 ft. thick. The
superficial sands of the desert region, derived in large part from the
disintegration of the Nubian Sandstone, occupy the most extensive
areas in the Libyan Desert. The other desert regions of Egypt are
elevated stony plateaus, which are diversified by extensively
excavated valleys and oases, and in which sand frequently plays quite
a subordinate part. These regions present magnificent examples of dry
erosion by wind-borne sand, which acts as a powerful sand blast
etching away the rocks and producing most beautiful sculpturing. The
rate of denudation in exposed positions is exceedingly rapid; while
spots sheltered from the sand blast suffer a minimum of erosion, as
shown by the preservation of ancient inscriptions. Many of the
Egyptian rocks in the desert areas and at the cataracts are coated
with a highly polished film, of almost microscopic thinness,
consisting chiefly of oxides of iron and manganese with salts of
magnesia and lime. It is supposed to be due to a chemical change
within the rock and not to deposition on the surface.]
_Minerals._--Egypt possesses considerable mineral wealth. In ancient
times gold and precious stones were mined in the Red Sea hills. During
the Moslem period mining was abandoned, and it was not until the
beginning of the 20th century that renewed efforts were made to
develop the mining industry. The salt obtained from Lake Mareotis at
Meks, a western suburb of Alexandria, supplies the salt needed for the
country, except a small quantity used for curing fish at Lake Menzala;
while the lakes in the Wadi Natron, 45 m. N.W. of the pyramids of
Giza, furnish carbonate of soda in large quantities. Alum is found in
the western oases. Nitrates and phosphates are also found in various
parts of the desert and are used as manures. The turquoise mines of
Sinai, in the Wadi Maghara, are worked regularly by the Arabs of the
peninsula, who sell the stones in Suez; while there are emerald mines
at Jebel Zubara, south of Kosseir. Petroleum occurs at Jebel Zeit, on
the west shore of the Gulf of Suez. Considerable veins of haematite of
good quality occur both in the Red Sea hills and in Sinai. At Jebel
ed-Dukhan are porphyry quarries, extensively worked under the Romans,
and at Jebel el-Fatira are granite quarries. At El-Hammamat, on the
old way from Coptos to Philoteras Portus, are the breccia verde
quarries, worked from very early times, and having interesting
hieroglyphic inscriptions. At the various mines, and on the routes to
them and to the Red Sea, are some small temples and stations, ranging
from the Pharaonic to the Roman period. The quarries of Syene (Assuan)
are famous for extremely hard and durable red granite (syenite), and
have been worked since the days of the earliest Pharaohs. Large
quantities of this syenite were used in building the Assuan dam
(1898-1902). The cliffs bordering the Nile are largely quarried for
limestone and sandstone.
Gold-mining recommenced in 1905 at Um Rus, a short distance inland
from the Red Sea and some 50 m. S. of Kosseir, where milling
operations were started in March of that year. Another mine opened in
1905 was that of Um Garaiat, E.N.E. of Korosko, and 65 m. distant from
the Nile.
_Climate._--Part of Upper Egypt is within the tropics, but the greater
part of the country is north of the Tropic of Cancer. Except a narrow
belt on the north along the Mediterranean shore, Egypt lies in an
almost rainless area, where the temperature is high by day and sinks
quickly at night in consequence of the rapid radiation under the
cloudless sky. The mean temperature at Alexandria and Port Said varies
between 57 deg. F. in January and 81 deg. F. in July; while at Cairo,
where the proximity of the desert begins to be felt, it is 53 deg. F.
in January, rising to 84 deg. F. in July. January is the coldest
month, when occasionally in the Nile valley, and more frequently in
the open desert, the temperature sinks to 32 deg. F., or even a degree
or two below. The mean maximum temperatures are 99 deg. F. for
Alexandria and 110 deg. F. for Cairo. Farther south the range of
temperature becomes greater as pure desert conditions are reached.
Thus at Assuan the mean maximum is 118 deg. F., the mean minimum 42
deg. F. At Wadi Halfa the figures in each case are one degree lower.
The relative humidity varies greatly. At Assuan the mean value for the
year is only 38%, that for the summer being 29%, and for the winter
51%; while for Wadi Halfa the mean is 32%, and 20% and 42% are the
mean values for summer and winter respectively. A white fog, dense and
cold, sometimes rises from the Nile in the morning, but it is of short
duration and rare occurrence. In Alexandria and on all the
Mediterranean coast of Egypt rain falls abundantly in the winter
months, amounting to 8 in. in the year; but southwards it rapidly
decreases, and south of 31 deg. N. little rain falls.
Records at Cairo show that the rainfall is very irregular, and is
furnished by occasional storms rather than by any regular rainy
season; still, most falls in the winter months, especially December
and January, while, on the other hand, none has been recorded in June
and July. The average annual rainfall does not exceed 1.50 in. In the
open desert rain falls even more rarely, but it is by no means
unknown, and from time to time heavy storms burst, causing sudden
floods in the narrow ravines, and drowning both men and animals. These
are more common in the mountainous region of the Sinai peninsula,
where they are much dreaded by the Arabs. Snow is unknown in the Nile
valley, but on the mountains of Sinai and the Red Sea hills it is not
uncommon, and a temperature of 18 deg. F. at an altitude of 2000 ft.
has been recorded in January.
The atmospheric pressure varies between a maximum in January and a
minimum in July, the mean difference being about 0.29 in. In a series
of records extending over 14 years the mean pressure varied between
29.84 and 29.90 in.
The most striking meteorological factor in Egypt is the persistence of
the north wind throughout the year, without which the climate would be
very trying. It is this "Etesian" wind which enables sailing boats
constantly to ascend the Nile, against its strong and rapid current.
In December, January and February, at Cairo, the north wind slightly
predominates, though those from the south and west often nearly equal
it, but after this the north blows almost continuously for the rest of
the year. In May and June the prevailing direction is north and
north-north-east, and for July, August, September and October north
and north-west. From the few observations that exist, it seems that
farther south the southern winter winds decrease rapidly, becoming
westerly, until at Assuan and Wadi Haifa the northerly winds are
almost invariable throughout the year. The _khamsin_, hot sand-laden
winds of the spring months, come invariably from the south. They are
preceded by a rapid fall of the barometer for about a day, until a
gradient from south to north is formed, then the wind commences to
blow, at first gently, from the south-east; rapidly increasing in
violence, it shifts through south to south-west, finally dropping
about sunset. The same thing is repeated on the second and sometimes
the third day, by which time the wind has worked round to the north
again. During a khamsin the temperature is high and the air extremely
dry, while the dust and sand carried by the wind form a thick yellow
fog obscuring the sun. Another remarkable phenomenon is the _zobaa_, a
lofty whirlwind of sand resembling a pillar, which moves with great
velocity. The southern winds of the summer months which occur in the
low latitudes north of the equator are not felt much north of Khartum.
One of the most interesting phenomena of Egypt is the mirage, which is
frequently seen both in the desert and in the waste tracts of
uncultivated land near the Mediterranean; and it is often so truthful
in its appearance that one finds it difficult to admit the illusion.
_Flora._--Egypt possesses neither forests nor woods and, as
practically the whole of the country which will support vegetation is
devoted to agriculture, the flora is limited. The most important tree
is the date-palm, which grows all over Egypt and in the oases. The
lower branches being regularly cut, this tree grows high and assumes a
much more elegant form than in its natural state. The dom-palm is
first seen a little north of 26 deg. N., and extends southwards. The
vine grows well, and in ancient times was largely cultivated for wine;
oranges, lemons and pomegranates also abound. Mulberry trees are
common in Lower Egypt. The sunt tree (_Acacia nilotica_) grows
everywhere, as well as the tamarisk and the sycamore. In the deserts
halfa grass and several kinds of thorn bushes grow; and wherever rain
or springs have moistened the ground, numerous wild flowers thrive.
This is especially the case where there is also shade to protect them
from the midday sun, as in some of the narrow ravines in the eastern
desert and in the palm groves of the oases, where various ferns and
flowers grow luxuriantly round the springs. Among many trees which
have been imported, the "lebbek" (_Albizzia lebbek_), a thick-foliaged
mimosa, thrives especially, and has been very largely employed. The
weeping-willow, myrtle, elm, cypress and eucalyptus are also used in
the gardens and plantations.
The most common of the fruits are dates, of which there are nearly
thirty varieties, which are sold half-ripe, ripe, dried, and pressed
in their fresh moist state in mats or skins. The pressed dates of Siwa
are among the most esteemed. The Fayum is celebrated for its grapes,
and chiefly supplies the market of Cairo. The most common grape is
white, of which there is a small kind far superior to the ordinary
sort. The black grapes are large, but comparatively tasteless. The
vines are trailed on trelliswork, and form agreeable avenues in the
gardens of Cairo. The best-known fruits, besides dates and grapes, are
figs, sycamore-figs and pomegranates, apricots and peaches, oranges
and citrons, lemons and limes, bananas, which are believed to be of
the fruits of Paradise (being always in season), different kinds of
melons (including some of aromatic flavour, and the refreshing
water-melon), mulberries, Indian figs or prickly pears, the fruit of
the lotus and olives. Among the more usual cultivated flowers are the
rose (which has ever been a favourite among the Arabs), the jasmine,
narcissus, lily, oleander, chrysanthemum, convolvulus, geranium,
dahlia, basil, the henna plant (_Lawsonia alba_, or Egyptian privet,
which is said to be a flower of Paradise), the helianthus and the
violet. Of wild flowers the most common are yellow daisies, poppies,
irises, asphodels and ranunculuses. The _Poinsettia pulcherrima_ is a
bushy tree with leaves of brilliant red.
Many kinds of reeds are found in Egypt, though they were formerly much
more common. The famous byblus or papyrus no longer exists in the
country, but other kinds of _cyperi_ are found. The lotus, greatly
prized for its flowers by the ancient inhabitants, is still found in
the Delta, though never in the Nile itself. There are two varieties of
this water-lily, one with white flowers, the other with blue.
_Fauna._--The chief quadrupeds are all domestic animals. Of these the
camel and the ass are the most common. The ass, often a tall and
handsome creature, is indigenous. When the camel was first introduced
into Egypt is uncertain--it is not pictured on the ancient monuments.
Neither is the buffalo, which with the sheep is very numerous in
Egypt. The horses are of indifferent breed, apparently of a type much
inferior to that possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Wild animals are
few. The principal are the hyena, jackal and fox. The wild boar is
found in the Delta. Wolves are rare. Numerous gazelles inhabit the
deserts. The ibex is found in the Sinaitic peninsula and the hills
between the Nile and the Red Sea, and the mouflon, or maned sheep, is
occasionally seen in the same regions. The desert hare is abundant in
parts of the Fayum, and a wild cat, or lynx, frequents the marshy
regions of the Delta. The ichneumon (Pharaoh's rat) is common and
often tame; the coney and jerboa are found in the eastern mountains.
Bats are very numerous. The crocodile is no longer found in Egypt, nor
the hippopotamus, in ancient days a frequenter of the Nile. The common
or pariah dog is generally of sandy colour; in Upper Egypt there is a
breed of wiry rough-haired black dogs, noted for their fierceness.
Among reptiles are several kinds of venomous snakes--the horned viper,
the hooded snake and the echis. Lizards of many kinds are found,
including the monitor. There are many varieties of beetle, including a
number of species representing the scarabaeus of the ancients. Locusts
are comparatively rare. The scorpion, whose sting is sometimes fatal,
is common. There are many large and poisonous spiders and flies; fleas
and mosquitoes abound. Fish are plentiful in the Nile, both scaled and
without scales. The scaly fish include members of the carp and perch
kind. The _bayad_, a scaleless fish commonly eaten, reaches sometimes
3-1/2 ft. in length. A somewhat rare fish is the _Polypterus_, which
has thick bony scales and 16 to 18 long dorsal fins. The _Tetrodon_,
or ball fish, is found in the Red Sea, as well as in the Nile.
Some 300 species of birds are found in Egypt, and one of the most
striking features of a journey up the Nile is the abundance of bird
life. Many of the species are sedentary, others are winter visitants,
while others again simply pass through Egypt on their way to or from
warmer or colder regions. Birds of prey are very numerous, including
several varieties of eagles--the osprey, the spotted, the golden and
the imperial. Of vultures the black and white Egyptian variety
(_Neophron percnopterus_) is most common. The griffon and the black
vulture are also frequently seen. There are many kinds of kites,
falcons and hawks, kestrel being numerous. The long-legged buzzard is
found throughout Egypt, as are owls. The so-called Egyptian eagle owl
(_Bubo ascalaphus_) is rather rare, but the barn owl is common. The
kingfisher is found beside every watercourse, a black and white
species (_Ceryle rudis_) being much more numerous than the common
kingfisher. Pigeons and hoopoes abound in every village. There are
various kinds of plovers--the black-headed species (_Pluvianus
Aegyptius_) is most numerous in Upper Egypt; the golden plover and the
white-tailed species are found chiefly in the Delta. The spurwing is
supposed to be the bird mentioned by Herodotus as eating the parasites
covering the inside of the mouth of the crocodile. Of game-birds the
most plentiful are sandgrouse, quail (a bird of passage) and snipe.
Red-legged and other partridges are found in the eastern desert and
the Sinai hills. Of aquatic birds there is a great variety. Three
species of pelican exist, including the large Dalmatian pelican.
Storks, cranes, herons and spoonbills are common. The sacred ibis is
not found in Egypt, but the buff-backed heron, the constant companion
of the buffalo, is usually called an ibis. The glossy ibis is
occasionally seen. The flamingo, common in the lakes of Lower Egypt,
is not found on the Nile. Geese, duck and teal are abundant. The most
common goose is the white-fronted variety; the Egyptian goose is more
rare. Both varieties are depicted on the ancient monuments; the
white-fronted goose being commonly shown. Several birds of gorgeous
plumage come north into Egypt in the spring, among others the golden
oriole, the sun-bird, the roller and the blue-cheeked bee-eater.
_Egypt as a Health Resort._--The country is largely resorted to during
the winter months by Europeans in search of health as well as
pleasure. Upper Egypt is healthier than Lower Egypt, where, especially
near the coast, malarial fevers and diseases of the respiratory organs
are not uncommon. The least healthy time of the year is the latter
part of autumn, when the inundated soil is drying. In the desert, at a
very short distance from the cultivable land, the climate is uniformly
dry and unvaryingly healthy. The most suitable places for the
residence of invalids are Helwan, where there are natural mineral
springs, in the desert, 14 m. S. of Cairo, and Luxor and Assuan in
Upper Egypt.
The diseases from which Egyptians suffer are very largely the result
of insanitary surroundings. In this respect a great improvement has
taken place since the British occupation in 1882. Plague, formerly one
of the great scourges of the country, seems to have been stamped out,
the last visitation having been in 1844, but cholera epidemics
occasionally occur.[2] Cholera rarely extends south of Cairo. In 1848
it is believed that over 200,000 persons died from cholera, but later
epidemics have been much less fatal. Smallpox is not uncommon, and
skin diseases are numerous, but the two most prevalent diseases among
the Egyptians are dysentery and ophthalmia. The objection entertained
by many natives to entering hospitals or to altering their traditional
methods of "cure" renders these diseases much more malignant and fatal
than they would be in other circumstances. The government, however,
enforces certain health regulations, and the sanitary service is under
the direction of a European official.
_Chief Towns._--Cairo (q.v.) the capital, a city of Arab foundation, is
built on the east bank of the Nile, about 12 m, above the point where
the river divides, and in reference to its situation at the head of the
Delta has been called by the Arabs "the diamond stud in the handle of
the fan of Egypt." It has a population (1907) of 654,476 and is the
largest city in Africa. Next in importance of the cities of Egypt and
the chief seaport is Alexandria (q.v.), pop. (with Ramleh) 370,009, on
the shore of the Mediterranean at the western end of the Delta. Port
Said (q.v.), pop. 49,884, at the eastern end of the Delta, and at the
north entrance to the Suez Canal, is the second seaport. Between
Alexandria and Port Said are the towns of Rosetta (q.v.), pop. 16,810,
and Damietta (q.v.), pop. 29,354, each built a few miles above the mouth
of the branch of the Nile of the same name. In the middle ages, when
Alexandria was in decay, these two towns were busy ports; with the
revival of Alexandria under Mehemet Ali and the foundation of Port Said
(c. 1860), their trade declined. The other ports of Egypt are Suez
(q.v.), pop. 18,347, at the south entrance of the canal, Kosseir (794)
on the Red Sea, the seat of the trade carried on between Upper Egypt and
Arabia, Mersa Matruh, near the Tripolitan frontier, and El-Arish, pop.
5897, on the Mediterranean, near the frontier of Palestine, and a
halting-place on the caravan route from Egypt to Syria. In the interior
of the Delta are many flourishing towns, the largest being Tanta, pop.
54,437, which occupies a central position. Damanhur (38,752) lies on the
railway between Tanta and Alexandria; Mansura (40,279) is on the
Damietta branch of the Nile, to the N.E. of Tanta; Zagazig (34,999) is
the largest town in the Delta east of the Damietta branch; Bilbeis
(13,485) lies N.N.E. of Cairo, on the edge of the desert and in the
ancient Land of Goshen. Ismailia (10,373) is situated midway on the Suez
Canal. All these towns, which depend largely on the cotton industry, are
separately noticed.
Other towns in Lower Egypt are: Mehallet el-Kubra, pop. 47,955, 16 m. by
rail N.E. of Tanta, with manufactories of silk and cottons; Salihia
(6100), E.N.E. of and terminus of a railway from Zagazig, on the edge of
the desert south of Lake Menzala, and the starting-point of the caravans
to Syria; Mataria (15,142) on Lake Menzala and headquarters of the
fishing industry; Zifta (15,850) on the Damietta branch and the site of
a barrage; Samanud (14,408), also on the Damietta branch, noted for its
pottery, and Fua (14,515), where large quantities of tarbushes are made,
on the Rosetta branch. Shibin el-Kom (21,576), 16 m. S. of Tanta, is a
cotton centre, and Menuf (22,316), 8 m. S.W. of Shibin, in the fork
between the branches of the Nile, is the chief town of a rich
agricultural district. There are many other towns in the Delta with
populations between 10,000 and 20,000.
In Upper Egypt the chief towns are nearly all in the narrow valley of
the Nile. The exceptions are the towns in the oases comparatively
unimportant, and those in the Fayum province. The capital of the Fayum,
Medinet el-Fayum, has a population (1907) of 37,320. The chief towns on
the Nile, taking them in their order in ascending the river from Cairo,
are Beni Suef, Minia, Assiut, Akhmim, Suhag, Girga, Kena, Luxor, Esna,
Edfu, Assuan and Korosko. Beni Suef (23,357) is 77 m. from Cairo by
rail. It is on the west bank of the river, is the capital of a _mudiria_
and a centre for the manufacture of woollen goods. Minia (27,221) is 77
m. by rail farther south. It is also the capital of a mudiria, has a
considerable European colony, possesses a large sugar factory and some
cotton mills. It is the starting-point of a road to the Baharia oasis.
Assiut (q.v.), pop. 39,442, is 235 m. S. of Cairo by rail, and is the
most important commercial centre in Upper Egypt. At this point a barrage
is built across the river. Suhag (17,514) is 56 m. by rail S. of Assiut
and is the headquarters of Girga mudiria. The ancient and celebrated
Coptic monasteries El Abiad (the white) and El Ahmar (the red) are 3 to
4 m. W. and N.W. respectively of Suhag. A few miles above Suhag, on the
opposite (east) side of the Nile is Akhmim (q.v.) or Ekhmim (23,795),
where silk and cotton goods are made. Girga (q.v.), pop. 19,893, is 22
m. S. by rail of Suhag, and on the same (the west) side of the river. It
is noted for its pottery. Kena (q.v.), pop. 20,069, is on the east bank
of the Nile, 145 m. by rail from Assiut. It is the chief seat of the
manufacture of the porous earthenware water-bottles used all over Egypt.
Luxor (q.v.), pop. (with Karnak) 25,229, marks the site of Thebes. It is
418 m. from Cairo, and here the gauge of the railway is altered from
broad to narrow. Esna (q.v.), pop. 19,103, is another place where
pottery is made in large quantities. It is on the west bank of the Nile,
36 m. by rail S. of Luxor. Edfu (q.v.), pop. 19,262, is also on the west
side of the river, 30 m. farther south. It is chiefly famous for its
ancient temple. Assuan (q.v.), pop. 12,618, is at the foot of the First
Cataract and 551 m. S. of Cairo by rail. Three miles farther south, at
Shellal, the Egyptian railway terminates. Korosko, 118 m. by river above
Assuan, is a small place notable as the northern terminus of the caravan
route from the Sudan across the Nubian desert. Since the building of the
railway--which starts 96 m. higher up, at Wadi Halfa--to Khartum, this
route is little used, and Korosko has lost what importance it had.
_Ancient Cities and Monuments._--Many of the modern cities of Egypt are
built on the sites of ancient cities, and they generally contain some
monuments of the time of the Pharaohs, Greeks or Romans. The sites of
other ancient cities now in complete ruin may be indicated. Memphis, the
Pharaonic capital, was on the west bank of the Nile, some 14 m. above
Cairo, and Heliopolis lay some 5 m. N.N.E. of Cairo. The pyramids of
Giza or Gizeh, on the edge of the desert, 8 m. west of Cairo, are the
largest of the many pyramids and other monuments, including the famous
Sphinx, built in the neighbourhood of Memphis. The site of Thebes has
already been indicated. Syene stood near to where the town of Assuan now
is; opposite, on an island in the Nile, are scanty ruins of the city of
Elephantine, and a little above, on another island, is the temple of
Philae. The ancient Coptos (Keft) is represented by the village of Kuft,
between Luxor and Kena. A few miles north of Kena is Dendera, with a
famous temple. The ruins of Abydos, one of the oldest places in Egypt,
are 8 m. S.W. of Balliana, a small town in Girga mudiria. The ruined
temples of Abu Simbel are on the west side of the Nile, 56 m. above
Korosko. On the Red Sea, south of Kosseir, are the ruins of Myos Hormos
and Berenice. Of the ancient cities in the Delta there are remains,
among others, of Sais, Iseum, Tanis, Bubastis, Onion, Sebennytus,
Pithom, Pelusium, and of the Greek cities Naucratis and Daphnae. There
are, besides the more ancient cities and monuments, a number of Coptic
towns, monasteries and churches in almost every part of Egypt, dating
from the early centuries of Christianity. The monasteries, or _ders_,
are generally fort-like buildings and are often built in the desert.
Tombs of Mahommedan saints are also numerous, and are often placed on
the summit of the cliffs overlooking the Nile. The traveller in Egypt
thus views, side by side with the activities of the present day, where
occident and orient meet and clash, memorials of every race and
civilization which has flourished in the valley of the Nile.
_Trade Routes and Communications._--Its geographical position gives
Egypt command of one of the most important trade routes in the world. It
is, as it were, the fort which commands the way from Europe to the East.
This has been the case from time immemorial, and the provision, in 1869,
of direct maritime communication between the Mediterranean and the Red
Sea, by the completion of the Suez Canal, ensured for the Egyptian route
the supremacy in sea-borne traffic to Asia, which the discovery of the
passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope had menaced for three
and a half centuries. The Suez Canal is 87 m. long, 66 actual canal and
21 lakes. It has sufficient depth to allow vessels drawing 27 ft. of
water to pass through. It is administered by a company whose
headquarters are in Paris, and no part of its revenue reaches the
Egyptian exchequer (see SUEZ CANAL). Besides the many steamship lines
which use the Suez Canal, other steamers run direct from European ports
to Alexandria. There is also a direct mail service between Suez and Port
Sudan.
The chief means of internal communication are, in the Delta the
railways, in Upper Egypt the railway and the river. The railways are
of two kinds: (1) those state-owned and state-worked, (2) agricultural
light railways owned and worked by private companies. Railway
construction dates from 1852, when the line from Alexandria to Cairo
was begun, by order of Abbas I. The state railways, unless otherwise
indicated, have a gauge of 4 ft. 8-1/2 in. The main system is
extremely simple. Trunk lines from Alexandria (via Damanhur and Tanta)
and from Port Said (via Ismailia) traverse the Delta and join at
Cairo. From Cairo the railway is continued south up the valley of the
Nile and close to the river. At first it follows the west bank,
crossing the stream at Nag Hamadi, 354 m. from Cairo, by an iron
bridge 437 yds. long. Thence it continues on the east bank to Luxor,
where the broad gauge ceases. From Luxor the line continues on the
standard African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) to Shellal, 3 m. above Assuan and
685 m. from Alexandria. This main line service is supplemented by a
steamer service on the Nile from Shellal to Wadi Halfa, on the
northern frontier of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence there is direct
railway communication with Khartum and the Red Sea (see SUDAN).
Branch lines connect Cairo and Alexandria with Suez and with almost
every town in the Delta. From Cairo to Suez via Ismailia is a distance
of 160 m. Before the Suez Canal was opened passengers and goods were
taken to Suez from Cairo by a railway 84 m. long which ran across the
desert. This line, now disused, had itself superseded the "overland
route" organized by Lieut. Thomas Waghorn, R.N., c. 1830, for the
conveyance of passengers and mails to India. In Upper Egypt a line, 40
m. long, runs west from Wasta, a station 56 m. S. of Cairo, to Abuksa
in the Fayum mudiria. Another railway goes from Kharga Junction, a
station on the main line 24 m. S. of Girga, to the oasis of Kharga.
These lines are privately owned.
In the Delta the light railways supplement the ordinary lines and
connect the villages with the towns and seaports. There are over 700
m. of these lines. The railway development of Egypt has not been very
rapid. In 1880 944 m. of state lines were open; in 1900 the figure was
1393, and in 1905, 1688. For several years before 1904 the
administration of the railways was carried on by an international or
mixed board for the security of foreign creditors. In the year named
the railways came directly under the control of the Egyptian
government, which during the next four years spent LE.3,000,000 on
improving and developing the lines. In the five years 1902-1906 the
capital value of the state railways increased from LE.20,383,000 to
LE.23,200,000 and the net earnings from LE.1,059,000 to LE. 1,475,000.
The number of passengers carried in the same period rose from 12-1/2
to over 22 millions, and the weight of goods from slightly under
3,000,000 to nearly 6,750,000 tons. In 1906 the light railways carried
nearly a million tons of goods and over 6,800,000 passengers.
Westward from Alexandria a railway, begun in 1904 by the khedive,
Abbas II., runs parallel with the coast, and is intended to be
continued to Tripoli. The line forms the eastern end of the great
railway system which will eventually extend from Tangier to
Alexandria.
The Nile is navigable throughout its course in Egypt, and is largely
used as a means of cheap transit of heavy goods. Lock and bridge tolls
were abolished in 1899 and 1901 respectively. As a result, river
traffic greatly increased. Above Cairo the Nile is the favourite
tourist route, while between Shellal (Assuan) and the Sudan frontier
it is the only means of communication. Among the craft using the river
the dahabiya is a characteristic native sailing vessel, somewhat
resembling a house-boat. From the Nile, caravan routes lead westward
to the various oases and eastward to the Red Sea, the shortest (120
m.) and most used of the eastern routes being that from Kena to
Kosseir. Roads suitable for wheeled vehicles are found in Lower Egypt,
but the majority of the tracks are bridle-paths, goods being conveyed
on the backs of donkeys, mules and camels.
_Posts and Telegraphs._--The Egyptian postal system is highly
organized and efficient, and in striking contrast with its condition
in 1870, when there were but nineteen post-offices in the country. All
the branches of business transacted in European post-offices are
carried on by the Egyptian service, Egypt being a member of the Postal
Union. It was the first foreign country to establish a penny postage
with Great Britain, the reduction from 2-1/2d. being made in 1905. The
inland letters and packages carried yearly exceed 20,000,000 and
foreign letters (30% to England) number over 4,000,000. Over
L17,000,000 passes yearly through the post. A feature of the service
are the travelling post-offices, of which there are some 200.
All the important towns are connected by telegraph, the telegraphs
being state-owned and worked by the railway administration. Egypt is
also connected by cables and land-lines with the outside world. One
land-line connects at El-Arish with the line through Syria and Asia
Minor to Constantinople. Another line connects at Wadi Halfa with the
Sudan system, affording direct telegraphic communication via Khartum
and Gondokoro with Uganda and Mombasa. The Eastern Telegraph Company,
by concessions, have telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria via
Cairo to Suez, and from Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to
Europe and the East. The principal cables are from Alexandria to
Malta, Gibraltar and England; from Alexandria to Crete and Brindisi;
from Suez to Aden, Bombay, China and Australia.
The telephone is largely used in the big towns, and there is a trunk
telephone line connecting Alexandria and Cairo.
_Standard Time._--The standard time adopted in Egypt is that of the
longitude of Alexandria, 30 deg. E., i.e. two hours earlier than
Greenwich time. It thus corresponds with the standard time of British
South Africa.
_Agriculture and Land Tenure._--The chief industry of Egypt is
agriculture. The proportions of the industry depend upon the area of
land capable of cultivation. This again depends upon the fertilizing
sediment brought down by the Nile and the measure in which lands beyond
the natural reach of the flood water can be rendered productive by
irrigation. By means of canals, "basins," dams and barrages, the Nile
flood is now utilized to a greater extent than ever before (see
IRRIGATION: _Egypt_). The result has been a great increase in the area
of cultivated or cultivable land.
At the time of the French occupation of Egypt in 1798, it was found that
the cultivable soil covered 4,429,400 acres, but the quantity actually
under cultivation did not exceed 3,520,000 acres, or six-elevenths of
the entire surface. Under improved conditions the area of cultivated
land, or land in process of reclamation, had risen in 1906 to 5,750,000
acres, while another 500,000 acres of waste land awaited reclamation.
Throughout Egypt the cultivable soil does not present any very great
difference, being always the deposit of the river; it contains, however,
more sand near the river than at a distance from it. Towards the
Mediterranean its quality is injured by the salt with which the air is
impregnated, and therefore it is not so favourable to vegetation. Of the
cultivated land, some three-fourths is held, theoretically, in life
tenancy. The state, as ultimate proprietor, imposes a tax which is the
equivalent of rent. These lands are _Kharaji_ lands, in distinction from
the _Ushuri_ or tithe-paying lands. The _Ushuri_ lands were originally
granted in fee, and are subject to a quit-rent. All tenants are under
obligation to guard or repair the banks of the Nile in times of flood,
or in any case of sudden emergency. Only to this extent does the
_corvee_ now prevail. The land-tax is proportionate, i.e. land under
perennial irrigation pays higher taxes than land not so irrigated (see
below, _Finance_). The unit of land is the _feddan_, which equals 1.03
acre. Out of 1,153,759 proprietors of land in 1905, 1,005,705 owned less
than 5 _feddans_. The number of proprietors owning over 50 _feddans_ was
12,475. The acreage held by the first class was 1,264,084, that by the
second class, 2,356,602. Over 1,600,000 _feddans_ were held in holdings
of from 5 to 50 _feddans_. The state domains cover over 240,000
_feddans_, and about 600,000 _feddans_ are owned by foreigners. The
policy of the government is to maintain the small proprietors, and to do
nothing tending to oust the native in favour of European landowners.
The kind of crops cultivated depends largely on whether the land is
under perennial, flood or "basin" irrigation. Perennial irrigation is
possible where there are canals which can be supplied with water all the
year round from the Nile. This condition exists throughout the Delta and
Middle Egypt, but only in parts of Upper Egypt. Altogether some
4,000,000 acres are under perennial irrigation. In these regions two and
sometimes three crops can be harvested yearly. In places where perennial
irrigation is impossible, the land is divided by rectangular dikes into
"basins." Into these basins--which vary in area from 600 to 50,000
acres--water is led by shallow canals when the Nile is in flood. The
water is let in about the middle of August and the basins are begun to
be emptied about the 1st of October. The land under basin irrigation
covers about 1,750,000 acres. In the basins only one crop can be grown
in the year. This basin system is of immemorial use in Egypt, and it was
not until the time of Mehemet Ali (c. 1820) that perennial irrigation
began. High land near the banks of the Nile which cannot be reached by
canals is irrigated by raising water from the Nile by steam-pumps,
water-wheels (_sakias_) worked by buffaloes, or water-lifts (_shadufs_)
worked by hand. There are several thousand steam-pumps and over 100,000
_sakias_ or _shadufs_ in Egypt. The _fellah_ divides his land into
little square plots by ridges of earth, and from the small canal which
serves his holding he lets the water into each plot as needed. The same
system obtains on large estates (see further IRRIGATION: _Egypt_).
There are three agricultural seasons: (1) summer (_sefi_), 1st of April
to 31st of July, when crops are grown only on land under perennial
irrigation; (2) flood (_Nili_), 1st of August to 30th of November; and
(3) winter (_shetwi_), 1st of December to 31st of March. Cotton, sugar
and rice are the chief summer crops; wheat, barley, flax and vegetables
are chiefly winter crops; maize, millet and "flood" rice are _Nili_
crops; millet and vegetables are also, but in a less degree, summer
crops. The approximate areas under cultivation in the various seasons
are, in summer, 2,050,000 acres; in flood, 1,500,000 acres; in winter,
4,300,000 acres. The double-cropped area is over 2,000,000 acres.
Although on the large farms iron ploughs, and threshing and
grain-cleaning machines, have been introduced, the small cultivator
prefers the simple native plough made of wood. Corn is threshed by a
_norag_, a machine resembling a chair, which moves on small iron wheels
or thin circular plates fixed to axle-trees, and is drawn in a circle by
oxen.
_Crops._--Egypt is third among the cotton-producing countries of the
world. Its production per acre is the greatest of any country but,
owing to the restricted area available, the bulk raised is not more
than one-tenth of that of the United States and about half that of
India. Some 1,600,000 acres of land, five-sixths being in Lower Egypt,
are devoted to cotton growing. The climate of Lower Egypt being very
suitable to the growth of the plant, the cotton produced there is of
excellent quality. The seed is sown at the end of February or
beginning of March and the crop is picked in September and October.
The cotton crop increased from 1,700,000 _kantars_[3] in 1878 to
4,100,000 in 1890, had reached 5,434,000 in 1900, and was 6,750,000 in
1905. Its average value, 1897-1905, was over L14,000,000 a year. The
cotton exported was valued in 1907 at LE.23,598,000, in 1908 at
LE.17,091,612.
While cotton is grown chiefly in the Delta, the sugar plantations,
which cover about 100,000 acres, are mainly in Upper Egypt. The canes
are planted in March and are cut in the following January or February.
Although since 1884 the production of sugar has largely increased,
there has not been a corresponding increase in its value, owing to the
low price obtained in the markets of the world. Beetroot is also grown
to a limited extent for the manufacture of sugar. The sugar exported
varied in annual value in the period 1884-1905 from L400,000 to
L765,000.
A coarse and strong tobacco was formerly extensively grown, but its
cultivation was prohibited in 1890. Flax and hemp are grown in a few
places.
Maize in Lower Egypt and millet (of which there are several varieties)
in Upper Egypt are largely grown for home consumption, these grains
forming a staple food of the peasantry. The stalk of the maize is also
a very useful article. It is used in the building of the houses of the
fellahin, as fuel, and, when green, as food for cattle. Wheat and
barley are important crops, and some 2,000,000 acres are sown with
them yearly. The barley in general is not of good quality, but the
desert or "Mariut" barley, grown by the Bedouins in the coast region
west of Alexandria, is highly prized for the making of beer. Beans and
lentils are extensively sown, and form an important article of export.
The annual value of the crops is over L3,000,000. Rice is largely
grown in the northern part of the Delta, where the soil is very wet.
Two kinds are cultivated: _Sultani_, a summer crop, and _Sabaini_, a
flood crop. _Sabaini_ is a favourite food of the fellahin, while
_Sultani_ rice is largely exported. In the absence of grass, the chief
green food for cattle and horses is clover, grown largely in the basin
lands of Upper Egypt. To a less extent vetches are grown for the same
purpose.
_Vegetables and Fruit._--Vegetables grow readily, and their
cultivation is an important part of the work of the fellahin. The
onion is grown in great quantities along the Nile banks in Upper
Egypt, largely for export. Among other vegetables commonly raised are
tomatoes (the bulk of which are exported), potatoes (of poor quality),
leeks, marrows, cucumbers, cauliflowers, lettuce, asparagus and
spinach.
The common fruits are the date, orange, citron, fig, grape, apricot,
peach and banana. Olives, melons, mulberries and strawberries are also
grown, though not in very large numbers. The olive tree flourishes
only in the Fayum and the oases. The Fayum also possesses extensive
vineyards. The date is a valuable economic asset. There are some
6,000,000 date-palms in the country, 4,000,000 being in Upper Egypt.
The fruit is one of the chief foods of the people. The value of the
crop is about L1,500,000 a year.
_Roses and Dyes._--There are fields of roses in the Fayum, which
supply the market with rose-water. Of plants used for dyeing, the
principal are bastard saffron, madder, woad and the indigo plant. The
leaves of the henna plant are used to impart a bright red colour to
the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the nails of both
hands and feet, of women and children, the hair of old ladies and the
tails of horses. Indigo is very extensively employed to dye the
shirts of the natives of the poorer classes; and is, when very dark,
the colour of mourning; therefore, women at funerals, and generally
after a death, smear themselves with it.
_Domestic Animals._--The Egyptians are not particularly a pastoral
people, though the wealth of the Bedouin in the Eastern or Arabian
Desert consists in their camels, horses, sheep and goats. In the Nile
valley the chief domestic animals are the camel, donkey, mule, ox,
buffalo, sheep and goat. Horses are comparatively few, and are seldom
seen outside the large towns, the camel and donkey being the principal
beasts of burden. The cattle are short-horned, rather small and well
formed. They are quiet in disposition, and much valued for
agricultural labour by the people, who therefore very rarely slaughter
them for meat. Buffaloes of an uncouth appearance and of a dark slaty
colour, strikingly contrasting with the neat cattle, abound in Egypt.
They are very docile, and the little children of the villagers often
ride them to or from the river. The buffaloes are largely employed for
turning the _sakias_. Sheep (of which the greater number are black)
and goats are abundant, and mutton is the ordinary butcher's meat. The
wool is coarse and short. Swine are very rarely kept, and then almost
wholly for the European inhabitants, the Copts generally abstaining
from eating their meat. Poultry is plentiful and eggs form a
considerable item in the exports. Pigeons are kept in every village
and their flesh is a common article of food.
_Fishing._--The chief fishing-ground is Lake Menzala, where some 4000
persons are engaged in the industry, but fish abound in the Nile also,
and are caught in large quantities along the coast of the Delta. The
salting and curing of the fish is done chiefly at Mataria, on Lake
Menzala, and at Damietta. Dried and salted fish eggs, called
_batarekh_, command a ready market. The average annual value of the
fisheries is about L200,000.
_Canals._--The irrigation canals, which are also navigable by small
craft, are of especial importance in a country where the rainfall is
very slight. The Delta is intersected by numerous canals which derive
their supply from four main channels. The Rayya Behera, known in its
lower courses first as the Khatatba and afterwards as the Rosetta
canal, follows the west bank of the Rosetta branch of the Nile and has
numerous offshoots. The most important is the Mahmudia (50 m. long),
which connects Alexandria with the Rosetta branch, taking a similar
direction to that of the ancient canal which it succeeded. This canal
supplies Alexandria with fresh water.
The Rayya Menufia, or Menuf canal, connects the two branches of the
Nile and supplies water to the large number of canals in the central
part of the Delta. Following the right (eastern) bank of the Damietta
branch is the Rayya Tewfiki, known below Benha as the Mansuria, and
below Mansura as the Fareskur, canal. This canal has many branches.
Farther east are other canals, of which the most remarkable occupy in
part the beds of the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches. That following the
old Tanitic channel is called the canal of Al-Mo'izz, the first
Fatimite caliph who ruled in Egypt, having been dug by his orders, and
the latter bears the name of the canal of Abu-l-Muneggi, a Jew who
executed this work, under the caliph Al-Amir, in order to water the
province called the Sharkia. From this circumstance this canal is also
known as the Sharkawia. From a town on its bank it is called in its
lower course the Shibini canal. The superfluous water from all the
Delta canals is drained off by _bahrs_ (rivers) into the coast lakes.
The Ismailia or Fresh-water canal branches from the Nile at Cairo and
follows, in the main, the course of the canal which anciently joined
the Nile and the Red Sea. It dates from Pharaonic times, having been
begun by "Sesostris," continued by Necho II. and by Darius Hystaspes,
and at length finished by Ptolemy Philadelphus. This canal, having
fallen into disrepair, was restored in the 7th century A.D. by the
Arabs who conquered Egypt, but appears not long afterwards to have
again become unserviceable. The existing canal was dug in 1863 to
supply fresh water to the towns on the Suez Canal. Although designed
for irrigation purposes, the Delta canals are also used for the
transport of passengers and goods.
In Upper Egypt the most important canals are the Ibrahimia and the
Bahr Yusuf (the River of Joseph). They are both on the west side of
the Nile. The Ibrahimia takes its water from the Nile at Assiut, and
runs south to below Beni Suef. It now supplies the Bahr Yusuf, which
runs parallel with and west of the Ibrahimia, until it diverges to
supply the Fayum--a distance of some 350 m. It leaves the Ibrahimia at
Derut near its original point of departure from the Nile. Although the
Joseph whence it takes its name is the celebrated Saladin, it is
related that he merely repaired it, and it is not doubted to be of a
much earlier period. Most probably it was executed under the Pharaohs.
By some authorities it is believed to be a natural channel canalized.
Besides supplying the canals of the Fayum with summer water, it fills
many of the "basins" of Upper Egypt with water in flood time.
_Manufactures and Native Industries._--Although essentially an
agricultural country, Egypt possesses several manufactures. In connexion
with the cotton industry there are a few mills where calico is made or
oil crushed, and ginning-mills are numerous. In Upper Egypt there are a
number of factories for sugar-crushing and refining, and one or two
towns of the Delta possess rice mills. Flour mills are found in every
part of the country, the maize and other grains being ground for home
consumption. Soap-making and leather-tanning are carried on, and there
are breweries at Alexandria and Cairo. The manufacture of tobacco into
cigarettes, carried on largely at Alexandria and Cairo, is another
important industry. Native industries include the weaving of silk,
woollen, linen and cotton goods, the hand-woven silk shawls and
draperies being often rich and elegant. The silk looms are chiefly at
Mehallet el-Kubra, Cairo and Damietta. The Egyptians are noted for the
making of pottery of the commoner kinds, especially water-jars. There is
at Cairo and in other towns a considerable industry in ornamental wood
and metal work, inlaying with ivory and pearl, brass trays, copper
vessels, gold and silver ornaments, &c. At Cairo and in the Fayum, attar
of roses and other perfumes are manufactured. Boat-building is an
important trade.
_Commerce._--The trade of Egypt has developed enormously since the
British occupation in 1882 ensured to all classes of the community the
enjoyment of the profit of their labour. The total value of the
exterior trade increased in the 20 years 1882 to 1902 from L19,000,000
to L32,400,000. The wealth of Egypt lying in the cultivation of its
soil, almost all the exports are agricultural produce, while the
imports are mostly manufactured goods, minerals and hardware. The
chief exports in order of importance are: raw cotton, cotton seed,
sugar, beans, cigarettes, onions, rice and gum-arabic. The gum is not
of native produce, being in transit from the Sudan. Of less importance
are the exports of hides and skins, eggs, wheat and other grains,
wool, quails, lentils, dates and Sudan produce in transit. The
principal articles imported are: cotton goods and other textiles,
coal, iron and steel, timber, tobacco, machinery, flour, alcoholic
liquors, petroleum, fruits, coffee and live animals. There is an _ad
valorem_ duty of 8% on imports and of about 1% on exports. Tobacco and
precious stones and metals pay heavier duties. The tobacco is imported
chiefly from Turkey and Greece, is made into cigarettes in Egypt, and
in this form exported to the value of about L500,000 yearly.
In comparison with cotton, all other exports are of minor account. The
cotton exported, of which Great Britain takes more than half, is worth
over three-fourths of the total value of goods sent abroad. Next to
cotton, sugar is the most important article exported. A large
proportion of the sugar manufactured is, however, consumed in the
country and does not figure in the trade returns. Of the imports the
largest single item is cotton goods, nearly all being sent from
England. Woollen goods come chiefly from England, Austria and Germany,
silk goods from France. Large quantities of ready-made clothes and
fezes are imported from Austria. Iron and steel goods, machinery,
locomotives, &c., come chiefly from England, Belgium and Germany, coal
from England, live stock from Turkey and the Red Sea ports, coffee
from Brazil, timber from Russia, Turkey and Sweden.
A British consular report (No. 3121, annual series), issued in 1904,
shows that in the period 1887-1902 the import trade of Egypt nearly
doubled. In the same period the proportion of imports from the United
Kingdom fell from 39.63 to 36.76%. Though the percentage decreased,
the value of imports from Great Britain increased in the same period
from L2,500,000 to L4,500,000. In addition to imports from the United
Kingdom, British possessions took 6.0% of the import trade. Next to
Great Britain, Turkey had the largest share of the import trade, but
it had declined in the sixteen years from 19 to 15%. France about 10%,
and Austria 6.72%, came next, but their import trade was declining,
while that of Germany had risen from less than 1 to over 3%, and
Belgium imports from 1.74 to 4.27%.
In the same period (1887-1902) Egyptian exports to Great Britain
decreased from 63.25 to 52.30%, Germany and the United States showing
each an increase of over 6.0%. Exports to Germany had increased from
0.13 to 6.75%, to the United States from 0.26 to 6.70%. Exports to
France had remained practically stationary at 8.0%; those to Austria
had dropped from 6.3% to 4.0%, to Russia from 9.11 to 8.43%.
For the quinquennial period 1901-1905, the average annual value of the
exterior trade was:--imports L17,787,296; exports L18,811,588; total
L36,598,884. In 1907 the total value of the merchandise imported and
exported, exclusive of transit, re-exportation and specie, was
LE.54,134,000--constituting a record trade return. The value of the
imports was LE.26,121,000, of the exports LE.28,013,000.
_Shipping._--More than 90% of the external trade passes through the
port of Alexandria. Port Said, which in consequence of its position at
the northern entrance of the Suez Canal has more frequent and regular
communication with Europe, is increasing in importance and is the port
where mails and passengers are landed. Over 3000 ships enter and clear
harbour at Alexandria every year. The total tonnage entering the port
increased in the five years 1901-1905 from 2,555,259 to 3,591,281. In
the same period the percentage of British shipping, which before 1900
was nearly 50, varied from 40 to 45. No other nation had more than 12%
of the tonnage, Italy, France, Austria and Turkey each having 9 to
12%. The tonnage of German ships increased in the five years mentioned
from 3 to 7%. In number of steamships entering the harbour Great
Britain is first, with some 800 yearly, or about 50% of all steamers
entering. The sailing boats entering the harbour are almost entirely
Turkish. They are vessels of small tonnage.
The transit trade with the East, which formerly passed overland
through Egypt, has been diverted to the Suez Canal, the traffic
through which has little to do with the trade or shipping of Egypt.
The number of ships using the canal increased in the 20 years
1880-1900 from 2000 to 4000, while in the same period the tonnage rose
from 4,300,000 to 14,000,000. In 1905 the figures were:--Number of
ships that passed through the canal, 4116 (2484 being British and 600
German), net tonnage 13,134,105 (8,356,940 British and 2,113,484
German). Next to British and German the nationality of ships using the
canal in order of importance is French, Dutch, Austrian, Italian and
Russian. About 250,000 passengers (including some 40,000 pilgrims to
Mecca) pass through the canal in a year (see further SUEZ).
_Currency._--The monetary system in force dates from 1885, when
through the efforts of Sir Edgar Vincent the currency was placed on a
sound basis. The system is based on the single gold standard. The unit
is a gold coin called a pound and equal to L1, 0s. 6d. in English
currency. The Egyptian pound (LE.) is divided into 100 piastres, of
which there are coins in silver of 20, 10, 5 and 2 piastres. One, 1/2,
1/5 and 1/10 piastre pieces are coined in nickel and 1/20 and 1/40
piastre pieces in bronze. The one piastre piece is worth a fraction
over 2-1/2d. The 1/40 of a piastre is popularly called a para and the
native population generally reckon in paras. The legal piastre is
called the piastre tariff (P.T.), to distinguish it from the 1/2
piastre, which in local usage in Cairo and Alexandria is called a
piastre. Officially the 1/2 piastre is known as 5 milliemes, and so
with the coins of lower denomination, the para being 1/4 millieme. The
old terms _kis_ or "purse" (500 piastres) and _khazna_ or "treasury"
(1000 purses) are still occasionally used. Formerly European coins of
all kinds were in general circulation, now the only foreign coins
current are the English sovereign, the French 20 franc piece and the
Turkish mejidie, a gold coin worth 18 shillings. For several years no
Egyptian gold pieces have been coined. Egyptian silver money is minted
at Birmingham, and nickel and bronze money at Vienna. Bank-notes, of
the National Bank, are issued for LE.100, LE.50, LE.10, LE.5 and LE.1,
and for 50 piastres. The notes are not legal tender, but are accepted
by the government in payment of taxes.
The history of the currency reform in Egypt is interesting as
affording a practical example of a system much discussed in connexion
with the currency question in India, namely, a gold standard without a
gold coinage. The Egyptian pound is practically nonexistent, nearly
all that were coined having been withdrawn from circulation. Their
place has been taken by foreign gold, principally the English
sovereign, which circulates at a value of 97-1/2 piastres. In practice
the system works perfectly smoothly, the gold flowing in and out of
the country through the agency of private banking establishments in
proportion to the requirements of the circulation. It is, moreover,
very economical for the government. As in most agricultural countries,
there is a great expansion of the circulation in the autumn and winter
months in order to move the crops, followed by a long period of
contracted circulation throughout the rest of the year. Under the
existing system the fluctuating requirements of the currency are met
without the expense of alternately minting and melting down.
_Weights and Measures._--The metrical system of weights and measures
is in official but not in popular use, except in the foreign quarters
of Cairo, Alexandria, &c. The most common Egyptian measures are the
_fitr_, or space measured by the extension of the thumb and first
finger; the _shibr_, or span; and the cubit (of three kinds = 22-2/3,
25 and 26-1/2 in.). The measure of land is the _feddan_, equal to 1.03
acres, subdivided into 24 _kirats_. The _ardeb_ is equal to about 5
bushels, and is divided into 6 _waybas_, and each _wayba_ into 24
_rubas_. The _okieh_ equals 1.32 oz., the _rotl_ .99 lb., the _oke_
2.75 lb., the _kantar_ (or 100 _rotls_ or 36 _okes_) 99.04 lb.
_Constitution and Administration._--Egypt is a tributary state of the
Turkish empire, and is ruled by an hereditary prince with the style of
khedive, a Persian title regarded as the equivalent of king. The
succession to the throne is by primogeniture. The central administration
is carried on by a council of ministers, appointed by the khedive, one
of whom acts as prime minister. To these is added a British financial
adviser, who attends all meetings of the council of ministers, but has
not a vote; on the other hand, no financial decision may be taken
without his consent. The ministries are those of the interior, finance,
public works, justice, war, foreign affairs and public instruction,[4]
and in each of these are prepared the drafts of decrees, which are then
submitted to the council of ministers for approval, and on being signed
by the khedive become law. No important decision, however, has been
taken since 1882 without the concurrence of the British minister
plenipotentiary. With a few exceptions, laws cannot, owing to the
Capitulations, be enforced against foreigners except with the consent of
the powers.
While the council of ministers with the khedive forms the legislative
authority, there are various representative bodies with strictly limited
powers. The legislative council is a consultative body, partly elective,
partly nominative. It examines the budget and all proposed
administrative laws, but cannot initiate legislation, nor is the
government bound to adopt its suggestions. The general assembly consists
of the legislative council and the ministers of state, together with
popularly elected members, who form a majority of the whole assembly. It
has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal tax nor land
tax can be imposed without its consent. It must meet at least once in
every two years.
For purposes of local government the chief towns constitute
governorships (_moafzas_), the rest of the country being divided into
_mudirias_ or provinces. The governors and _mudirs_ (heads of provinces)
are responsible to the ministry of the interior. The provinces are
further divided into districts, each of which is under a _mamur_, who in
his turn supervises and controls the _omda_, mayor or head-man, of each
village in his district.
The governorships are: Cairo; Alexandria, which includes an area of 70
sq. m.; Suez Canal, including Port Said and Ismailia; Suez and El-Arish.
Lower Egypt is divided into the provinces of: Behera, Gharbia, Menufia,
Dakahlia, Kaliubia, Sharkia. The oasis of Siwa and the country to the
Tripolitan frontier are dependent on the province of Behera. Upper
Egypt: Giza, Beni Suef, Fayum, Minia, Assiut, Girga, Kena, Assuan. The
peninsula of Sinai is administered by the war office.
_Justice._--There are four judicial systems in Egypt: two applicable to
Egyptian subjects only, one applicable to foreigners only, and one
applicable to foreigners and, to a certain extent, natives also. This
multiplicity of tribunals arises from the fact that, owing to the
Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as part of the Turkish empire,
foreigners are almost entirely exempt from the jurisdiction of the
native courts. It will be convenient to state first the law as regards
foreigners, and secondly the law which concerns Egyptians. Criminal
jurisdiction over foreigners is exercised by the consuls of the fifteen
powers possessing such right by treaty, according to the law of the
country of the offender. These consular courts also judge civil cases
between foreigners of the same nationality.
Jurisdiction in civil matters between natives and foreigners and between
foreigners of different nationalities is no longer exercised by the
consular courts. The grave abuse to which the consular system was
subject led to the establishment, in February 1876, at the instance of
Nubar Pasha and after eight years of negotiation, of International or
"Mixed" Tribunals to supersede consular jurisdiction to the extent
indicated. The Mixed Tribunals employ a code based on the _Code
Napoleon_ with such additions from Mahommedan law as are applicable.
There are three tribunals of first instance, and an appeal court at
Alexandria. These courts have both foreign and Egyptian judges--the
foreign judges forming the majority of the bench. In certain designated
matters they enjoy criminal jurisdiction, including, since 1900,
offences against the bankruptcy laws. Cases have to be conducted in
Arabic, French, Italian and English, English having been admitted as a
"judicial language" by khedivial decree of the 17th of April 1905.
Besides their judicial duties, the courts practically exercise
legislative functions, as no important law can be made applicable to
Europeans without the consent of the powers, and the powers are mainly
guided by the opinions of the judges of the Mixed Courts.
The judicial systems applicable solely to Egyptians are supervised by
the ministry of justice, to which has been attached since 1890 a British
judicial adviser. Two systems of laws are administered:--(1) the
_Mehkemehs_, (2) the Native Tribunals. The _mehkemehs_, or courts of the
cadis, judge in all matters of personal status, such as marriage,
inheritance and guardianship, and are guided in their decisions by the
code of laws founded on the Koran. The grand cadi, who must belong to
the sect of the _Hanifis_, sits at Cairo, and is aided by a council of
_Ulema_ or learned men. This council consists of the sheikh or religious
chief of each of the four orthodox sects, the sheikh of the mosque of
Azhar, who is of the sect of the _Shafi'is_, the chief (_nakib_) of the
_Sherifs_, or descendants of Mahomet, and others. The cadis are chosen
from among the students at the Azhar university. (In the same manner, in
matters of personal law, Copts and other non-Moslem Egyptians are, in
general, subject to the jurisdiction of their own religious chiefs.)
For other than the purposes indicated, the native judicial system, both
civil and criminal, was superseded in 1884 by tribunals administering a
jurisprudence modelled on that of the French code. It is, in the words
of Lord Cromer, "in many respects ill adapted to meet the special needs
of the country" (_Egypt_, No. 1, 1904, p. 33). The system was, on the
advice of an Anglo-Indian official (Sir John Scott), modified and
simplified in 1891, but its essential character remained unaltered. In
1904, however, more important modifications were introduced. Save on
points of law, the right of appeal in criminal cases was abolished, and
assize courts, whose judgments were final, established. At the same time
the penal code was thoroughly revised, so that the Egyptian judges were
"for the first time provided with a sound working code" (Ibid. p. 49).
The native courts have both native and foreign judges. There are courts
of summary jurisdiction presided over by one judge, central tribunals
(or courts of first instance) with three judges, and a court of appeal
at Cairo. A committee of judicial surveillance watches the working of
the courts of first instance and the summary courts, and endeavours, by
letters and discussions, to maintain purity and sound law. There is a
_procureur-general_, who, with other duties, is entrusted with criminal
prosecutions. His representatives are attached to each tribunal, and
form the _parquet_ under whose orders the police act in bringing
criminals to justice. In the _markak_ (district) tribunals, created in
1904 and presided over by magistrates with jurisdiction in cases of
misdemeanour, the prosecution is, however, conducted directly by the
police. Special Children's Courts have been established for the trial of
juvenile offenders.
The police service, which has been subject to frequent modification, was
in 1895 put under the orders of the ministry of the interior, to which a
British adviser and British inspectors are attached. The provincial
police is under the direction of the local authorities, the _mudirs_ or
governors of provinces, and the _mamurs_ or district officials; to the
_omdas_, or village head-men, who are responsible for the good order of
the villages, a limited criminal jurisdiction has been entrusted.
_Religion._--The great majority of the inhabitants are Mahommedans. In
1907 the Moslems numbered over ten millions, or 91.8% of the entire
population. The Christians in the same year numbered 880,000, or 8% of
the population. Of these the Coptic Orthodox church had some 667,000
adherents. Among other churches represented were the Greek Orthodox, the
Armenian, Syrian and Maronite, the Roman Catholic and various Protestant
bodies. The last-named numbered 37,000 (including 24,000 Copts). There
were in 1907 over 38,000 Jews in Egypt.
The Mahommedans are Sunnites, professing the creed commonly termed
"orthodox," and are principally of the persuasion of the _Shafi'is_,
whose celebrated founder, the imam ash-Shafi'i, is buried in the great
southern cemetery of Cairo. Many of them are, however, _Hanifis_ (to
which persuasion the Turks chiefly belong), and in parts of Lower, and
almost universally in Upper, Egypt, _Malikis_. Among the Moslems the
_Sheikh-el-Islam_, appointed by the khedive from among the _Ulema_
(learned class), exercises the highest religious and, in certain
subjects, judicial authority. There is also a grand cadi, nominated by
the sultan of Turkey from among the _Ulema_ of Stamboul. Valuable
property is held by the Moslems in trust for the promotion of religion
and for charitable purposes, and is known as the Wakfs administration.
The revenue derived is over L250,000 yearly.
The Coptic organization includes in Egypt three metropolitans and
twelve bishops, under the headship of the patriarch of Alexandria. The
minor orders are arch-priests, priests, archdeacons, deacons, readers
and monks (see COPTS: _Coptic Church_).
_Education._--Two different systems of education exist, one founded on
native lines, the other European in character. Both systems are more or
less fully controlled by the ministry of public instruction. The
government has primary, secondary and technical schools, training
colleges for teachers, and schools of agriculture, engineering, law,
medicine and veterinary science. The government system, which dates back
to a period before the British occupation, is designed to provide, in
the main, a European education. In the primary schools Arabic is the
medium of instruction, the use of English for that purpose being
confined to lessons in that language itself. The school of law is
divided into English and French sections according to the language in
which the students study law. Besides the government primary and
secondary schools, there are many other schools in the large towns owned
by the Moslems, Copts, Hebrews, and by various missionary societies, and
in which the education is on the same lines. A movement initiated among
the leading Moslems led in 1908 to the establishment as a private
enterprise of a national Egyptian university devoted to scientific,
literary and philosophical studies. Political and religious subjects are
excluded from the curriculum and no discrimination in regard to race or
religion is allowed.
Education on native lines is given in _kuttabs_ and in the Azhar
university in Cairo. _Kuttabs_ are schools attached to mosques, found
in every village and in every quarter of the larger towns. In these
schools the instruction given before the British occupation was very
slight. All pupils were taught to recite portions of the Koran, and a
proportion of the scholars learnt to read and write Arabic and a
little simple arithmetic. Those pupils who succeeded in committing to
memory the whole of the Koran were regarded as _fiki_ (learned in
Mahommedan law), and as such escaped liability to military
conscription. The government has improved the education given in the
_kuttabs_, and numbers of them have been taken under the direct
control of the ministry of public instruction. In these latter schools
an excellent elementary secular education is given, in addition to the
instruction in the Koran, to which half the school hours are devoted.
The number of pupils in 1905 was over 12,000 boys and 2000 girls.
Grants-in-aid are given to other schools where a sufficiently good
standard of instruction is maintained. No grant is made to any
_kuttab_ where any language other than Arabic is taught. In all there
are over 10,000 kuttabs, attended by some 250,000 scholars. The number
of pupils in private schools under government inspection was in 1898,
the first year of the grant-in-aid system, 7536; in 1900, 12,315; in
1905, 145,691. The number of girls in attendance rose from 598 in 1898
to 997 in 1900 and 9611 in 1905. The Copts have about 1000 primary
schools, in which the teaching of Coptic is compulsory, a few
industrial schools, and one college for higher instruction.
Cairo holds a prominent place as a seat of Moslem learning, and its
university, the Azhar, is considered the first of the eastern world.
Its professors teach "grammatical inflexion and syntax, rhetoric,
versification, logic, theology, the exposition of the Koran, the
traditions of the Prophet, the complete science of jurisprudence, or
rather of religious, moral, civil and criminal law, which is chiefly
founded on the Koran and the traditions, together with arithmetic as
far as it is useful in matters of law. Lectures are also given on
algebra and on the calculations of the Mahommedan calendar, the times
of prayer, &c." (E. W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_). The students come
from all parts of the Mahommedan world. They number about 8000, of
whom some 2000 are resident. The students pay no fees, and the
professors receive no salaries. The latter maintain themselves by
private teaching and by copying manuscripts, and the former in the
same manner, or by reciting the Koran. To meet the demand for better
qualified judges for the Moslem courts a training college for cadis
was established in 1907. Besides the subjects taught at the Azhar
university, instruction is given in literature, mathematics and
physical science. The necessity for a reorganization of the Azhar
system itself being also recognized by the high Moslem dignitaries in
Egypt, a law was passed in 1907 creating a superior board of control
under the presidency of the Sheikh el-Azhar to supervise the
proceedings of the university and other similar establishments. This
attempt to reform the Azhar met, however, with so much opposition that
in 1909 it was, for the time, abandoned.
In 1907, of the sedentary Egyptian population over seven years of age,
some 12% of the Moslems could read and write, female literacy having
increased 50% since 1897; of the foreign population over seven years
of age 75% could read and write. Of the Coptic community about 50% can
read and write.
_Literature and the Press._--Since the British occupation there has
been a marked renaissance of Arabic learning and literature in Egypt.
Societies formed for the encouragement of Arabic literature have
brought to light important texts bearing on Mahommedan history,
antiquities and religion. Numbers of magazines and reviews are
published in Arabic which cater both for the needs of the moment and
the advancement of learning. Side by side with these literary organs
there exists a vernacular press largely devoted to nationalist
propaganda. Prominent among these papers is _Al Lewa_ (_The
Standard_), founded in 1900. Other papers of a similar character are
_Al Omma_, _Al Moayad_ and _Al Gerida_. The _Mokattam_ represents the
views of the more enlightened and conservative section of the native
population. In Cairo and Alexandria there are also published several
newspapers in English and French.
AUTHORITIES.--(a) General descriptions, geography, travel, &c.:
_Description de l'Egypte_, 10 folio vols. and atlas of 10 vols.
(Paris, 1809-1822), compiled by the scientific commission sent to
Egypt by Bonaparte; Clot Bey, _Apercu general sur l'Egypte_, 2 vols.
(Paris, 1840); Boinet Bey, _Dictionnaire geographique de l'Egypte_
(Cairo, 1899); Murray's and Baedeker's handbooks and _Guide Joanne_;
G. Ebers, _Egypt, Descriptive, Historical and Picturesque_, translated
from the German edition of 1879 by Clara Bell, new edition, 2 vols.
(London, 1887); Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, _Modern Egypt and Thebes_ (2
vols., London, 1843); Lady Duff Gordon, _Letters from Egypt_, complete
edition (London, 1902), an invaluable account of social conditions in
the period 1862-1869; A. B. Edwards, _A Thousand Miles up the Nile_
(2nd edition, London, n.d. [1889]); _Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers_
(London, 1892); H. W. Mardon, _Geography of Egypt ..._ (London, 1902),
an excellent elementary text-book; D. G. Hogarth, _The Nearer East_
(London, 1902), contains brief but suggestive chapters on Egypt; S.
Lane Poole, _Egypt_ (London, 1881); A. B. de Guerville, _New Egypt_,
translated from the French (London, 1905); R. T. Kelly, _Egypt Painted
and Described_ (London, 1902). The best maps are those of the Survey
Department, Cairo, on the scale of 1:50000 (1.3 in. to the mile).
(b) Administration: Sir John Bowring's _Report on Egypt ..._ to Lord
Palmerston (London, 1840) shows the system obtaining at that period.
For the study of the state of Egypt at the time of the British
occupation, 1882, and the development of the country since, the most
valuable documents[5] are:
I. _Official._--The _Reports on the Finances, Administration and
Condition of Egypt_, issued yearly since 1892 (the reports 1888-1891
were exclusively financial). Up to 1906 the reports were by Lord
Cromer (Sir Evelyn Baring). They clearly picture the progress of the
country. The following reports are specially valuable as exhibiting
the difficulties which at the outset confronted the British
administrators:--_Correspondence respecting the Reorganization of
Egypt_ (1883); _Reports by Mr Villiers Stuart respecting
Reorganization of Egypt_ (1883 and 1895); _Despatch from Lord Dufferin
forwarding the Decree constituting the New Political Institutions of
Egypt_ (1883); _Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of
Administrative Reforms_ (1885); _Reports by Sir H. D. Wolff on the
Administration of Egypt_ (1887). Annual returns are published in Cairo
in English or French by the various ministries, and British consular
reports on the trade of Egypt and of Alexandria and of the tonnage and
shipping of the Suez Canal are also issued yearly.
II. _Non-official._--Lord Cromer, _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols., 1908), an
authoritative record; Alfred (Lord) Milner, _England in Egypt_, first
published in 1892, the story being brought up to 1904 in the 11th
edition; Sir A. Colvin, _The Making of Modern Egypt_ (1906); J. Ward,
_Pyramids and Progress_ (1900); A. S. White, _The Expansion of Egypt_
(1899); and F. W. Fuller, _Egypt and the Hinterland_ (1901). See also
the works cited in _History_, last section.
(c) Law: H. Lamba, _De l'evolution de la condition juridique des
Europeens en Egypte_ (Paris, 1896); J. H. Scott, _The Law affecting
Foreigners in Egypt ..._ (Edinburgh, 1907); _The Egyptian Codes_
(London, 1892).
(d) Irrigation, agriculture, geology, &c.: _Despatch from Sir Evelyn
Baring enclosing Report on the Condition of the Agricultural
Population in Egypt_ (1888); _Notes on Egyptian Crops_ (Cairo, 1896);
Yacub Artin Bey, _La Propriete fonciere en Egypte_ (Bulak, 1885);
_Report on Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection for Egypt_, 1
vol. and atlas (Cairo, 1894). The reports (_Egypt_, No. 2, 1901, and
_Egypt_, No. 2, 1904), by Sir William Garstin on irrigation projects
on the Upper Nile are very valuable records--notably the 1904 report.
W. Willcocks, _Egyptian Irrigation_ (2nd ed., 1899); H. G. Lyons, _The
Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin_ (Cairo, 1906); Leigh
Canney, _The Meteorology of Egypt and its Influence on Disease_
(1897). Annual meteorological reports are issued by the Public Works
Department, Cairo. The same department issues special irrigation
reports. See for geology Carl von Zittel, _Beitrage zur Geologie und
Palaontologie der libyschen Wuste_ (Cassel, 1883); _Reports of the
Geological Survey of Egypt_ (Cairo, 1900, et seq.).
(e) Natural history, anthropology, &c.: F. Pruner, _Agyptens
Naturgeschichte und Anthropologie_ (Erlangen, 1848); R. Hartmann,
_Naturgeschichtliche Skizze der Nillander_ (Berlin, 1866); Captain G.
E. Shelley, _Birds of Egypt_ (London, 1872). (F. R. C.)
_Inhabitants._
The population enumerated at the census taken in April 1907 was
11,189,978. In these figures nomad Arabs or Bedouins, estimated to
number 97,381, are not included. The total population was thus returned
at 11,287,359, or some 16% more than in 1897 when the inhabitants
numbered 9,734,405. The figures for 1897 compared with 6,813,919 in
1882, an increase of 43.5% in fifteen years. Thus, during the first
twenty-five years of the British occupation of the country the
population increased by nearly 4,500,000. In 1800 the French estimated
the population at no more than 2,460,000; the census of 1846 gave the
figures at 4,476,440. From that year to 1882 the average annual increase
was 1.25%. If the desert regions be excluded, the population of Egypt is
extremely dense, being about 939 per sq. m. This figure may be compared
with that of Belgium, the most densely populated country in Europe, 589
per sq. m., and with that of Bengal, 586 per sq. m. In parts of Menufia,
a Delta province, the density rises to 1352 per sq. m., and in the Kena
province of Upper Egypt to 1308.