FOOTNOTE:

[1] It is well known that the costume of effigies nearly always

represented what was actually worn by the remains of the person

commemorated, when prepared for interment and when lying in state;

and, in like manner, the aspect of the lifeless countenance, even if

not designedly reproduced by medieval "image" makers, may long have

exercised a powerful influence upon their ideas of consistent

monumental portraiture.

EGAN, PIERCE (1772-1849), English sporting writer, was born in London in

1772. He began life as sporting reporter for the newspapers, and was

soon recognized as the best of his day. In 1814 he wrote, set and

printed a book about the relations of the prince regent (afterwards

George IV.) and Miss Robinson, called _The Mistress of Royalty, or the

Loves of Florizel and Perdita_. But his best-known work is _Life in

London, or Days and Nights of Jerry Hawthorne and his Elegant Friend

Corinthian Tom_ (1821), a book describing the amusements of sporting

men, with illustrations by Cruikshank. This book took the popular fancy

and was one of Thackeray's early favourites (see his _Roundabout

Papers_). It was repeatedly imitated, and several dramatic versions were

produced in London. A sequel containing more of country sports and

misadventures probably suggested Dickens's _Pickwick Papers_. In 1824

_Pierce Egan's Life in London and Sporting Guide_ was started, a weekly

newspaper afterwards incorporated with _Bell's Life_. Among his numerous

other books are _Boxiana_ (1818), _Life of an Actor_ (1824), _Book of

Sports_ (1832), and the _Pilgrims of the Thames_ (1838). Egan died at

Pentonville on the 3rd of August 1849.

His son, Pierce Egan (1814-1880), illustrated his own and his father's

books, and wrote a score of novels of varying merit, of which _The Snake

in the Grass_ (1858) is perhaps the best.

EGBO, a secret society flourishing chiefly among the Efiks of the

Calabar district, West Africa. Egbo or Ekpe is a mysterious spirit who

lives in the jungle and is supposed to preside at the ceremonies of the

society. Only males can join, boys being initiated about the age of

puberty. Members are bound by oath of secrecy, and fees on entrance are

payable. The Egbo-men are ranked in seven or nine grades, for promotion

to each of which fresh initiation ceremonies, fees and oaths are

necessary. The society combines a kind of freemasonry with political and

law-enforcing aims. For instance any member wronged in an Egbo district,

that is one dominated by the society, has only to address an Egbo-man or

beat the Egbo drum in the Egbo-house, or "blow Egbo" as it is called,

i.e. sound the Egbo horn before the hut of the wrong-doer, and the whole

machinery of the society is put in force to see justice done. Formerly

the society earned as bad a name as most secret sects, from the

barbarous customs mingled with its rites; but the British authorities

have been able to make use of it in enforcing order and helping on

civilization. The Egbo-house, an oblong building like the nave of a

church, usually stands in the middle of the villages. The walls are of

clay elaborately painted inside and ornamented with clay figures in

relief. Inside are wooden images, sometimes of an obscene nature, to

which reverence is paid. Much social importance attaches to the highest

ranks of Egbo-men, and it is said that very large sums, sometimes more

than a thousand pounds, are paid to attain these dignities. At certain

festivals in the year the Egbo-men wear black wooden masks with horns

which it is death for any woman to look on.

See Mary H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_ (1901); Rev. Robt. H.

Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (1904); C. Partridge, _Cross River

Natives_ (1905).

EGEDE, HANS (1686-1758), Norwegian missionary, was born in the vogtship

of Senjen, Norway, on the 31st of January 1686. He studied at the

university of Copenhagen, and in 1706 became pastor at Vaagen in the

Lofoten islands, but the study of the chronicles of the northmen having

awakened in him the desire to visit the colony of Northmen in Greenland,

and to convert them to Christianity, he resigned his charge in 1717; and

having, after great difficulty, obtained the sanction and help of the

Danish government in his enterprise, he set sail with three ships from

Bergen on the 3rd of May 1721, accompanied by his wife and children. He

landed on the west coast of Greenland on the 3rd of July, but found to

his dismay that the Northmen were entirely superseded by the Eskimo, in

whom he had no particular interest, and whose language he would be able

to master, if at all, only after years of study. But, though compelled

to endure for some years great privations, and at one time to see the

result of his labours almost annihilated by the ravages of small-pox, he

remained resolutely at his post. He founded the colony of Godthaab, and

soon gained the affections of the people. He converted many of them to

Christianity, and established a considerable commerce with Denmark.

Ill-health compelling him to return home in 1736, he was made principal

of a seminary at Copenhagen, in which workers were trained for the

Greenland mission; and from 1740 to 1747 he was superintendent of the

mission. He died on the 5th of November 1758. He is the author of a book

on the natural history of Greenland.

His work in Greenland was continued, on his retirement, by his son PAUL

EGEDE (1708-1789), who afterwards returned to Denmark and succeeded his

father as superintendent of the Greenland mission. Paul Egede also

became professor of theology in the mission seminary. He published a

Greenland-Danish-Latin dictionary (1750), Greenland grammar (1760) and

Greenland catechism (1756). In 1766 he completed the translation begun

by his father of the New Testament into the Greenland tongue; and in

1787 he translated Thomas a Kempis. In 1789 he published a journal of

his life in Greenland.

EGER, AQIBA (1761-1837), Jewish scholar, was for the last twenty-five

years of his life rabbi of Posen. He was a rigorous casuist of the old

school, and his chief works were legal notes on the Talmud and the code

of Qaro (q.v.). He believed that religious education was enough, and

thus opposed the party which favoured secular schools. He was a

determined foe of the reform movement, which began to make itself felt

in his time.

EGER (Czech, _Cheb_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 148 m. W.N.W. of

Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 23,665. It is situated on the river Eger, at

the foot of one of the spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, and lies in the

centre of a German district of about 40,000 inhabitants, who are

distinguished from the surrounding population by their costumes,

language, manners and customs. On the rock, to the N.W. of the town,

lies the Burg or Castle, built probably in the 12th century, and now in

ruins. It possesses a massive black tower, built of blocks of lava, and

in the courtyard is an interesting chapel, in Romanesque style with

fantastic ornamentations, which was finished in the 13th century. In the

banquet-room of this castle Wallenstein's officers Terzky, Kinsky, Illo

and Neumann were assassinated a few hours before Wallenstein himself was

murdered by Captain Devereux. The murder took place on the 25th of

February 1634 in the town-house, which was at that time the

burgomaster's house. The rooms occupied by Wallenstein have been

transformed since 1872 into a museum, which contains many historical

relics and antiquities of the town of Eger. The handsome and imposing St

Nicholas church was built in the 13th century and restored in 1892.

There is a considerable textile industry, together with the manufacture

of shoes, machinery and milling. Eger was the birthplace of the novelist

and playwright Braun von Braunthal (1802-1866). About 3 m. N.W. of Eger

is the well-known watering place of Franzensbad (q.v.).

The district of Eger was in 870 included in the new margraviate of East

Franconia, which belonged at first to the Babenbergs, but from 906 to

the counts of Vohburg, who took the title of margraves of Eger. By the

marriage, in 1149, of Adela of Vohburg with the emperor Frederick I.,

Eger came into the possession of the house of Swabia, and remained in

the hands of the emperors until the 13th century. In 1265 it was taken

by Ottakar II. of Bohemia, who retained it for eleven years. After being

repeatedly transferred from the one power to the other, according to the

preponderance of Bohemia or the empire, the town and territory were

finally incorporated with Bohemia in 1350, after the Bohemian king

became the emperor Charles IV. Several imperial privileges, however,

continued to be enjoyed by the town till 1849. It suffered severely

during the Hussite war, during the Swedish invasion in 1631 and 1647,

and in the War of the Austrian Succession in 1742.

See Drivok, _Altere Geschichte der deutschen Reichstadt Eger und des

Reichsgebietes Egerland_ (Leipzig, 1875).

EGER (Ger. _Erlau_, Med. Lat. _Agria_), a town of Hungary, capital of

the county of Heves, 90 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)

24,650. It is beautifully situated in the valley of the river Eger, an

affluent of the Theiss, and on the eastern outskirts of the Matra

mountains. Eger is the see of an archbishopric, and owing to its

numerous ecclesiastical buildings has received the name of "the

Hungarian Rome." Amongst the principal buildings are the beautiful

cathedral in the Italian style, with a handsome dome 130 ft. high,

erected in 1831-1834 by the archbishop Ladislaus Pyrker (1772-1847); the

church of the Brothers of Mercy, opposite which is a handsome minaret,

115 ft. high, the remains of a mosque dating from the Turkish

occupation, other Roman Catholic churches, and an imposing Greek church.

The archiepiscopal palace; the lyceum, with a good library and an

astronomical observatory; the seminary for Roman priests; and the

town-hall are all noteworthy. On an eminence N.E. of the town, laid out

as a park, are the ruins of the old fortress, and a monument of Stephen

Dobo, the heroic defender of the town against the assaults of the Turks

in 1552. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is the cultivation of

the vineyards of the surrounding hills, which produce the red Erlauer

wine, one of the best in Hungary. To the S.W. of Eger, in the same

county of Heves, is situated the town of Gyongyos (pop. 15,878). It lies

on the south-western outskirts of the Matra mountains, and carries on a

brisk trade in the Erlauer wine, which is produced throughout the

district. The Hungarians defeated the Austrians at Gyongyos on the 3rd

of April 1849. To the S.W. of Gyongyos is situated the old town of

Hatvan (pop. 9698), which is now a busy railway junction, and possesses

several industrial establishments.

Eger is an old town, and owes its importance to the bishopric created by

King Stephen in 1010, which was one of the richest in the whole of

Hungary. In 1552 Eger resisted the repeated assaults of a large Turkish

force; in 1596, however, it was given up to the Turks by the Austrian

party in the garrison, and remained in their possession until 1687. It

was created an archbishopric in 1814. During the revolution of

1848-1849, Eger was remarkable for the patriotic spirit displayed by its

inhabitants; and it was here that the principal campaigns against the

Austrians were organized.

EGERIA, an ancient Italian goddess of springs. Two distinct localities

were regarded as sacred to her,--the grove of Diana Nemorensis at

Aricia, and a spring in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome at the Porta

Capena. She derives her chief importance from her legendary connexion

with King Numa, who had frequent interviews with her and consulted her

in regard to his religious legislation (Livy i. 19; Juvenal iii. 12).

These meetings took place on the spot where the sacred shield had fallen

from heaven, and here Numa dedicated a grove to the Camenae, like Egeria

deities of springs. After the death of Numa, Egeria was said to have

fled into the grove of Aricia, where she was changed into a spring for

having interrupted the rites of Diana by her lamentations (Ovid,

_Metam._ xv. 479). At Aricia there was also a Manius Egerius, a male

counterpart of Egeria. Her connexion with Diana Nemorensis, herself a

birth goddess, is confirmed by the fact that her aid was invoked by

pregnant women. She also possessed the gift of prophecy; and the

statement (Dion. Halic. ii. 60) that she was one of the Muses is due to

her connexion with the Camenae, whose worship was displaced by them.

EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY, Bart. (1806-1881), English

palaeontologist, was born on the 13th of November 1806, the son of the

9th baronet. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he

graduated B.A. in 1828. While at college his interest in geology was

aroused by the lectures of W. Buckland, and by his acquaintance with

W.D. Conybeare. Subsequently when travelling in Switzerland with Lord

Cole (afterwards 3rd earl of Enniskillen) they were introduced to Prof.

L. Agassiz at Neufchatel, and determined to make a special study of

fossil fishes. During the course of fifty years they gradually gathered

together two of the largest and finest of private collections--that of

Sir Philip Grey Egerton being at Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire. He

described the structure and affinities of numerous species in the

publications of the Geological Society of London, the _Geological

Magazine_ and the Decades of the Geological Survey; and in recognition

of his services the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1873 by the

Geological Society. He was elected F.R.S. in 1831, and was a trustee of

the British Museum. As a member of Parliament he represented the city of

Chester in 1830, the southern division of Cheshire from 1835 until 1868,

and the western division from 1868 to 1881. He died in London on the 6th

of April 1881. His collection of fossil fishes is now in the British

Museum.

EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863), English painter, was born on the 2nd

of May 1816 in London, where his father carried on business as a

gun-maker. He had some schooling at Bexley, and was not at first

intended for the artistic profession; but, developing a faculty in this

line, he entered in 1834 the drawing class of Mr Sass, and in 1836 the

school of the Royal Academy. His first exhibited picture appeared in

1837 at the Suffolk Street gallery. In 1838 he began exhibiting in the

Academy, his subject being a "Spanish Girl"; altogether he sent

twenty-seven works to this institution. In 1848 he became an associate

and in 1860 a full member of the Academy: he had considerable means,

apart from his profession. In 1857 he took a leading part in selecting

and arranging the modern paintings in the Art-Treasures Exhibition in

Manchester. His constitution being naturally frail, he went in 1853,

with Dickens and Wilkie Collins, to Italy for a short trip, and in 1863

he visited Algeria. Here he benefited so far as his chronic lung-disease

was concerned; but exposure to a cold wind while out riding brought on

an attack of asthma, from which he died on the 26th of March 1863 at

Algiers, near which city his remains were buried.

Egg was a gifted and well-trained painter of genre, chiefly in the way

of historical anecdote, or of compositions from the poets and novelists.

Among his principal pictures may be named: 1843, the "Introduction of

Sir Piercie Shafton and Halbert Glendinning" (from Scott's _Monastery_);

1846, "Buckingham Rebuffed"; 1848, "Queen Elizabeth discovers she is no

longer young"; 1850, "Peter the Great sees Catharine for the first

time"; 1854, "Charles I. raising the Standard at Nottingham" (a study);

1855, the "Life and Death of Buckingham"; 1857 and 1858, two subjects

from Thackeray's _Esmond_; 1858, "Past and Present, a triple picture of

a faithless wife"; 1859, the "Night before Naseby"; 1860, his last

exhibited work, the Dinner Scene from _The Taming of the Shrew_. The

Tate Gallery contains one of his earlier pictures, Patricio entertaining

two Ladies, from the _Diable boiteux_; it was painted in 1844.

Egg was rather below the middle height, with dark hair and a handsome

well-formed face; the head of Peter the Great (in the picture of Peter

and Catharine, which may be regarded as his best work, along with the

Life and Death of Buckingham) was studied, but of course considerably

modified, from his own countenance. He was manly, kind-hearted,

pleasant, and very genial and serviceable among brother-artists; social

and companionable, but holding mainly aloof from fashionable circles.

As an actor he had uncommon talent. He appeared among Dickens's company

of amateurs in 1852 in Lord Lytton's comedy _Not so Bad as we Seem_, and

afterwards in Wilkie Collins's _Frozen Deep_, playing the humorous part

of Job Want.

EGG (O.E. _aeg_, cf. Ger. _Ei_, Swed. _aegg_, and prob. Gr. [Greek:

oon], Lat. _ovum_), the female reproductive cell or ovum of animals,

which gives rise generally only after fertilization to the young. The

largest eggs are those of birds; and this because, to the minute

essential portion of the egg, or germ, from which the young bird grows,

there is added a large store of food-material--the yolk and white of the

egg--destined to nourish the growing embryo while the whole is enclosed

within a hard shell.

The relative sizes of eggs depend entirely on the amount of the

food-yolk thus enclosed with the germ; while the form and texture of the

outer envelope are determined by the nature of the environment to which

the egg is exposed. Where the food material is infinitesimal in quantity

the egg is either not extruded--the embryo being nourished by the

maternal tissues,--or it passes out of the parental body and gives rise

at once to a free-living organism or "larva" (see LARVAL FORMS), as in

the case of many lowly freshwater and marine animals. In such cases no

"egg" in the usual sense of the term is produced.

The number of eggs periodically produced by any given individual depends

on the risks of destruction to which they, and the young to which they

give rise, are exposed: not more than a single egg being annually laid

by some species, while with others the number may amount to millions.

_Birds' Eggs._--The egg of the bird affords, for general purposes, the

readiest example of the modifications imposed on eggs by the external

environment. Since it must be incubated by the warmth of the parent's

body, the outer envelope has taken the form of a hard shell for the

protection of the growing chick from pressure, while the dyes which

commonly colour the surface of this shell serve as a screen to hide it

from egg-eating animals.

Carbonate of lime forms the principal constituent of this shell; but in

addition phosphate of lime and magnesia are also present. In section,

this shell will be found to be made up of three more or less distinct

crystalline layers, traversed by vertical canals, whereby the shell is

made porous so as to admit air to the developing chick.

The outermost, or third, layer of this shell often takes the form of a

glaze, as of porcelain, as for example in the burnished egg of the

ostrich: or it may assume the character of a thick, chalky layer as in

some cuckoos (_Guira_, _Crotophaga ani_), cormorants, grebes and

flamingoes: while in some birds as in the auks, gulls and tinamous, this

outer layer is wanting; yet the tinamous have the most highly glazed

eggs of all birds, the second layer of the shell developing a surface

even more perfectly burnished than that formed by the outermost, third

layer in the ostrich.

While the eggs of some birds have the shell so thin as to be

translucent, e.g. kingfisher, others display considerable thickness, the

maximum being reached in the egg of the extinct _Aepyornis_.

Though in shape differing but little from that of the familiar hen's

egg, certain well-marked modifications of form are yet to be met with.

Thus the eggs of the plover are pear-shaped, of the sand-grouse more or

less cylindrical, of the owls and titmice spherical and of the grebes

biconical.

In the matter of coloration the eggs of birds present a remarkable

range. The pigments to which this coloration is due have been shown, by

means of their absorption spectra (Sorby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1875), to

be seven in number. The first of these, oorhodeine, is brown-red in

tone, and rarely absent: the second and third, oocyanin, and banded

oocyanin, are of a beautiful blue, and though differing

spectroscopically give rise to the same product when oxidized: the

fourth and fifth are yellow, and rufous ooxanthine, the former combining

with oocyanin gives rise to the wonderful malachite green of the emu's

egg, while the latter occurs only in the eggs of tinamous: the sixth is

lichenoxanthine, a pigment not yet thoroughly known but present in the

shells of all eggs having a peculiar brick-red colour. Still less is

known of the seventh pigment which is, as yet, nameless. It is a

substance giving a banded absorption spectrum, and which, mixed with

other pigments, imparts an abnormally browner tint. The origin of these

pigments is yet uncertain, but it is probable that they are derived from

the haemoglobin or red colouring matter of the blood. This being so,

then the pigments of the egg-shell differ entirely in their nature from

those which colour the yolk or the feathers.

While many eggs are either colourless or of one uniform tint, the

majority have the surface broken up by spots or lines, or a combination

of both, of varying tints: the pigment being deposited as the egg passes

down the lower portion of the oviduct. That the egg during this passage

turns slowly on its long axis is shown by the fact that the spots and

lines have commonly a spiral direction; though some of the markings are

made during periods of rest, as is shown by their sharp outlines,

movement giving a blurred effect. Where the egg is pyriform, the large

end makes way for the smaller. Many eggs display, in addition to the

strongly marked spots, more or fewer fainter spots embedded in a deeper

layer of the shell, and hence such eggs are said to be "double-spotted,"

e.g. rails and plovers.

Among some species, as in birds of prey, the intensity of this

coloration is said to increase with age up to a certain point, when it

as gradually decreases. Frequently, especially where but two eggs are

laid (Newton), all the dye will be deposited, sometimes on the first,

sometimes on the last laid, leaving the other colourless. But although

of a number of eggs in a "clutch"--as the full complement of eggs in a

nest is called--no two are exactly alike, they commonly bear a very

close resemblance. Among certain species, however, which lay several

eggs, one of the number invariably differs markedly from the rest, as

for example in the eggs of the house-sparrow or in those of the

sparrow-hawk, where, of a clutch of six, two generally differ

conspicuously from the rest. Differing though these eggs do from the

rest of the clutch, all yet present the characters common to the

species. But the eggs of some birds, such as the Australian swamp quail,

_Synoecus australis_, present a remarkably wide range of variation in

the matter of coloration, no two clutches being alike, the extremes

ranging from pure white to eggs having a greenish ground colour and

rufous spots or blotches. But a still more interesting illustration of

variation equally marked is furnished by the chikor partridge (_Caccabis

chukar_), since here the variation appears to be correlated with the

geographical distribution of the species. Thus eggs taken in Greece are

for the most part cream-coloured and unspotted; those from the Grecian

Archipelago are generally spotted and blotched; while more to the

eastward spots are invariably present, and the blotches attain their

maximum development.

But in variability the eggs of the guillemot (_Lomvia troile_) exceed

all others: both in the hue of the ground colour and in the form of the

superimposed markings, these eggs exhibit a wonderful range for which no

adequate explanation has yet been given.

Individual peculiarities of coloration are commonly reproduced, not only

with this species but also in others, year after year.

Significance of colour.

The coloration of the egg bears no sort of relation to the coloration of

the bird which lays it; but it bears on the other hand a more or less

direct relation to the nature of the environment during incubation.

White eggs may generally be regarded as representing the primitive type

of egg, since they agree in this particular with the eggs of reptiles.

And it will generally be found that eggs of this hue are deposited in

holes or in domed nests. So long indeed as nesting-places of this kind

are used will the eggs be white. And this because coloured eggs would be

invisible in dimly lighted chambers of this description, and therefore

constantly exposed to the risk of being broken by the sitting bird, or

rolling out of reach where the chamber was large enough to admit of

this, whereas white eggs are visible so long as they can be reached by

the faintest rays of light. Pigeons invariably lay white eggs; and while

some deposit them in holes others build an open nest, a mere platform

of sticks. These exceptions to the rule show that the depredations of

egg-eating animals are sufficiently guarded against by the overhanging

foliage, as well as by the great distance from the ground at which the

nest is built. Birds which have reverted to the more ancient custom of

nesting in holes after having developed pigmented eggs, have adopted the

device of covering the shell with a layer of chalky matter (e.g.

puffins), or, to put the case more correctly, they have been enabled to

maintain survival after their return to the more ancient mode of

nidification, because this reversion was accompanied by the tendency to

cover the pigmented surface of the shell with this light-reflecting

chalky incrustation.

Eggs which are deposited on the bare ground, or in other exposed

situations, are usually protectively coloured: that is to say, the hue

of the shell more or less completely harmonizes with the ground on which

the egg is placed. The eggs of the plover tribe afford the most striking

examples of this fact.

But the majority of birds deposit their eggs in a more or less

elaborately constructed nest, and in such cases the egg, so far from

being protectively coloured, often displays tints that would appear

calculated rather to attract the attention of egg-stealing animals;

bright blue or blue spotted with black being commonly met with. It may

be, however, that coloration of this kind is less conspicuous than is

generally supposed, but in any case the safety of the egg depends not so

much on its coloration as on the character of the nest, which, where

protective devices are necessary, must harmonize sufficiently with its

surroundings to escape observation from prowling egg-stealers of all

kinds.

The size of the egg depends partly on the number produced and partly on

the conditions determining the state of the young bird at hatching:

hence there is a great disparity in the relative sizes of the eggs of

different birds. Thus it will be found that young birds which emerge in

the world blind, naked and helpless are the product of relatively small

eggs, while on the contrary young hatched from relatively large eggs are

down-clad and active from birth.

The fact that the eggs must be brooded by the parent is also a

controlling factor in so far as number is concerned, for no more can be

hatched than can be covered by the sitting bird. Other factors, however,

less understood, also exercise a controlling influence in this matter.

Thus the ostrich lays from 12 to 16, the teal 15, the partridge 12-20,

while among many other species the number is strictly limited, as in the

case of the hornbills and guillemots, which lay but a single egg; the

apteryx, divers, petrels and pigeons never lay more than 2, while the

gulls and plovers never exceed 4. Tropical species are said to lay fewer

eggs than their representatives in temperate regions, and further

immature birds lay more and smaller eggs than when fully adult.

Partly owing to the uniformity of shape, size and texture of the shell,

the eggs of birds are by no means easy to distinguish, except in so far

as their family resemblances are concerned: that is to say, except in

particular cases, they cannot be specifically distinguished, and hence

they are of but little or no value for the purposes of classification.

Save only among the megapodes, all birds brood their eggs, the period of

incubation varying from 13 days, as in small passerine birds, to 8

weeks, as in the cassowary, though eggs of the rhea and of _Struthio_

hatch in from 5 to 6 weeks. But the megapodes deposit their eggs in

mounds of decaying vegetable matter or in sand in the neighbourhood of

hot springs, and there without further apparent care leave them. Where

the nestling is active from the moment of hatching the eggs have a

relatively longer incubation period than in cases where the nestlings

are for a long while helpless.

_Eggs of Mammals._--Only in the spiny ant-eater, or _Echidna_, and the

duck-billed platypus, or _Ornithorhynchus_, among the Mammalia, are the

eggs provided with a large store of yolk, enclosed within a shell, and

extruded to undergo development apart from the maternal tissues. In the

case of the echidna the eggs, two in number, are about as large as those

of a sparrow, similar in shape, and have a white, parchment-like shell.

After expulsion they are transferred by the beak of the mother to a

pouch resembling that of the marsupial kangaroos, and there they undergo

development. The _Ornithorhynchus_, on the other hand, lays from two to

four eggs, which in size and general appearance resemble those of the

echidna. They are, however, deposited in a loosely constructed nest at

the end of a long burrow and there brooded. In Marsupials, the eggs are

smaller than those of _Echidna_ and _Ornithorhynchus_, and they contain

a larger proportion of yolk than occurs in higher mammals.

_Eggs of Reptiles._--The eggs of reptiles are invariably provided with a

large amount of food yolk and enclosed with a firm test or shell, which

though generally parchment-like in texture may be calcareous as in

birds, as, for example, in many of the tortoises and turtles and in the

crocodiles.

Among reptiles the egg is always white or yellowish, while the number

laid often far exceeds that in the case of birds. The tuatara of New

Zealand, however, lays but ten--white hard-shelled, long and oval--at

intervals between November and January. The long intervals between the

appearance of the successive eggs is a characteristic feature of the

reptiles, but is met with among the birds only in the megapodes, which,

like the reptiles, do not "brood" their eggs.

Among the Chelonia the number of eggs varies from two to four in some of

the tortoises, to 200 in some of the turtles: while in the crocodiles

between 20 and 30 are produced, hard-shelled and white.

The eggs of the lizards are always white or yellowish, and generally

soft-shelled; but the geckos and the green lizard lay hard-shelled eggs.

Many of the soft-shelled eggs are remarkable for the fact that they

increase in size after extrusion, owing to the stretching of the

membranous shell by the growing embryo. In the matter of number lizards

are less prolific than many of the Chelonia, a dozen eggs being the

general number, though as many as thirty may be produced at a time, as

in the case of the common chameleon.

While as a general rule the eggs of lizards are laid in burrows or

buried, some are retained within the body of the parent until the young

are ready to emerge; or they may even hatch within the oviduct. This

occurs with some chameleons and some lizards, e.g. the slow-worm. The

common English lizard is also viviparous. Normally the young leaves the

egg immediately after its extrusion, but if by any chance this extrusion

is delayed they escape while yet in the oviduct.

The majority of the snakes lay eggs, but most of the vipers and the

aquatic snakes are viviparous, as also are a few terrestrial species.

The shell of the egg is always soft and parchment-like. As a rule the

number of eggs produced among the snakes is not large, twenty or thirty

being common, but some species of python lay as many as a hundred.

Generally, among the oviparous snakes the eggs are buried, but some

species of boas jealously guard them, enclosing them within the coils of

the body.

_Eggs of Amphibia._--Among the amphibia a greater variety obtains in the

matter of the investment of the egg, as well as in the number, size and

method of their disposal. The outer covering is formed by a toughening

of the surface of a thick gelatinous coat which surrounds the essential

parts of the egg. This coat in many species of salamander--using this

name in the wide sense--is produced into threads which serve either to

anchor the eggs singly or to bind them together in bunches.

Viviparity occurs both among the limbless and the tailed Amphibia, the

eggs hatching before they leave the oviduct or immediately after

extrusion. The number of young so produced is generally not large, but

the common salamander (_Salamandra maculosa_) may produce as many as

fifty at a birth, though fifteen is the more normal figure. When the

higher number is reached the young are relatively small and weak.

As a rule among the Amphibia the young leave the egg in the form of

larvae, generally known as "tadpoles"; but many species produce eggs

containing a sufficient amount of food material to enable the whole of

the larval phase to be completed before hatching.

Among the tailless Amphibia (frogs and toads) there are wide differences

in the number of eggs produced, while the methods by which these eggs

are disposed of present a marvellous variety.

As a rule vast quantities of eggs are shed by the female into the water

in the form of "spawn." In the common toad as many as 7000 eggs may be

extruded at a time. These leave the body in the form of two long

strings--one from each oviduct--of translucent globules, gelatinous in

texture, and enclosing a central sphere of yolk, the upper pole of which

is black. The spawn of the common frog differs from that of the toad in

that the eggs all adhere to form a huge jelly-like mass. But in many

species the number of eggs produced are few; and these may be

sufficiently stored with food-yolk to allow of the tadpole stage being

passed before hatching, as in frogs of the genus _Hylodes_. In many

cases the eggs are deposited out of the water and often in quite

remarkable ways.

_Eggs of Fishes._--The eggs of fishes present an extremely wide range of

form, and a no less extensive range in the matter of number. Both among

the cartilaginous and bony fishes viviparity occurs. Most of the sharks

and rays are viviparous, but in the oviparous species the eggs present

some interesting and peculiar forms. Large in size, the outer coat or

"shell" is in all cases horn-like and flexible, but differs greatly in

shape. Thus in the egg of the larger spotted dog-fish it is oblong in

shape, flattened from side to side, and has the angles produced into

long, slender tendrils. As the egg is laid the lower tendrils project

from the vent, and the mother rubs herself against some fixed body. The

tendrils soon catch fast in some slight projection, when the egg is

dragged forth there to remain till hatching takes place. A couple of

narrow slits at each corner of the upper end serve to admit fresh water

to the imprisoned embryo during the later stages of development; when

development is complete escape is made through the end of the shell. In

the rays or "skates," long spines take the place of tendrils, the egg

simply resting at the bottom of the sea. The empty egg-cases of the rays

are often found on the seashore, and are known as "Mermaids' purses."

The egg of the Port Jackson shark (_Cestracion_) is of enormous size,

pear-shaped, and provided with a spiral flange extending along the whole

length of the capsule. In the _Chimaera_ the egg is long, more or less

spindle-shaped, and produced on each side into a broad flange having a

fringed edge, so that the whole bears a close resemblance to a long

leaf, broad and notched at one end, pointed at the other. This likeness

to the seaweed among which it rests is doubtless a protective device,

akin to that of protectively coloured birds' eggs.

Among the bony fishes the eggs generally take the form of small spheres,

enclosed within a tough membrane or capsule. But they present many

important differences, being in some fishes heavy and remaining at the

bottom of the water, in other light and floating on the surface. While

in some species they are distributed separately, in others they adhere

together in masses. The eggs of the salmon, for example, are heavy, hard

and smooth, and deposited separately in a trough dug by the parent and

afterwards covered to prevent them from being carried away by the

stream. In the perch they are adhesive and form long band-like masses of

spawn adhering to water-plants. In the gobies the egg is spindle-shaped,

and attached by one end by means of a network of fibres, resembling

rootlets; while in the smelt the egg is loosely suspended by a membrane

formed by the peeling off of a part of the outer sheath of the capsule.

The eggs of the garfish (_Belone vulgaris_) and of the flying-fish of

the genus _Exocoetus_, attach themselves to foreign objects, or to one

another, by means of threads or cords developed at opposite poles of the

egg.

Among a number of fishes the eggs float at the surface of the sea, often

in enormous masses, when they are carried about at the mercy of tides

and currents. An idea of the size which such masses attain may be

gathered from the fact that the spawn of the angler-fish, _Lophius

piscatorius_, takes the form of a sheet from 2 to 3 ft. wide, and 30 ft.

long. Another remarkable feature of these floating eggs is their

transparency, inasmuch as they are extremely difficult to see, and hence

they probably escape the rapacious maws of spawn-eating animals. The cod

tribe and flat-fishes lay floating eggs of this description.

The maximum number of eggs laid by fishes varies greatly, some species

laying relatively few, others an enormous number. But in all cases the

number increases with the weight and age of the fish. Thus it has been

calculated that the number laid by the salmon is roughly about 1000 to

every pound weight of the fish, a 15 lb. salmon laying 15,000 eggs. The

sturgeon lays about 7,000,000; the herring 50,000; the turbot

14,311,000; the sole 134,000; the perch 280,000. Briefly, the number is

greatest where the risks of destruction are greatest.

The eggs of the degenerate fishes known as the lampreys and hag-fishes

are remarkable for the fact that in the latter they are large in size,

cylindrical in shape, and provided at each end with hooklets whereby

they adhere one to another; while in the lampreys they are extremely

small and embedded in a jelly.

_Molluscs._--Among the Mollusca, Crustacea and Insecta yolk-stored eggs

of very remarkable forms are commonly produced.

In variety, in this connexion, the Mollusca must perhaps be given the

first place. This diversity, indeed, is strikingly illustrated by the

eggs of the Cephalopoda. In the squids (_Loligo_), for example, the eggs

are enclosed in long cylindrical cases, of which there are several

hundreds, attached by one end to a common centre; the whole series

looking strangely like a rough mop-head. Each case, in such a cluster,

contains about 250 eggs, or about 40,000 in all. By way of contrast the

eggs of the true cuttle-fish (_Sepia_) are deposited separately, each

enclosed in a tough, black, pear-shaped capsule which is fastened by a

stalk to fronds of sea-weed or other object. They appear to be extruded

at short intervals, till the full complement is laid, the whole forming

a cluster looking like a bunch of grapes. The octopus differs yet again

in this matter, its eggs being very small, berry-like, and attached to a

stalk which runs through the centre of the mass.

The eggs of the univalve Mollusca are hardly less varied in the shapes

they take. In the common British _Purpura lapillus_ they resemble

delicate pink grains of rice set on stalks; in _Busycon_ they are

disk-shaped, and attached to a band nearly 3 ft. long. The eggs of the

shell-bearing slugs (_Testacella_) are large, and have the outer coat so

elastic that if dropped on a stone floor they will rebound several

inches; while some of the snails (_Bulimus_) lay eggs having a white

calcareous and slightly iridescent shell, in size and shape closely

resembling the egg of the pigeon. Some are even larger than the egg of

the wood-pigeon. The beautiful violet-snail (_Ianthina_)--a marine

species--carries its eggs on the under side of a gelatinous raft. No

less remarkable are the eggs of the whelk; since, like those of the

squids, they are not laid separately but enveloped in capsules, and

these to the number of many hundreds form the large, ball-like masses so

commonly met with on the seashore. When the eggs in these capsules

hatch, the crowd of embryos proceed to establish an internecine warfare,

devouring one another till only the strongest survives!

With the Mollusca, as with other groups of animals, where the eggs are

exposed to great risks they are small, produced in great numbers, and

give rise to larvae. This is well illustrated by the common oyster which

annually disperses about 60,000,000 eggs. But where the risk of

destruction is slight, the eggs are large and produce young differing

from the parent only in size, as in the case of the pigeon-like eggs of

_Bulimus_.

_Crustaceans._--Among the higher Crustacea, as a rule, the eggs are

carried by the female, attached to special appendages on the under side

of the body. But in some--Squillas--they are deposited in burrows.

Generally they are relatively small so that the young which emerge

therefrom differ markedly in appearance from the parents, but in

deep-sea and freshwater species the eggs are large, when the young, on

emerging, differ but little from the adults in appearance.

_Insects, &c._--The eggs of insects though minute, are also remarkable

for the great variety of form which they present, while they are

frequently objects of great beauty owing to the sculptured markings of

the shell. They are generally laid in clusters, either on the ground, on

the leaves of plants, or in the water. Some of the gnats (_Culex_) lay

them on the water. Cylindrical in shape they are packed closely

together, set on end, the whole mass forming a kind of floating raft.

Frequently, as in the case of the stick and leaf insect, the eggs are

enclosed in capsules of very elaborate shapes and highly ornamented.

As to the rest of the Invertebrata--above the Protozoa the eggs are laid

in water, or in damp places. In the former case they are as a rule

small, and give rise to larvae; while eggs hatched on land are sometimes

enclosed in capsules, "cocoons," as in the case of the earthworm, where

this capsule is filled with a milky white fluid, of a highly nutritious

character, on which the embryos feed.

Among some invertebrates two different kinds of eggs are laid by the

same individual. The water-flea, _Daphnia_ (a crustacean), lays two

kinds of eggs known as "summer" and "winter" eggs. The summer eggs are

carried by the female in a "brood-pouch" on the back. The "winter" eggs,

produced at the approach of winter, differ markedly in appearance from

the summer eggs, being larger, darker in colour, thicker shelled, and

enclosed in a capsule formed from the shell or carapace, of the parent's

body. "Winter eggs," however, may be produced in the height of summer.

While the "summer eggs" are unfertilized, the winter eggs are fertilized

by the male, and possess the remarkable power of lying dormant for

months or even years before they develop. The production of these two

kinds of eggs is a device to overcome the cold of winter, or the drying

up of the pools in which the species lives, during the heat of the

summer. The power of resistance which such eggs possess may be seen in

the fact that a sample of mud which had been kept dry for ten years

still contained living eggs. In deep water where neither drought nor

winter cold can seriously affect the _Daphnias_, they propagate all the

year round by unfertilized "summer" eggs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For further details on this subject the following

authors should be consulted:--_Mammals_: F. E. Beddard, "Remarks on

the Ovary of Echidna," _Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin._ vol. viii.

(1885); W. H. Caldwell, "The Embryology of Monotremata and

Marsupialia," _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc._ vol. 178 (1887); E. B. Poulton,

"The Structures connected with the Ovarian Ovum of the Marsupialia and

Monotremata," _Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci._ vol. xxiv. (1884). _Birds,

Systematic_:--H. Seebohm, _Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British

Birds_ (1896); A. Newton, _Ootheca Wooleyana_ (1907); E. Oates, _Cat.

Birds' Eggs Brit. Mus._ (appearing), vols. i.-iv. published.

_General_:--A. Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_ (1896). _Colouring

matter_:--Newbegin, _Colour in Nature_ (1898). _Reptiles and

Amphibia_:--H. Gadow, "Reptiles," _Camb. Nat. Hist._ (1901); G. A.

Boulenger, "The Tailless Batrachians of Europe," _Ray Soc._ (1896).

_Fishes_:--Bridge and Boulenger, "Fishes, Ascidians, &c.," _Camb. Nat.

Hist._ (1904); B. Dean, _Fishes Living and Fossil_ (1895); J. T.

Cunningham, _Marketable Marine Fishes_ (1896). _Invertebrate_:--G. H.

Carpenter, _Insects. Their Structure and Life_ (1899); L. C. Miall, _A

History of Aquatic Insects_ (1895); T. R. R. Stebbing, _Crustacea_,

Internat. Sci. series (1893); M. C. Cooke, "Mollusca," _Camb. Nat.

Hist._ (1906). For further references to the above and other

Invertebrate groups see various text-books on Entomology, Zoology.

(W. P. P.)

EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON, PRINCE (1568-1634), Austrian statesman, was

a son of Siegfried von Eggenberg (d. 1594), and began life as a soldier

in the Spanish service, becoming about 1596 a trusted servant of the

archduke of Styria, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II. Having become a

Roman Catholic, he was soon the chancellor and chief adviser of

Ferdinand, whose election as emperor he helped to secure in 1619. He

directed the imperial policy during the earlier part of the Thirty

Years' War, and was in general a friend and supporter of Wallenstein,

and an opponent of Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and of Spain. He was

largely responsible for Wallenstein's return to the imperial service

early in 1632, and retired from public life just after the general's

murder in February 1634, dying at Laibach, on the 18th of October 1634.

Eggenberg's influence with Ferdinand was so marked that it was commonly

said that Austria rested upon three hills (_Berge_): Eggenberg,

Questenberg and Werdenberg. He was richly rewarded for his services to

the emperor. Having received many valuable estates in Bohemia and

elsewhere, he was made a prince of the Empire in 1623, and duke of

Krumau in 1625.

See H. von Zwiedineck-Sudenhorst, _Hans Ulrich, Furst von Eggenberg_

(Vienna, 1880); and F. Mares, _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Beziehungen

des Fursten J. U. von Eggenberg zu Kaiser Ferdinand II und zu

Waldstein_ (Prague, 1893).

EGGER, EMILE (1813-1885), French scholar, was born in Paris on the 18th

of July 1813. From 1840 till 1855 he was assistant professor, and from

1855 till his death professor of Greek literature in the Faculte; des

Lettres at Paris University. In 1854 he was elected a member of the

Academie des Inscriptions and in 1873 of the Conseil superieur de

l'instruction publique. He was a voluminous writer, a sound and

discerning scholar, and his influence was largely responsible for the

revival of the study of classical philology in France. His most

important works were _Essai sur l'histoire de la critique chez les

Grecs_ (1849), _Notions elementaires de grammaire comparee_ (1852),

_Apollonius Dyscole, essai sur l'histoire des theories grammalicales

dans l'antiquite_ (1854), _Memoires de litterature ancienne_ (1862),

_Memoires d'histoire ancienne et de philologie_ (1863), _Les Papyrus

grecs du Musee du Louvre et de la Bibliotheque Imperiale_ (1865),

_Etudes sur les traites publics chez les Grecs et les Romains_ (1866),

_L'Hellenisme en France_ (1869), _La Litterature grecque_ (1890). He was

also the author of _Observations et reflexions sur le developpement de

l'intelligence et du langage chez les enfants_ (1879). Egger died in

Paris on the 1st of September 1885.

EGGLESTON, EDWARD (1837-1902), American novelist and historian, was born

in Vevay, Indiana, on the 10th of December 1837, of Virginia stock.

Delicate health, by which he was more or less handicapped throughout his

life, prevented his going to college, but he was naturally a diligent

student. He was a Methodist circuit rider and pastor in Indiana and

Minnesota (1857-1866); associate editor (1866-1867) of _The Little

Corporal_, Chicago; editor of _The National Sunday School Teacher_,

Chicago (1867-1870); literary editor and later editor-in-chief of _The

Independent_, New York (1870-1871); and editor of _Hearth and Home_ in

1871-1872. He was pastor of the church of Christian Endeavour, Brooklyn,

in 1874-1879. From 1880 until his death on the 2nd of September 1902, at

his home on Lake George, New York, he devoted himself to literary work.

His fiction includes _Mr Blake's Walking Stick_ (1869), for children;

_The Hoosier Schoolmaster_ (1871); _The End of the World_ (1872); _The

Mystery of Metropolisville_ (1873); _The Circuit Rider_ (1874); _Roxy_

(1878); The _Hoosier Schoolboy_ (1883); _The Book of Queer Stories_

(1884), for children; _The Graysons_ (1888), an excellent novel; _The

Faith Doctor_ (1891); and _Duffels_ (1893), short stories. Most of his

stories portray the pioneer manners and dialect of the Central West, and

the _Hoosier Schoolmaster_ was one of the first examples of American

local realistic fiction; it was very popular, and was translated into

French, German and Danish. During the last third of his life Eggleston

laboured on a _History of Life in the United States_, but he lived to

finish only two volumes--_The Beginners of a Nation_ (1896) and _The

Transit of Civilization_ (1900). In addition he wrote several popular

compendiums of American history for schools and homes.

See G. C. Eggleston, _The First of the Hoosiers_ (Philadelphia, 1903),

and Meredith Nicholson, _The Hoosiers_ (1900).

His brother GEORGE CARY EGGLESTON (1839- ), American journalist and

author, served in the Confederate army; was managing editor and later

editor-in-chief of _Hearth and Home_ (1871-1874); was literary editor of

the _New York Evening Post_ (1875-1881), literary editor and afterwards

editor-in-chief of the New York _Commercial Advertiser_ (1884-1889), and

editorial writer for _The World_ (New York) from 1889 to 1900. Most of

his books are stories for boys; others, and his best, are romances

dealing with life in the South especially in the Virginias and the

Carolinas--before and during the Civil War. Among his publications may

be mentioned: _A Rebel's Recollections_ (1874); _The Last of the

Flatboats_ (1900); _Camp Venture_ (1900); _A Carolina Cavalier_ (1901);

_Dorothy South_ (1902); _The Master of Warlock_ (1903); _Evelyn Byrd_

(1904); _A Daughter of the South_ (1905); _Blind Alleys_ (1906); _Love

is the Sum of it all_ (1907); _History of the Confederate War_ (1910);

and _Recollections of a Varied Life_ (1910).

EGHAM, a town in the Chertsey parliamentary division of Surrey, England,

on the Thames, 21 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western

railway. Pop. (1901) 11,895. The church of St John the Baptist is a

reconstruction of 1817; it contains monuments by John Flaxman. Above the

right bank of the river a low elevation, Cooper's Hill, commands fine

views over the valley, and over Windsor Great Park to the west. On the

hill was the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, commonly called

Cooper's Hill College, of which Sir George Tomkyns Chesney was the

originator and first president (1871). It educated men for the public

works, accounts, railways and telegraph departments of India, and

included a school of forestry; but it was decided, in the face of some

opposition, to close it in 1906, on the theory that it was unnecessary

for a college with such a specialized object to be maintained by the

government, in view of the readiness with which servants for these

departments could be recruited elsewhere. Part of the organization,

including the school of forestry, was transferred to Oxford University.

Cooper's Hill gives name to a famous poem of Sir John Denham (1642). A

large and handsome building houses the Royal Holloway College for Women

(1886), founded by Thomas Holloway; in the neighbourhood is the

sanatorium of the same founder (1885) for the treatment of mental

ailments, accommodating about 250 patients. The college for women,

surrounded by extensive grounds, commands a wide view from the wooded

slope on which it stands. The recreation hall, with its fine art

collection, is the most notable room in this handsome building, which

can receive 250 students. Within the parish, bordering the river, is the

field of Runnymede, which, with Magna Charta Island lying off it, is

famous in connexion with the signature of the charter by King John.

Virginia Water, a large and picturesque artificial lake to the south of

Windsor Great Park, is much frequented by visitors. It was formed under

the direction of the duke of Cumberland, about 1750, and was the work of

the brothers Thomas and Paul Sandby.

EGIN (Armenian _Agn_, "the spring"), an important town in the Mamuret

el-Aziz vilayet of Asiatic Turkey (altitude 3300 ft.). Pop. about

20,000, fairly equally divided between Armenian Christians and Moslems.

It is picturesquely situated in a theatre of lofty, abrupt rocks, on the

right bank of the western Euphrates, which is crossed by a wooden

bridge. The stone houses stand in terraced gardens and orchards, and the

streets are mere rock ladders. Egin was settled by Armenians who

emigrated from Van in the 11th century with Senekherim. On the 8th of

November 1895 and in the summer of 1896 many Armenians were massacred

here. (D. G. H.)

EGLANTINE (E. Frisian, _egeltiere_; Fr. _aiglantier_), a plant-name of

which Dr R. C. A. Prior (_Popular Names of British Plants_, p. 70) says

that it "has been the subject of much discussion, both as to its exact

meaning and as to the shrub to which it properly belongs." The eglantine

of the herbalists was the sweet-brier, _Rosa rubiginosa_. The

signification of the word seems to be thorn-tree or thorn-bush, the

first two syllables probably representing the Anglo-Saxon _egla_,

_egle_, a prick or thorn, while the termination is the Dutch _tere_,

_taere_, a tree. Eglantine is frequently alluded to in the writings of

English poets, from Chaucer downwards. Milton, in _L'Allegro_, is

thought by the term "twisted eglantine" to denote the honeysuckle,

_Lonicera Periclymenum_, which is still known as eglantine in north-east

Yorkshire.

EGLINTON, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Eglinton has been held by the

famous Scottish family of Montgomerie since 1508. The attempts made to

trace the descent of this house to Roger of Montgomery, earl of

Shrewsbury (d. 1094), one of William the Conqueror's followers, will not

bear examination, and the sure pedigree of the family only begins with

Sir John Montgomerie, lord of Eaglesham, who fought at the battle of

Otterbourne in 1388 and died about 1398. His grandson, Sir Alexander

Montgomerie (d. c. 1460), was made a lord of the Scottish parliament

about 1445 as Lord Montgomerie, and Sir Alexander's great-grandson Hugh,

the 3rd lord (c. 1460-1545), was created earl of Eglinton, or Eglintoun,

in 1508. Hugh, who was a person of importance during the minority of

James V., was succeeded by his grandson Hugh (d. 1546), and then by the

latter's son Hugh (c. 1531-1585), who became 3rd earl of Eglinton. This

nobleman was a firm supporter of Mary queen of Scots, for whom he fought

at Langside, and of the Roman Catholic Church; his son and successor,

Hugh, was murdered in April 1586 by the Cunninghams, a family with which

his own had an hereditary blood feud. In 1612, by the death of Hugh, the

5th earl, the male line of the Montgomeries became extinct.

Having no children Earl Hugh had settled his title and estates on his

cousin, Sir Alexander Seton of Foulstruther (1588-1661), a younger son

of Robert Seton, 1st earl of Wintoun (c. 1550-1603), and his wife

Margaret, daughter of the 3rd earl of Eglinton. Alexander, who thus

became the 6th earl of Eglinton and took the name of Montgomerie, was

commonly called Greysteel; he was a prominent Covenanter and fought

against Charles I. at Marston Moor. Later, however, he supported the

cause of Charles II., and fell into the hands of Cromwell, who

imprisoned him. His fifth son, Robert Montgomerie (d. 1684), a soldier

of distinction, fought against Cromwell at Dunbar and at Worcester,

afterwards escaping from the Tower of London and serving in Denmark.

Robert's elder brother, Hugh, 7th earl of Eglinton (1613-1669), who also

fought against Cromwell, was the grandfather of Alexander, the 9th earl

(c. 1660-1729), who married, for his third wife, Susannah (1689-1780),

daughter of Sir Archibald Kennedy, Bart., of Culzean, a lady celebrated

for her wit and beauty. Alexander, the 10th earl (1723-1769), a son of

the 9th earl, was one of the first of the Scottish landowners to carry

out improvements on his estates. He was shot near Ardrossan by an excise

officer named Mungo Campbell on the 24th of October 1769. His brother

and successor, Archibald, the 11th earl (1726-1796), raised a regiment

of Highlanders with which he served in America during the Seven Years'

War. As he left no male issue he was succeeded in the earldom by his

kinsman Hugh Montgomerie (1739-1819), a descendant of the 6th earl, who

was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Ardrossan in 1806.

Before succeeding to the earldom Hugh had served in the American war and

had been a member of parliament; after this event he began to rebuild

Eglinton castle on a magnificent scale and to construct a harbour at

Ardrossan.

This earl's successor was his grandson, Archibald William, the 13th earl

(1812-1861), who was born at Palermo on the 29th of September 1812. His

father was Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773-1814), the eldest son of

the 12th earl, and his mother was Mary (d. 1848), a daughter of the 11th

earl. Educated at Eton, the young earl's main object of interest for

some years was the turf; he kept a large racing stud and won success and

reputation in the sporting world. In 1839 his name became more widely

known in connexion with the famous tournament which took place at

Eglinton castle and is said to have cost him L30,000 or L40,000. This

was made the subject of much ridicule and was partly spoiled by the

unfavourable weather, the rain falling in torrents. Yet it was a real

tournament and the "knights" broke their spears in the orthodox way.

Prince Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.) took part in it, and Lady Seymour,

a daughter of Thomas Sheridan and the wife of Lord Seymour, afterwards

12th duke of Somerset, was the queen of beauty. A list of the

challengers with an account of the jousts and the melee will be found in

the volume on the tournament written by John Richardson, with drawings

by J. H. Nixon. It is also described by Disraeli in _Endymion_. Eglinton

was a staunch Tory, and in February 1852 he became lord-lieutenant of

Ireland under the earl of Derby. He retired with the ministry in the

following December, having by his princely hospitality made himself one

of the most popular of Irish viceroys. When Derby returned to office in

February 1858 he was again appointed lord-lieutenant, and he discharged

the duties of this post until June 1859. In this year he was created

earl of Winton, an earldom which had been held by his kinsfolk, the

Setons, from 1600 until 1716, when George Seton, the 5th earl (c.

1678-1749), was deprived of his honours for high treason. The earl died

on the 4th of October 1861, and was succeeded by his eldest son

Archibald William (1841-1892). When this earl died in 1892 his younger

brother George Arnulph (b. 1848) became 15th earl of Eglinton and 3rd

earl of Winton.

See Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Montgomeries, earls of Eglinton_

(1859).

EGMONT, EARLS OF. John Perceval, 1st earl of Egmont (1683-1748), Irish

politician, and partner with J. E. Oglethorpe in founding the American

colony of Georgia, was created earl in 1733. He claimed descent from the

Egmonts of Flanders, but his title was taken from the place in County

Cork where the family residence stood. Its name of Burton House, and

that of Burton manor which formed part of the family estates, were a

reminiscence of Burton in Somerset, where was the earlier English family

property of his great-great-grandfather Richard Perceval (1550-1620),

Burghley's secret agent, and author of a Spanish dictionary published in

1591, whose son Sir Philip Perceval (1605-1647) acquired the Irish

estates by judicious use of his opportunities as commissioner for land

titles and of his interest at court. Sir Philip's son John, grandfather

of the 1st earl, was made a baronet in 1661. The first earl of Egmont

(who had been made Baron Perceval in 1715, and Viscount Perceval in

1723) is chiefly important for his connexion with the colonization of

Georgia, and for his voluminous letters and writings on biography and

genealogy.

John Perceval, 2nd earl of Egmont (1711-1770), his eldest son, was an

active politician, first lord of the admiralty (1763-1766), and

political pamphleteer, and like his father an ardent genealogist. He was

twice married, and had eight sons and eight daughters. One of his

younger sons was Spencer Perceval, prime minister of England. His eldest

son succeeded as 3rd earl, and the eldest by his second marriage (with

Catherine Compton, baroness of Arden in Ireland) was in 1802 created

Baron Arden of the United Kingdom, a title which subsequently became

merged in the Egmont earldom.

EGMONT (EGMOND), LAMORAL, COUNT OF, prince of Gavre (1522-1568), was

born in Hainaut in 1522. He was the younger of the two sons of John IV.,

count of Egmont, by his wife Francoise of Luxemburg, princess of Gavre.

On the death of his elder brother Charles, about 1541, he succeeded to

his titles and estates. In this year he served his apprenticeship as a

soldier in the expedition of the emperor Charles V. to Algiers,

distinguishing himself in the command of a body of cavalry. In 1544 he

married Sabina, sister of the elector palatine Frederick III., and the

wedding was celebrated at Spires with great pomp in the presence of the

emperor and his brother Ferdinand, afterwards emperor. Created knight of

the Golden Fleece in 1546, he accompanied Philip of Spain in his tour

through the Netherland towns, and in 1554 he went to England at the head

of a special embassy to ask the hand of Mary of England for Philip, and

was afterwards present at the wedding ceremony at Winchester. In the

summer of 1557 Egmont was appointed commander of the Flemish cavalry in

the war between Spain and France; and it was by his vehement persuasion

that the battle of St Quentin was fought. The victory was determined by

the brilliant charge that he led against the French. The reputation

which he won at St Quentin was raised still higher in 1558, when he

encountered the French army under de Thermes at Gravelines, on its march

homewards after the invasion of Flanders, totally defeated it, and took

Marshal de Thermes prisoner. The battle was fought against the advice of

the duke of Alva, and the victory made Alva Egmont's enemy. But the

count now became the idol of his countrymen, who looked upon him as the

saviour of Flanders from the devastations of the French. He was

nominated by Philip stadtholder of Flanders and Artois. At the

conclusion of the war by the treaty of Cateau Cambresis, Egmont was one

of the four hostages selected by the king of France as pledges for its

execution.

The attempt made by King Philip to convert the Netherlands into a

Spanish dependency and to govern it by Spanish ministers excited the

resentment of Egmont and other leading members of the Netherlands

aristocracy. Between him and Cardinal Granvella, the all-powerful

minister of the regent Margaret of Parma, there was no love lost. As a

member of the council of state Egmont joined the prince of Orange in a

vigorous protest addressed to Philip (1561) against the autocratic

proceedings of the minister; and two years later he again protested in

conjunction with the prince of Orange and Count Horn. In the spring of

1564 Granvella left the Netherlands, and the malcontent nobles once more

took their places in the council of state. The resolve, however, of

Philip to enforce the decrees of the council of Trent throughout the

Netherlands once more aroused their resentment. Although himself a good

Catholic, Egmont had no wish to see the Spanish Inquisition established

in his native country. Orange, Egmont and others were convinced that the

enforcement of the decrees in the Netherlands was impossible, and, in

January 1665, Egmont accepted a special mission to Spain to make known

to Philip the state of affairs and the disposition of the people. At

Madrid the king gave him an ostentatiously cordial reception, and all

the courtiers vied with one another in lavishing professions of respect

upon him. They knew his vain and somewhat unstable character, and hoped

to win him over without conceding anything to the wishes of the

Netherlanders. The king gave him plenty of flatteries and promises, but

steadily evaded any serious discussion of the object of his mission, and

Egmont finally returned home without having accomplished anything. At

the same time Philip sent further instructions to the regent to abate

nothing of the severity of the persecution.

Egmont was naturally indignant at the treatment he had received, while

the terrors of the Inquisition were steadily rousing the people to a

state of frenzied excitement. In 1566 a confederacy of the lesser

nobility was formed (_Les Gueux_) whose principles were set out in a

document known as the Compromise. From this league Egmont held aloof; he

declined to take any step savouring of actual disloyalty to his

sovereign. He withdrew to his government of Flanders, and as stadtholder

took active measures for the persecution of heretics. But in the eyes of

Philip he had long been a marked man. The Spanish king had temporized

only until the moment arrived when he could crush opposition by force.

In the summer of 1567 the duke of Alva was despatched to the Netherlands

at the head of an army of veterans to supersede the regent Margaret and

restore order in the discontented provinces. Orange fled to Germany

after having vainly warned Egmont and Horn of the dangers that

threatened them. Alva was at pains to lull their suspicions, and then

suddenly seized them both and threw them in the castle of Ghent. Their

trial was a farce, for their fate had already been determined before

Alva left Spain. After some months of imprisonment they were removed to

Brussels, where sentence was pronounced upon them (June 4) by the

infamous Council of Blood erected by Alva. They were condemned to death

for high treason. It was in vain that the most earnest intercessions

were made in behalf of Egmont by the emperor Maximilian, by the knights

of the order of the Golden Fleece, by the states of Brabant, and by

several of the German princes. Vain, too, was the pathetic pleading of

his wife, who with her eleven children was reduced to want, and had

taken refuge in a convent. Egmont was beheaded at Brussels in the square

before the town hall on the day after his sentence had been publicly

pronounced (June 5, 1568). He met his fate with calm resignation; and in

the storm of terror and exasperation to which this tragedy gave rise

Egmont's failings were forgotten, and he and his fellow-victim to

Spanish tyranny were glorified in the popular imagination as martyrs of

Flemish freedom. From this memorable event, which Goethe made the theme

of his play _Egmont_ (1788), is usually dated the beginning of the

famous revolt of the Netherlands. In 1865 a monument to Counts Egmont

and Horn, by Fraiken, was erected on the spot where they were beheaded.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. Juste, _Le Comte d'Egmont et le comte de Hornes_

(Brussels, 1862), _Les Pays-Bas sous Philippe II_, 1555-1565 (2 vols.,

Brussels, 1855); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, 1555-1584

(3 vols., London, 1856); J. P. Blok, _History of the People of the

Netherlands_ (tr. from Dutch), vol. iii. (New York, 1900); R. Fruin,

_Het voorspel van den tastigjarigen oorlag_ (Amsterdam, 1866); E.

Marx, _Studien zur Geschichte des niederlandischen Aufstandes_

(Leipzig, 1902). (G. E.)

EGOISM (from Gr. and Lat. _ego_, I, the 1st personal pronoun), a modern

philosophical term used generally, in opposition to "Altruism," for any

ethical system in which the happiness or the good of the individual is

the main criterion of moral action. Another form of the word, "Egotism,"

is really interchangeable, though in ordinary language it is often used

specially (and similarly "egoism," as in George Meredith's _Egoist_) to

describe the habit of magnifying one's self and one's achievements, or

regarding all things from a selfish point of view. Both these ideas

derive from the original meaning of _ego_, myself, as opposed to

everything which is outside myself. This antithesis of ego and non-ego,

self and not-self, may be understood in several senses according to the

connexion in which it is used. Thus the self may be held to include

one's family, property, business, and an indefinitely wider range of

persons or objects in which the individual's interest is for the moment

centred, i.e. everything which I can call "mine." In this, its widest,

sense "a man's Self is the sum total of all that he _can_ call his" (Wm.

James, _Principles of Psychology_, chap x.). This self may be divided up

in many ways according to the various forms in which it may be

expressed. Thus James (ibid.) classifies the various "selves" as the

material, the spiritual, the social and the "pure." Or again the self

may be narrowed down to a man's own person, consisting of an individual

mind and body. In the true philosophical sense, however, the conception

of the ego is still further narrowed down to the individual

consciousness as opposed to all that is outside it, i.e. can be its

object. This conception of the self belongs mainly to metaphysics and

involves the whole problem of the relation between subject and object,

the nature of reality, and the possibility of knowledge of self and of

object. The ordinary idea of the self as a physical entity, obviously

separate from others, takes no account of the problem as to how and in

what sense the individual is conscious of himself; what is the relation

between subject and object in the phenomenon of self-consciousness, in

which the mind reflects upon itself both past and present? The mind is

in this case both subject and object, or, as William James puts it, both

"I" and "me." The phenomenon has been described in various ways by

different thinkers. Thus Kant distinguished the two selves as rational

and empirical, just as he distinguished the two egos as the noumenal or

real and the phenomenal from the metaphysical standpoint. A similar

distinction is made by Herbart. Others have held that the self has a

complex content, the subject self being, as it were, a fuller expression

of the object-self (so Bradley); or again the subject self is the active

content of the mind, and the object self the passive content which for

the moment is exciting the attention. The most satisfactory and also the

most general view is that consciousness is complex and unanalysable.

The relation of the self to the not-self need not to be treated here

(see METAPHYSICS). It may, however, be pointed out that in so far as an

object is cognized by the mind, it becomes in a sense part of the

complex self-content. In this sense the individual is in himself his own

universe, his whole existence being, in other words, the sum total of

his psychic relations, and nothing else being _for him_ in existence at

all. A similar idea is prominent in many philosophico-religious systems

wherein the idea of God or the Infinite is, as it were, the union of the

ego and the non-ego, of subject and object. The self of man is regarded

as having limitations, whereas the Godhead is infinite and

all-inclusive. In many mystical Oriental religions the perfection of the

human self is absorption in the infinite, as a ripple dies away on the

surface of water. The problems of the self may be summed up as follows.

The psychologist investigates the ideal construction of the self, i.e.

the way in which the conception of the self arises, the different

aspects or contents of the self and the relation of the subject to the

object self. At this point the epistemologist takes up the question of

empirical knowledge and considers the kind of validity, if any, which it

can possess. What existence has the known object for the knowing

subject? The result of this inquiry is generally intellectual scepticism

in a greater or less degree, namely, that the object has no existence

for the knower except a relative one, i.e. in so far as it is "known"

(see RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE). Finally the metaphysician, and in another

sphere the theologian, consider the nature of the pure or transcendental

self apart from its relations, i.e. the absolute self.

In ethics, egoistic doctrines disregard the ultimate problems of

selfhood, and assume the self to consist of a man's person and those

things in which he is or ought to be directly interested. The general

statement that such doctrines refer all moral action to criteria of the

individual's happiness, preservation, moral perfection, raises an

obvious difficulty. Egoism merely asserts that the self is all-important

in the application of moral principles, and does not in any way supply

the material of these principles. It is a purely formal direction, and

as such merely an adjunct to a substantive ethical criterion. A

practical theory of ethics seeks to establish a particular moral ideal;

if it is an absolute criterion, then the altruist would place first the

attainment of that ideal by others, while the egoist would seek it for

himself. The same is true of ethical theories which may be described as

material. Of the second type are those, e.g. of Hobbes and Spinoza,

which advocate self-preservation as the ideal, as contrasted with modern

evolutionist moralists who advocate race-preservation. Again, we may

contrast the early Greek hedonists, who bade each man seek the greatest

happiness (of whatever kind), with modern utilitarian and social

hedonists, who prefer the greatest good or the greatest happiness of the

greatest number. It is with hedonistic and other empirical theories that

egoism is generally associated. As a matter of fact, however, egoism has

been no less prominent in intuitional ethics. Thus the man who seeks

only or primarily his own moral perfection is an egoist par excellence.

Such are ascetics, hermits and the like, whose whole object is the

realization of their highest selves.

The distinction of egoistical and altruistic action is further

complicated by two facts. In the first place, many systems combine the

two. Thus Christian ethics may be said to insist equally on duty to self

and duty to others, while crudely egoistic systems become unworkable if

a man renders himself obnoxious to his fellows. On the other hand, every

deliberate action based on an avowedly altruistic principle necessarily

has a reference to the agent; if it is right that A should do a certain

action for the benefit of B, then it tends to the moral self-realization

of A that he should do it. Upon whatsoever principle the rightness of an

action depends, its performance is right _for the agent_. The

self-reference is inevitable in every action in so far as it is regarded

as voluntary and chosen as being of a particular moral quality.

It is this latter fact which has led many students of human character to

state that men do in fact aim at the gratification of their personal

desires and impulses. The laws of the state and the various rules of

conduct laid down by religion or morality are merely devices adopted for

general convenience. The most remarkable statement of this point of view

is that of Friedrich Nietzsche, who went so far as to denounce all forms

of self-denial as cowardice:--let every one who is strong seek to make

himself dominant at the expense of the weak.

EGORIEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazan, 70 m. by rail

E.S.E. of Moscow, by a branch line (15 m.) connecting with the Moscow to

Ryazan main line. The cotton mills and other factories give occupation

to 6000 persons. Egorievsk has important fairs for grain, hides, &c.,

which are exported. Pop. (1897) 23,932.

EGREMONT, EARLS OF. In 1749 Algernon Seymour, 7th duke of Somerset, was

created earl of Egremont, and on his childless death in February 1750

this title passed by special remainder to his nephew, Sir Charles

Wyndham or Windham, Bart. (1710-1763), a son of Sir William Wyndham of

Orchard Wyndham, Somerset. Charles, who had succeeded to his father's

baronetcy in 1740, inherited Somerset's estates in Cumberland and

Sussex. He was a member of parliament from 1734 to 1750, and in October

1761 he was appointed secretary of state for the southern department in

succession to William Pitt. His term of office, during which he acted in

concert with his brother-in-law, George Grenville, was mainly occupied

with the declaration of war on Spain and with the negotiations for peace

with France and Spain, a peace the terms of which the earl seems to have

disliked. He was also to the fore during the proceedings against Wilkes,

and he died on the 21st of August 1763. Horace Walpole perhaps rates

Egremont's talents too low when he says he "had neither knowledge of

business, nor the smallest share of parliamentary abilities."

The 2nd earl's son and successor, George O'Brien Wyndham (1751-1837),

was more famous as a patron of art and an agriculturist than as a

politician, although he was not entirely indifferent to politics. For

some time the painter Turner lived at his Sussex residence, Petworth

House, and in addition to Turner, the painter Leslie, the sculptor

Flaxman and other talented artists received commissions from Egremont,

who filled his house with valuable works of art. Generous and

hospitable, blunt and eccentric, the earl was in his day a very

prominent figure in English society. Charles Greville says, "he was

immensely rich and his munificence was equal to his wealth"; and again

that in his time Petworth was "like a great inn." The earl died

unmarried on the 11th of November 1837, and on the death of his nephew

and successor, George Francis Wyndham, the 4th earl (1785-1845), the

earldom of Egremont became extinct. Petworth, however, and the large

estates had already passed to George Wyndham (1787-1869), a natural son

of the 3rd earl, who was created Baron Leconfield in 1859.

EGREMONT, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary division of

Cumberland, England, 5 m. S.S.E. of Whitehaven, on a joint line of the

London & North Western and Furness railways. Pop. of urban district

(1901) 5761. It is pleasantly situated in the valley of the Ehen. Ruins

of a castle command the town from an eminence. It was founded c. 1120 by

William de Meschines; it is moated, and retains a Norman doorway and

some of the original masonry, as well as fragments of later date. The

church of St Mary is a modern reconstruction embodying some of the

Norman features of the old church. Iron ore and limestone are raised in

the neighbourhood.

It seems impossible to find any history for Egremont until after the

Norman Conquest, when Henry I. gave the barony of Coupland to William de

Meschines, who erected a castle at Egremont around which the town grew

into importance. The barony afterwards passed by marriage to the

families of Lucy and Multon, and finally came to the Percys, earls of

Northumberland, from whom are descended the present lords of the manor

of Egremont. The earliest evidence that Egremont was a borough occurs in

a charter, granted by Richard de Lucy in the reign of King John, which

gave the burgesses right to choose their reeve, and set out the customs

owing to the lord of the manor, among which was that of providing twelve

armed men at his castle in the time of war. The borough was represented

by two members in the parliament of 1295, but in the following year was

disfranchised, on the petition of the burgesses, on account of the

expense of sending members. In 1267 Henry III. granted Thomas de Multon

a market every Wednesday at Egremont, and a fair every year on the eve,

day and morrow of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary. In the _Quo Warranto_

rolls he is found to have claimed by prescription another weekly market

on Saturday. The market rights were purchased from Lord Leconfield in

1885, and the market on Saturday is still held. Richard de Lucy's

charter shows that dyeing, weaving and fulling were carried on in the

town in his time.

EGRESS (Lat. _egressus_, going out), in astronomy, the end of the

apparent transit of a small body over the disk of a larger one;

especially of a transit of a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of that

planet. It designates the moment at which the smaller body is seen to

leave the limb of the other.

EGYPT, a country forming the N.E. extremity of Africa.[1] In the

following account a division is made into (I.) _Modern Egypt_, and (II.)

_Ancient Egypt_; but the history from the earliest times is given as a

separate section (III.).

Section I. includes Geography, Economics, Government, Inhabitants,

Finance and Army. Section II. is subdivided into:--(A) Exploration and

Research; (B) The Country in Ancient Times; (C) Religion; (D) Language

and Writing; (E) Art and Archaeology; (F) Chronology. Section III. is

divided into three main periods:--(1) Ancient History; (2) the

Mahommedan Period; (3) Modern History (from Mehemet Ali).