INDIA IN 1803
State of affairs in India in 1803--The Mahratta Confederacy--The
Peishwa--Scindia--European Adventurers in India--Scindia’s
disciplined forces--Perron--Quarrels among the Mahratta
Chiefs--Peishwa takes refuge in Bombay--Places himself under
protection of the British--Scindia’s hostility aroused--Mahratta
combination against the British--Peishwa restored to
Poona--Preparations for hostilities--Summary of campaign that
followed.
In order to understand the state of affairs existing in India at the
beginning of 1803, a brief retrospect is necessary. The Mogul Empire
had ceased to exist except in name. The old Emperor Shah Alum, still
occupied the palace at Delhi, but only as a blind pensioner of the
Mahrattas. Everywhere on the ruins of Mahommedan rule new Hindoo
States had come into vigorous existence, and were even beginning to
quarrel over the spoils. In the North the Sikhs, and to the East
the Goorkhas, were fast forming powerful States. In the South, the
short-lived kingdom of Hyder Ali and Tippoo had been swept out of
existence, while the power of the Nizam was gradually growing weaker
under the encroachment of his Mahratta neighbours. In the great
tract of country stretching from the Sutlej to the Kistna, and from
the Company’s territories in Bengal to the Bay of Cambay, a tract
measuring approximately a thousand miles from North to South, and
from East to West, the supremacy of the Mahratta Chiefs was complete.
Calcutta, Benares, Bombay, Hyderabad, and Madras were all within easy
striking distance of their predatory hordes. Their principal Chiefs
were the Rajah of Satara, the Peishwa with his seat of government
at Poona, the Scindia with his capital at Oojain, the Holkar whose
capital was at Indore, the Gaekwar at Baroda, the Bhonslay of Berar,
whose capital was Nagpore, and the Rajah of Kolapore. The nominal
Chiefship of the whole confederacy rested in the Rajah of Satara,
the descendant of Sivaji, the founder of the Mahratta power. But the
Satara Rajahs had long sunk into the grade of petty princes devoid of
military or political influence. As the power of the Satara Rajahs
declined, that of the Peishwa, the hereditary Prime Minister, rose.
Ruling at first in the name of the Satara Chief, the Peishwas had in
time grown into independent princes, wielding the whole power of the
Mahratta Confederacy. But the power of the Peishwas in its turned
waned, so that, in 1776, the Peishwa Rughonath Rao was forced to seek
asylum with the English in Bombay. Since then a partial revival of
the Peishwa’s power had taken place under the protection of Scindia,
who had become the foremost Chief in the Confederacy; and partly
owing to the abilities of the Peishwa’s Minister, Nana Farnawis.
At the beginning of 1803, Scindia was the most powerful Chief in
India. Drawing great revenues from a vast area, he held Delhi with
its pensioner monarch in the North, received tribute from the Rajpoot
States in the centre, and had a predominant voice in the Councils
of the Poona Court in the Deccan. The fiction of ruling in the name
of the Satara Chief had long ceased to be maintained: government
in the name of the Peishwa was fast becoming a fiction. A cardinal
point in the policy of Nana Farnawis was to promote friendship with
the English Government, in order to preserve some check on Scindia’s
predominance. One of the most important sources of Scindia’s power
was the large force maintained by him, disciplined and commanded by
Europeans. At that date, India swarmed with adventurers of every
nationality, two-thirds of whom were of French extraction. Their
presence in India was an important factor in the politics of the
day. Every Chief, however unimportant he might be, had Europeans to
lead his troops. The first Chief in India to thoroughly recognize
the importance of European organization and discipline had been
Hyder Ali of Mysore. But his efforts had been directed rather to
forming complete Corps of European Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry,
which never exceeded a few hundreds in number. He also had many
Europeans as leaders of his native troops, but little was done by
him to discipline native troops on the European model. It was Madho
Rao Scindia who first developed the system of disciplining his
native troops in European fashion under the celebrated De Boigne,
which quickly rendered him the most powerful Chief in India. At the
time of which we are treating, his nephew and successor, Dowlut Rao
Scindia, had in his service a force estimated at 43,650 men, with
464 guns, armed and disciplined in European fashion, and commanded
by Europeans. This formidable body of men had lived in a state of
continuous warfare ever since it was first raised in 1784. At the
head of Scindia’s disciplined forces was the Frenchman Perron, who,
had raised himself practically to an independent position. Acting as
Scindia’s lieutenant in the North, he ruled over a great tract of
country, extending from the Jumna to the foot of the Himalayas, and
from the Sutlej to the Chumbul, and, owing to difficulties in which
Scindia had become recently involved in the Deccan, he entertained
dreams of independence. Perron was known to be in correspondence with
the French Directory at Paris, and the British government was again
threatened with the possibility of the establishment of French power
in India on the ruins of the Native States in the North-West and the
Deccan. Perron and the British Governor General each recognised in
the other his most formidable foe. Next in importance to Scindia,
among the Mahratta Chiefs, was Holkar, whose military talents made
him Scindia’s most dangerous rival. His disciplined battalions,
commanded by Europeans, were second only in number and efficiency
to Scindia’s. Fortunately the dissensions between these Chiefs had
reached a height that made co-operation between them out of the
question.
From the conclusion of the Treaty of Salbye, 17th May 1782, to the
end of 1802, no serious clash of interests had occurred between the
British government and the Mahratta Chiefs. While Scindia and Holkar
alternately extended their conquests at the expense of the Mahommedan
and Rajpoot States, or strove together for supremacy at Poonah, the
British Government preserved an attitude of neutrality, till events
occurred that led Scindia into direct collision with the British
power.
In 1798, dissensions broke out between Scindia and the widows of
his late uncle Madho Rao Scindia; in the following year, the ladies
fled for protection to the Rajah of Kolapore, who was then at war
with the Peishwa. Raising a large force, the Kolapore Chief advanced
on Poona, and severe fighting ensued. The Peishwa and Scindia were
hard pressed, the flame spread, and the whole Southern Mahratta
country was thrown into disorder. Taking advantage of his rival’s
difficulties, Holkar took the field in Malwa, and ravaged Scindia’s
territories. Perron meanwhile was fully occupied in the North in
preparations to resist a threatened Afghan invasion, and could
render no assistance to his master. At this juncture Nana Farnawis
died (13th March 1800), and a fresh dispute over his property arose
between Scindia and the Peishwa. Fresh umbrage was taken by Scindia
at the permission granted by the Peishwa for British troops to
follow Dhoondia Wao into Mahratta territory. In the midst of these
embarrassments, Scindia’s presence in Malwa to oppose Holkar became
imperatively necessary, and he left Poona. His movements were,
however, so slow and ill-considered that Holkar was able to overwhelm
in succession two of his disciplined brigades, under M‘Intyre and
Hessing (July 1801), and plundered Oojain. Roused by this disaster,
Scindia quickly dealt a counterstroke on the 14th Oct. 1801, when
he signally defeated Holkar in front of Indore, and plundered that
city. Failing however to follow up the blow, his possessions in
Kandeish were devastated by Holkar, who was soon in the field again,
moving towards Poona. Scindia’s General, Sadasheo Bhow, interposed
between Holkar’s army and the capital; but Holkar was not to be
denied, and, on 25th Oct. 1802, the combined armies of Scindia and
the Peishwa were completely defeated at Poona, after a sanguinary
engagement which was fought under the eyes of the British Resident.
Dismayed at this catastrophe, the Peishwa fled to the coast, where
he was received on board a British vessel, and conveyed to Bassein,
near Bombay. There, on the 31st December, was signed the Treaty of
Bassein, by which the Peishwa formally placed himself under the
protection and guidance of the British Govt., with whom he concluded
an offensive and defensive alliance. It soon became evident that the
Peishwa’s treaty had aroused Scindia’s hostility, and that he was
preparing for war.
Till recently, Scindia had viewed the Company’s power with
comparative indifference. Their undertakings had not always been
successful; their resources, so far as he was able to judge, were
greatly inferior to his own, and, with his disciplined battalions,
he believed himself able to give a good account of any army the
British Government could bring into the field. His resentment was
first awakened by the treaty concluded in September 1798 between the
Company and the Nizam, on whom the Mahratta Chiefs conceived that
they had claims. On the outbreak of the war between Tippoo and the
English, Scindia formed the project of attacking the Nizam, but the
fall of Tippoo, before he could take the field, caused him to abandon
the plan, and Scindia became aware that the Company’s power was more
formidable than he had suspected. It was, however, no policy of
wanton aggression on our part that brought about the wars waged by
the Marquis of Wellesley. The real contest was between the British
and French power in India. England and France were locked in a deadly
struggle, which in India, on the French side, was fought out by
Native Chiefs directed by French officers in correspondence with the
French Directory in Paris. Had it not been so, our policy would have
been directed to smoothing over matters in India, while our whole
weight was thrown into the scale elsewhere. But circumstances did
not allow of this, and it was in pursuance of the policy forced on
us, that, first, Tippoo the centre of French influence in India was
struck down; next, the French party at Hyderabad were dispersed by
our assuming protection of the Nizam; and finally Scindia, the Rajah
of Berar and Holkar were humbled by the defeat of their disciplined
armies by Lake and Wellesley.
The assumption of the protectorate of the Peishwa, was regarded
by Scindia as a challenge for the mastery of India. A defensive
alliance was offered to him by the British, which he rejected, and
his apprehensions were worked on by the Bhonslay Rajah of Berar,
who was the prime mover in the war that followed. The quarrel with
Holkar was patched up, and an alliance was formed between Scindia,
Holkar and the Bhonslay to be directed against the Peishwa, the
Nizam, and the East India Company. An able and comprehensive plan
for simultaneous action was devised by Perron, by which one hundred
and fifteen thousand predatory horse and ninety-four battalions
would have at once carried fire and sword into the Company’s and
the Nizam’s territories, and would have prevented any co-operation
between the three powers thus assailed. But the plan came to nothing.
Perron’s intrigues had aroused the distrust of Scindia, while the
long existing animosity between Scindia and Holkar was too recent
and too bitter to allow of prompt co-operation. The Mahratta Chiefs
calculated on the British forces not moving till after the rainy
season, and expected no active hostilities before October. Holkar’s
forces were so tardily set in motion, that they were still on the
Nerbudda when the battle of Assaye was fought. On receipt of the news
he withdrew his troops to Indore, and avoided compromising himself
farther.
Scindia, having suspended all operations against Holkar, had marched
southwards to Burhanpore, towards the end of February, where he was
joined by the Nagpore Rajah. Their joint forces then advanced towards
the Nizam’s frontier where they encamped.
As soon as Scindia’s hostile intentions became known, a force of
nearly 20,000 men was assembled at Hurryhur, on the north-west
frontier of Mysore, under Major General the Hon. A. Wellesley. The
restoration of the Peishwa to his capital was the first thing to be
done. On the 9th March, Wellesley marched for Poona with 10,617 men,
among whom were the 19th Light Dragoons, drawing 412 sabres. The
remainder of the force was commanded by Colonel Stevenson, acting in
concert with Wellesley. On the 20th April, Wellesley reached Poona,
the last sixty miles being covered in 32 hours by the cavalry, who
had been pushed on ahead to save the city from being plundered.[43]
Holkar’s forces withdrew on his approach, and, on the 13th May, the
Peishwa arrived from Bassein escorted by British troops. Wellesley
then advanced to Walkee, six miles from Ahmednuggur, while
negotiations with the confederated Mahratta Chiefs continued. By the
end of July all hope of preserving peace had disappeared. The British
Resident with Scindia was therefore directed to withdraw, which he
did on the 3rd August.
The campaign that ensued was remarkable, not only for its complete
success, but for the extended nature of the operations carried on
simultaneously by a number of bodies of troops, acting to a great
extent in complete independence of each other, after the signal for
hostilities had been given. No better lesson in the art of war could
be studied than in the dispositions made by the Marquis of Wellesley
to bring matters to a successful issue, when the maintenance of
peace was no longer possible. A brief resumé of them here will not
be out of place. As the negotiations with Scindia made the warlike
intentions of that Chief more and more evident, troops were assembled
at various points, so that, on the outbreak of hostilities, the
distribution of forces on both sides was as follows.
The combined Mahratta Chiefs, without Holkar, could dispose of 87
battalions of Infantry, 500 guns, and over 80,000 Cavalry. In the
north, Perron had his Head Quarters at Alyghur, a fortress on which
much dependence was placed. He had over 16,000 regular Infantry,
about 5000 regular Cavalry, and a great number of irregular troops.
En route to join him from the Deccan were 25,000 men, under a French
officer, Dudrenec, of whom nearly 8000 were regular Infantry. With
Scindia, in the Deccan, were over 16,000 Infantry and upwards of
50,000 Mahratta Cavalry. In Bundelcund, under Shumshere Bahadoor,
were about 3000 regular Infantry, 20 guns, and 10,000 Cavalry.
All fortresses and fortified towns were strongly held, and there
were many detached corps of considerable strength in Cuttack and
elsewhere.
On the British side, a force under the Commander-in-Chief, General
Lake, consisting of 10,500 men, was assembled at Cawnpore, destined
to act against Perron. At Allahabad, a force of 3500 men, under Lt.
Colonel Powell, was assembled to operate in Bundelcund. At Chunar
and Mirzapore, 2000 men were stationed under Major General Deare,
to cover Benares and act on the defensive. From the Saone, near
Sasseram, to Pachet on the Damodar river, a similar force was so
disposed, under Lt. Colonel Broughton, as to cover the Company’s
territories in that region. This force was afterwards reinforced, and
took the offensive in the eastern provinces of Berar. Farther to the
south east, at Midnapore, a force of 1300 men, under Colonel Fenwick,
was posted to cover the frontier and threaten Cuttack. At Ganjam, a
force of 3540 men was ready, under Lt. Colonel Campbell, to operate
in Cuttack, supported by 500 men at Balasore, under Captain Morgan,
and 854 men under Lt. Colonel Ferguson, at Jalasore. The Cuttack
operations were however carried out by Lieut. Colonel Harcourt, in
consequence of the serious illness of Lt. Colonel Campbell at the
very commencement of field operations.
In the Deccan, to operate against Scindia, 8900 men, under Major
General the Honourable Arthur Wellesley, were encamped at Walkee near
Ahmednuggur. Farther to the eastward, and north of the Godavery, was
Colonel Stevenson with the Hyderabad subsidiary force, consisting
of 7900 men and the Nizam’s own troops, acting as a separate corps
in co-operation with Wellesley. In Guzerat, 7350 men under Colonel
Murray, acting under the orders of Wellesley, furnished a corps of
2187 men north of the Nerbudda, covering Baroda, and a second corps
of 2094 men, south of the Tapti between Songhur and Surat: the
remainder being employed to garrison Surat, Cambay, and Baroda, thus
effectually cutting off Scindia’s access to the coast. In addition
to these, garrisons of 1600 men and 2000 men were posted at Poona
and Hyderabad respectively, to ensure tranquillity and protect those
capitals, while a reserve of 4032 men, under Major General Campbell,
was stationed at Moodgul, south of the Kistna.
That the strain on the Company’s resources was very great is evident
from the fact that the Governor General sent his Body Guard into the
field, though he himself remained in Calcutta. The truest policy
demanded that the war should be actively prosecuted and brought
to a decisive termination as soon as possible, before further
complications should arise; not the least of which was the expected
arrival of a French squadron from Europe. How clearly this policy was
recognised and adopted, and how splendidly it was carried out may be
seen from the mere record of achievements. The rapidity with which
blow after blow was struck, will be best gathered from the following
table:--
_7th August_ General Lake commenced his advance towards
Delhi.
_8th_ ” The fortified town of Ahmednuggur taken
by assault, by Major General Wellesley.
_10th_ ” Fort of Ahmednuggur capitulated: taken
possession of on 12th.
_26th_ ” General Lake encamped on the frontier;
received authority to commence hostilities.
_29th_ ” Perron’s camp outside Alyghur captured by
General Lake: Perron flies to Agra.
” ” Broach, in Guzerat, taken by assault, by
Lt. Colonel Woodington.
_4th September_ Alyghur taken by storm by General Lake;
281 guns captured.
_6th_ ” Lt. Colonel Powell leaves Allahabad, and
advances on Bundelcund, which he
enters 14th.
_7th_ ” Perron surrenders to General Lake.
_8th_ ” Ganjam force advances.
_11th September_ Battle of Delhi: total defeat of Bourquien,
Perron’s lieutenant, by General Lake:
68 guns captured. General Lake
enters Delhi.
_14th_ ” Manikpatam, in Cuttack, occupied by
Lieut. Colonel Harcourt.
_17th_ ” Champaneer taken by assault, by Lt.
Colonel Woodington: Pawaghur surrenders.
_18th_ ” Juggernaut occupied by Lt. Colonel Harcourt.
_21st_ ” Balasore taken by Captain Morgan.
_23rd_ ” Scindia and the Berar Rajah defeated at
Assaye, by Major General Wellesley:
102 guns captured.
_3rd October_ Soorong, in Cuttack, occupied by Captain
Morgan.
_8th_ ” Agra invested by General Lake.
_10th_ ” Shumshere Bahadoor defeated, near
Capsah, by Lt. Colonel Powell.
” ” Force outside Agra defeated by General
Lake: 26 guns captured: town occupied.
_12th_ ” Force of 2500 men outside Agra, forced to
capitulate to General Lake.
_14th_ ” Barabuttee, in Cuttack, taken by assault by
Lt. Colonel Harcourt.
_16th_ ” Burhanpore occupied by Colonel Stevenson.
_18th_ ” Fort of Agra capitulates to General Lake:
164 guns captured.
_21st_ ” Asseerghur, attacked on 18th, surrenders
to Colonel Stevenson.
_1st November_ The last of Perron’s forces totally defeated
at Laswaree, by General Lake: 72
guns captured.
_2nd_ ” Defiles from Cuttack into Berar occupied
by Lt. Colonel Harcourt.
_29th_ ” Scindia and the Berar Rajah totally defeated
at Argaum, by Major General Wellesley:
38 guns taken.
_4th December_ Calpee surrendered to Lt. Colonel Powell.
_15th_ ” Gawilghur taken by assault by Colonel
Stevenson: 52 guns captured.
_17th_ ” Peace signed by the Rajah of Berar in
Wellesley’s Camp.
_30th_ ” Reserve, under Major General Campbell,
defeats a large body of 10,000 Pindarees,
at Moodianoor.
_30th December_ Peace signed by Scindia in Wellesley’s
Camp.
_4th February 1804_ Gwalior, which had been surrendered by
Treaty on 21st December to Lt.
Colonel Powell, capitulates; having
been besieged by that officer since
27th December, in consequence of
the refusal of the garrison to surrender
the fortress.
Our interest is, however, mainly with the forces commanded by Major
General Wellesley.