(JUNE, JULY, 1856.)
THE islands of Bali and Lombock, situated at the eastern end of Java,
are particularly interesting. They are the only islands of the whole
Archipelago in which the Hindu religion still maintains itself--and they
form the extreme points of the two great zoological divisions of the
Eastern hemisphere; for although so similar in external appearance
and in all physical features, they differ greatly in their natural
productions. It was after having spent two years in Borneo, Malacca and
Singapore, that I made a somewhat involuntary visit to these islands on
my way to Macassar. Had I been able to obtain a passage direct to that
place from Singapore, I should probably never have gone near them, and
should have missed some of the most important discoveries of my whole
expedition the East.
It was on the 13th of June, 1856, after a twenty days' passage from
Singapore in the "Kembang Djepoon" (Rose of Japan), a schooner belonging
to a Chinese merchant, manned by a Javanese crew, and commanded by
an English captain, that we cast anchor in the dangerous roadstead of
Bileling on the north side of the island of Bali. Going on shore with
the captain and the Chinese supercargo, I was at once introduced to a
novel and interesting scene. We went first to the house of the Chinese
Bandar, or chief merchant, where we found a number of natives, well
dressed, and all conspicuously armed with krisses, displaying their
large handles of ivory or gold, or beautifully grained and polished
wood.
The Chinamen had given up their national costume and adopted the Malay
dress, and could then hardly be distinguished from the natives of the
island--an indication of the close affinity of the Malayan and Mongolian
races. Under the thick shade of some mango-trees close by the house,
several women-merchants were selling cotton goods; for here the women
trade and work for the benefit of their husbands, a custom which
Mahometan Malays never adopt. Fruit, tea, cakes, and sweetmeats were
brought to us; many questions were asked about our business and the
state of trade in Singapore, and we then took a walk to look at the
village. It was a very dull and dreary place; a collection of narrow
lanes bounded by high mud walls, enclosing bamboo houses, into some of
which we entered and were very kindly received.
During the two days that we remained here, I walked out into the
surrounding country to catch insects, shoot birds, and spy out the
nakedness or fertility of the land. I was both astonished and delighted;
for as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so
beautiful and well cultivated a district out of Europe. A slightly
undulating plain extends from the seacoast about ten or twelve miles
inland, where it is bounded by a wide range of wooded and cultivated
hills. Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of cocoa-nut
palms, tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every
direction; while between them extend luxuriant rice-grounds, watered by
an elaborate system of irrigation that would be the pride of the best
cultivated parts of Europe. The whole surface of the country is divided
into irregular patches, following the undulations of the ground, from
many acres to a few perches in extent, each of which is itself perfectly
level, but stands a few inches or several feet above or below those
adjacent to it. Every one of these patches can be flooded or drained at
will by means of a system of ditches and small channels, into which are
diverted the whole of the streams that descend from the mountains. Every
patch now bore crops in various stages of growth, some almost ready
for cutting, and all in the most flourishing condition and of the most
exquisite green tints.
The sides of the lanes and bridle roads were often edged with prickly
Cacti and a leafless Euphorbia, but the country being so highly
cultivated there was not much room for indigenous vegetation, except
upon the sea-beach. We saw plenty of the fine race of domestic cattle
descended from the Bos banteng of Java, driven by half naked boys, or
tethered in pasture-grounds. They are large and handsome animals, of a
light brown colour, with white legs, and a conspicuous oval patch behind
of the same colour. Wild cattle of the same race are said to be still
found in the mountains. In so well-cultivated a country it was not to
be expected that I could do much in natural history, and my ignorance
of how important a locality this was for the elucidation of the
geographical distribution of animals, caused me to neglect obtaining
some specimens which I never met with again. One of these was a weaver
bird with a bright yellow head, which built its bottle-shaped nests by
dozens on some trees near the beach. It was the Ploceus hypoxantha, a
native of Java; and here, at the extreme limits of its range westerly,
I shot and preserved specimens of a wagtail-thrush, an oriole, and some
starlings, all species found in Java, and some of them peculiar to that
island. I also obtained some beautiful butterflies, richly marked with
black and orange on a white ground, and which were the most abundant
insects in the country lanes. Among these was a new species, which I
have named Pieris tamar.
Leaving Bileling, a pleasant sail of two days brought us to Ampanam in
the island of Lombock, where I proposed to remain till I could obtain
a passage to Macassar. We enjoyed superb views of the twin volcanoes
of Bali and Lombock, each about eight thousand feet high, which form
magnificent objects at sunrise and sunset, when they rise out of the
mists and clouds that surround their bases, glowing with the rich and
changing tints of these the most charming moments in a tropical day.
The bay or roadstead of Ampanam is extensive, and being at this season
sheltered from the prevalent southeasterly winds, was as smooth as a
lake. The beach of black volcanic sand is very steep, and there is at
all times, a heavy surf upon it, which during spring-tides increases to
such an extent that it is often impossible for boats to land, and many
serious accidents have occurred. Where we lay anchored, about a quarter
of a mile from the shore, not the slightest swell was perceptible, but
on approaching nearer undulations began, which rapidly increased, so as
to form rollers which toppled over onto the beach at regular intervals
with a noise like thunder. Sometimes this surf increases suddenly during
perfect calms to as great a force and fury as when a gale of wind is
blowing, beating to pieces all boats that may not have been hauled
sufficiently high upon the beach, and carrying away uncautious natives.
This violent surf is probably in some way dependent upon the swell of
the great southern ocean and the violent currents that flow through the
Straits of Lombock. These are so uncertain that vessels preparing to
anchor in the bay are sometimes suddenly swept away into the straits,
and are not able to get back again for a fortnight.
What seamen call the "ripples" are also very violent in the straits,
the sea appearing to boil and foam and dance like the rapids below
a cataract; vessels are swept about helplessly, and small ones are
occasionally swamped in the finest weather and under the brightest
skies.
I felt considerably relieved when all my boxes and myself had passed in
safety through the devouring surf, which the natives look upon with some
pride, saying, that "their sea is always hungry, and eats up everything
it can catch." I was kindly received by Mr. Carter, an Englishman, who
is one of the Bandars or licensed traders of the port, who offered me
hospitality and every assistance during my stay. His house, storehouses,
and offices were in a yard surrounded by a tall bamboo fence, and
were entirely constructed of bamboo with a thatch of grass, the only
available building materials. Even these were now very scarce, owing to
the great consumption in rebuilding the place since the great fire some
months before, which in an hour or two had destroyed every building in
the town.
The next day I went to see Mr. S., another merchant to whom I had
brought letters of introduction, and who lived about seven miles off.
Mr. Carter kindly lent me a horse, and I was accompanied by a young
Dutch gentleman residing at Ampanam, who offered to be my guide. We
first passed through the town and suburbs along a straight road bordered
by mud walls and a fine avenue of lofty trees; then through rice-fields,
irrigated in the same manner as I had seen them at Bileling; and
afterwards over sandy pastures near the sea, and occasionally along the
beach itself. Mr. S. received us kindly, and offered me a residence at
his house should I think the neighbourhood favourable for my pursuits.
After an early breakfast we went out to explore, taking guns and
insect nets. We reached some low hills which seemed to offer the most
favourable ground, passing over swamps, sandy flats overgrown with
coarse sedges, and through pastures and cultivated grounds, finding
however very little in the way of either birds or insects. On our way we
passed one or two human skeletons, enclosed within a small bamboo
fence, with the clothes, pillow, mat, and betel-box of the unfortunate
individual, who had been either murdered or executed. Returning to the
house, we found a Balinese chief and his followers on a visit. Those of
higher rank sat on chairs, the others squatted on the floor. The chief
very coolly asked for beer and brandy, and helped himself and his
followers, apparently more out of curiosity than anything else as
regards the beer, for it seemed very distasteful to them, while they
drank the brandy in tumblers with much relish.
Returning to Ampanam, I devoted myself for some days to shooting the
birds of the neighbourhood. The fine fig-trees of the avenues, where a
market was held, were tenanted by superb orioles (Oriolus broderpii) of
a rich orange colour, and peculiar to this island and the adjacent ones
of Sumbawa and Flores. All round the town were abundance of the curious
Tropidorhynchus timoriensis, allied to the Friar bird of Australia. They
are here called "Quaich-quaich," from their strange loud voice, which
seems to repeat these words in various and not unmelodious intonations.
Every day boys were to be seen walking along the roads and by the hedges
and ditches, catching dragonflies with birdlime. They carry a slender
stick, with a few twigs at the end well annointed, so that the least
touch captures the insect, whose wings are pulled off before it is
consigned to a small basket. The dragon-flies are so abundant at the
time of the rice flowering that thousands are soon caught in this
way. The bodies are fried in oil with onions and preserved shrimps,
or sometimes alone, and are considered a great delicacy. In Borneo,
Celebes, and many other islands, the larvae of bees and wasps are eaten,
either alive as pulled out of the cells, or fried like the dragonflies.
In the Moluccas the grubs of the palm-beetles (Calandra) are regularly
brought to market in bamboos and sold for food; and many of the great
horned Lamellicorn beetles are slightly roasted on the embers and eaten
whenever met with. The superabundance of insect life is therefore turned
to some account by these islanders.
Finding that birds were not very numerous, and hearing much of Labuan
Tring at the southern extremity of the bay, where there was said to be
much uncultivated country and plenty of birds as well as deer and wild
pigs, I determined to go there with my two servants, Ali, the Malay
lad from Borneo, and Manuel, a Portuguese of Malacca accustomed to
bird-skinning. I hired a native boat with outriggers to take us with
our small quantity of luggage, and a day's rowing and tracking along the
shore brought us to the place.
I had a note of introduction to an Amboynese Malay, and obtained the use
of part of his house to live and work in. His name was "Inchi Daud" (Mr.
David), and he was very civil; but his accommodations were limited, and
he could only hire me part of his reception-room. This was the front
part of a bamboo house (reached by a ladder of about six rounds very
wide apart), and having a beautiful view over the bay. However, I soon
made what arrangements were possible, and then set to work. The country
around was pretty and novel to me, consisting of abrupt volcanic hills
enclosing flat valleys or open plains. The hills were covered with a
dense scrubby bush of bamboos and prickly trees and shrubs, the plains
were adorned with hundreds of noble palm-trees, and in many places
with a luxuriant shrubby vegetation. Birds were plentiful and very
interesting, and I now saw for the first time many Australian forms that
are quite absent from the islands westward. Small white cockatoos were
abundant, and their loud screams, conspicuous white colour, and pretty
yellow crests, rendered them a very important feature in the landscape.
This is the most westerly point on the globe where any of the family
are to be found. Some small honeysuckers of the genus Ptilotis, and the
strange moundmaker (Megapodius gouldii), are also here first met with
on the traveller's journey eastward. The last mentioned bird requires a
fuller notice.
The Megapodidae are a small family of birds found only in Australia and
the surrounding islands, but extending as far as the Philippines and
Northwest Borneo. They are allied to the gallinaceous birds, but differ
from these and from all others in never sitting upon their eggs, which
they bury in sand, earth, or rubbish, and leave to be hatched by the
heat of the sun or by fermentation. They are all characterised by very
large feet and long curved claws, and most of the species of Megapodius
rake and scratch together all kinds of rubbish, dead leaves, sticks,
stones, earth, rotten wood, etc., until they form a large mound, often
six feet high and twelve feet across, in the middle of which they
bury their eggs. The natives can tell by the condition of these mounds
whether they contain eggs or not; and they rob them whenever they can,
as the brick-red eggs (as large as those of a swan) are considered
a great delicacy. A number of birds are said to join in making these
mounds and lay their eggs together, so that sometimes forty or fifty
may be found. The mounds are to be met with here and there in dense
thickets, and are great puzzles to strangers, who cannot understand
who can possibly have heaped together cartloads of rubbish in such
out-of-the-way places; and when they inquire of the natives they are but
little wiser, for it almost always appears to them the wildest romance
to be told that it is all done by birds. The species found in Lombock
is about the size of a small hen, and entirely of dark olive and
brown tints. It is a miscellaneous feeder, devouring fallen fruits,
earthworms, snails, and centipedes, but the flesh is white and
well-flavoured when properly cooked.
The large green pigeons were still better eating, and were much more
plentiful. These fine birds, exceeding our largest tame pigeons in size,
abounded on the palm-trees, which now bore huge bunches of fruits--mere
hard globular nuts, about an inch in diameter, and covered with a dry
green skin and a very small portion of pulp. Looking at the pigeon's
bill and head, it would seem impossible that it could swallow such large
masses, or that it could obtain any nourishment from them; yet I often
shot these birds with several palm-fruits in the crop, which generally
burst when they fell to the ground. I obtained here eight species of
Kingfishers; among which was a very beautiful new one, named by Mr.
Gould, Halcyon fulgidus. It was found always in thickets, away from
water, and seemed to feed on snails and insects picked up from the
ground after the manner of the great Laughing Jackass of Australia. The
beautiful little violet and orange species (Ceyx rufidorsa) is found in
similar situations, and darts rapidly along like a flame of fire. Here
also I first met with the pretty Australian Bee-eater (Merops ornatus).
This elegant little bird sits on twigs in open places, gazing eagerly
around, and darting off at intervals to seize some insect which it sees
flying near; returning afterwards to the same twig to swallow it. Its
long, sharp, curved bill, the two long narrow feathers in its tail, its
beautiful green plumage varied with rich brown and black and vivid
blue on the throat, render it one of the most graceful and interesting
objects a naturalist can see for the first time.
Of all the birds of Lombock, however, I sought most after the beautiful
ground thrushes (Pitta concinna), and always thought myself lucky if
I obtained one. They were found only in the dry plains densely covered
with thickets, and carpeted at this season with dead leaves. They were
so shy that it was very difficult to get a shot at them, and it was only
after a good deal of practice that I discovered how to do it. The habit
of these birds is to hop about on the ground, picking up insects, and on
the least alarm to run into the densest thicket or take a flight close
to the ground. At intervals they utter a peculiar cry of two notes which
when once heard is easily recognised, and they can also be heard hopping
along among the dry leaves.
My practice was, therefore, to walk cautiously along the narrow pathways
with which the country abounded, and on detecting any sign of a Pitta's
vicinity to stand motionless and give a gentle whistle occasionally,
imitating the notes as near as possible. After half an hour's waiting
I was often rewarded by seeing the pretty bird hopping along in the
thicket. Then I would perhaps lose sight of it again, until having my
gun raised and ready for a shot, a second glimpse would enable me to
secure my prize, and admire its soft puffy plumage and lovely colours.
The upper part is rich soft green, the head jet black with a stripe
of blue and brown over each eye; at the base of the tail and on the
shoulders are bands of bright silvery blue; the under side is delicate
buff with a stripe of rich crimson, bordered with black on the belly.
Beautiful grass-green doves, little crimson and black flower-peckers,
large black cuckoos, metallic king-crows, golden orioles, and the fine
jungle-cocks--the origin of all our domestic breeds of poultry--were
among the birds that chiefly attracted my attention during our stay at
Labuan Tring.
The most characteristic feature of the jungle was its thorniness. The
shrubs were thorny; the creepers were thorny; the bamboos even were
thorny. Everything grew zigzag and jagged, and in an inextricable
tangle, so that to get through the bush with gun or net or even
spectacles, was generally not to be done, and insect-catching in such
localities was out of the question. It was in such places that the
Pittas often lurked, and when shot it became a matter of some difficulty
to secure the bird, and seldom without a heavy payment of pricks and
scratches and torn clothes could the prize be won. The dry volcanic soil
and arid climate seem favourable to the production of such stunted and
thorny vegetation, for the natives assured me that this was nothing
to the thorns and prickles of Sumbawa whose surface still bears the
covering of volcanic ashes thrown out forty years ago by the terrible
eruption of Tomboro.
Among the shrubs and trees that are not prickly the Apocynaceae were
most abundant, their bilobed fruits of varied form and colour and often
of most tempting appearance, hanging everywhere by the waysides as if
to invite to destruction the weary traveller who may be unaware of their
poisonous properties. One in particular with a smooth shining skin of
a golden orange colour rivals in appearance the golden apples of the
Hesperides, and has great attractions for many birds, from the white
cockatoos to the little yellow Zosterops, who feast on the crimson seeds
which are displayed when the fruit bursts open. The great palm called
"Gubbong" by the natives, a species of Corypha, is the most striking
feature of the plains, where it grows by thousands and appears in three
different states--in leaf, in flower and fruit, or dead. It has a lofty
cylindrical stem about a hundred feet high and two to three feet in
diameter; the leaves are large and fan-shaped, and fall off when the
tree flowers, which it does only once in its life in a huge terminal
spike, upon which are produced masses of a smooth round fruit of a green
colour and about an inch in diameter. When these ripen and fall the tree
dies, and remains standing a year or two before it falls. Trees in leaf
only are by far the most numerous, then those in flower and fruit, while
dead trees are scattered here and there among them. The trees in fruit
are the resort of the great green fruit pigeons, which have been already
mentioned. Troops of monkeys (Macacus cynomolgus) may often be
seen occupying a tree, showering down the fruit in great profusion,
chattering when disturbed and making an enormous rustling as they
scamper off among the dead palm leaves; while the pigeons have a loud
booming voice more like the roar of a wild beast than the note of a
bird.
My collecting operations here were carried on under more than usual
difficulties. One small room had to serve for eating, sleeping and
working, and one for storehouse and dissecting-room; in it were no
shelves, cupboards, chairs or tables; ants swarmed in every part of it,
and dogs, cats and fowls entered it at pleasure. Besides this it was the
parlour and reception-room of my host, and I was obliged to consult his
convenience and that of the numerous guests who visited us. My principal
piece of furniture was a box, which served me as a dining table, a seat
while skinning birds, and as the receptacle of the birds when
skinned and dried. To keep them free from ants we borrowed, with
some difficulty, an old bench, the four legs of which being placed in
cocoa-nut shells filled with water kept us tolerably free from these
pests. The box and the bench were, however, literally the only places
where anything could be put away, and they were generally well occupied
by two insect boxes and about a hundred birds' skins in process of
drying. It may therefore be easily conceived that when anything bulky
or out of the common way was collected, the question "Where is it to
be put?" was rather a difficult one to answer. All animal substances
moreover require some time to dry thoroughly, emit a very disagreeable
odour while doing so, and are particularly attractive to ants, flies,
dogs, rats, cats, and other vermin, calling for special cautions and
constant supervision, which under the circumstances above described were
impossible.
My readers may now partially understand why a travelling naturalist of
limited means, like myself, does so much less than is expected or
than he would himself wish to do. It would be interesting to preserve
skeletons of many birds and animals, reptiles and fishes in spirits,
skins of the larger animals, remarkable fruits and woods and the most
curious articles of manufacture and commerce; but it will be seen
that under the circumstances I have just described, it would have
been impossible to add these to the collections which were my own more
especial favourites. When travelling by boat the difficulties are as
great or greater, and they are not diminished when the journey is by
land. It was absolutely necessary therefore to limit my collections to
certain groups to which I could devote constant personal attention, and
thus secure from destruction or decay what had been often obtained by
much labour and pains.
While Manuel sat skinning his birds of an afternoon, generally
surrounded by a little crowd of Malays and Sassaks (as the indigenes
of Lombock are termed), he often held forth to them with the air of a
teacher, and was listened to with profound attention. He was very fond
of discoursing on the "special providences" of which he believed he was
daily the subject. "Allah has been merciful today," he would say--for
although a Christian he adopted the Mahometan mode of speech--"and has
given us some very fine birds; we can do nothing without him." Then one
of the Malays would reply, "To be sure, birds are like mankind; they
have their appointed time to die; when that time comes nothing can save
them, and if it has not come you cannot kill them." A murmur of assent
follow, until sentiments and cries of "Butul! Butul!" (Right, right.)
Then Manuel would tell a long story of one of his unsuccessful
hunts--how he saw some fine bird and followed it a long way, and then
missed it, and again found it, and shot two or three times at it, but
could never hit it, "Ah!" says an old Malay, "its time was not come, and
so it was impossible for you to kill it." A doctrine is this which is
very consoling to the bad marksman, and which quite accounts for the
facts, but which is yet somehow not altogether satisfactory.
It is universally believed in Lombock that some men have the power to
turn themselves into crocodiles, which they do for the sake of devouring
their enemies, and many strange tales are told of such transformations.
I was therefore rather surprised one evening to hear the following
curious fact stated, and as it was not contradicted by any of the
persons present, I am inclined to accept it provisionally as a
contribution to the Natural History of the island. A Bornean Malay who
had been for many years resident here said to Manuel, "One thing is
strange in this country--the scarcity of ghosts." "How so?" asked
Manuel. "Why, you know," said the Malay, "that in our countries to the
westward, if a man dies or is killed, we dare not pass near the place
at night, for all sorts of noises are heard which show that ghosts are
about. But here there are numbers of men killed, and their bodies lie
unburied in the fields and by the roadside, and yet you can walk by them
at night and never hear or see anything at all, which is not the case in
our country, as you know very well." "Certainly I do," said Manuel;
and so it was settled that ghosts were very scarce, if not altogether
unknown in Lombock. I would observe, however, that as the evidence
is purely negative we should be wanting in scientific caution if we
accepted this fact as sufficiently well established.
One evening I heard Manuel, Ali, and a Malay man whispering earnestly
together outside the door, and could distinguish various allusions to
"krisses," throat-cutting, heads, etc. etc. At length Manuel came
in, looking very solemn and frightened, and said to me in English,
"Sir--must take care,--no safe here;--want cut throat." On further
inquiry, I found that the Malay had been telling them that the Rajah had
just sent down an order to the village, that they were to get a certain
number of heads for an offering in the temples to secure a good crop of
rice. Two or three other Malays and Bugis, as well as the Amboyna man in
whose house we lived, confirmed this account, and declared that it was a
regular thing every year, and that it was necessary to keep a good
watch and never go out alone. I laughed at the whole thing, and tried to
persuade them that it was a mere tale, but to no effect. They were all
firmly persuaded that their lives were in danger. Manuel would not go
out shooting alone, and I was obliged to accompany him every morning,
but I soon gave him the slip in the jungle. Ali was afraid to go and
look for firewood without a companion, and would not even fetch water
from the well a few yards behind the house unless armed with an enormous
spear. I was quite sure all the time that no such order had been sent
or received, and that we were in perfect safety. This was well shown
shortly afterwards, when an American sailor ran away from his ship on
the east side of the island, and made his way on foot and unarmed across
to Ampanam, having met with the greatest hospitality on the whole route.
Nowhere would the smallest payment be taken for the food and lodging
which were willingly furbished him. On pointing out this fact to Manuel,
he replied, "He one bad man,--run away from his ship--no one can believe
word he say;" and so I was obliged to leave him in the uncomfortable
persuasion that he might any day have his throat cut.
A circumstance occurred here which appeared to throw some light on the
cause of the tremendous surf at Ampanam. One evening I heard a strange
rumbling noise, and at the same time the house shook slightly. Thinking
it might be thunder, I asked, "What is that?" "It is an earthquake,"
answered Inchi Daud, my host; and he then told me that slight shocks
were occasionally felt there, but he had never known them to be
severe. This happened on the day of the last quarter of the moon, and
consequently when tides were low and the surf usually at its weakest.
On inquiry afterwards at Ampanam, I found that no earthquake had been
noticed, but that on one night there had been a very heavy surf, which
shook the house, and the next day there was a very high tide, the water
having flooded Mr. Carter's premises, higher than he had ever known
it before. These unusual tides occur every now and then, and are not
thought much of; but by careful inquiry I ascertained that the surf had
occurred on the very night I had felt the earthquake at Labuan Tring,
nearly twenty miles off. This would seem to indicate, that although the
ordinary heavy surf may be due to the swell of the great Southern Ocean
confined in a narrow channel, combined with a peculiar form of bottom
near the shore, yet the sudden heavy surfs and high tides that occur
occasionally in perfectly calm weather, may be due to slight upheavals
of the ocean-bed in this eminently volcanic region.