Kircher was a man of wide and varied learning, but singularly devoid

of judgment and critical discernment. His voluminous writings in

philology, natural history, physics and mathematics often accordingly

have a good deal of the historical interest which attaches to

pioneering work, however imperfectly performed; otherwise they now

take rank as curiosities of literature merely. They include _Ars

Magnesia_ (1631); _Magnes, sive de arte magnetica opus tripartitum_

(1641); and _Magneticum naturae regnum_ (1667); _Prodromus Coptus_

(1636); _Lingua Aegyptiaca restituta_ (1643); _Obeliscus Pamphilius_

(1650); and _Oedipus Aegyptiacus, hoc est universalis doctrinae

hieroglyphicae instauratio_ (1652-1655)--works which may claim the

merit of having first called attention to Egyptian hieroglyphics; _Ars

magna lucis et umbrae in mundo_ (1645-1646); _Musurgia universalis,

sive ars magna consoni et dissoni_ (1650); _Polygraphia, seu

artificium linguarum quo cum omnibus mundi populis poterit quis

respondere_ (1663); _Mundus subterraneus, quo subterrestris mundi

opificium, universae denique naturae divitiae, abditorum effectuum

causae demonstrantur_ (1665-1678); _China illustrata_ (1667); _Ars

magna sciendi_ (1669); and _Latium_ (1669), a work which may still be

consulted with advantage. The _Specula Melitensis Encyclica_ (1638)

gives an account of a kind of calculating machine of his invention.

The valuable collection of antiquities which he bequeathed to the

Collegio Romano has been described by Buonanni (_Musaeum

Kircherianum_, 1709; republished by Battara in 1773).

KIRCHHEIM-UNTER-TECK, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg,

is prettily situated on the Lauter, at the north-west foot of the Rauhe

Alb, 15 m. S.E. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1905), 8830. The town has a

royal castle built in 1538, two schools and several benevolent

institutions. The manufactures include cotton goods, damask,

pianofortes, machinery, furniture, chemicals and cement. The town also

has wool-spinning establishments and breweries, and a corn exchange. It

is the most important wool market in South Germany, and has also a trade

in fruit, timber and pigs. In the vicinity are the ruins of the castle

of Teck, the hereditary stronghold of the dukes of that name. Kirchheim

has belonged to Württemberg since 1381.

KIRCHHOFF, GUSTAV ROBERT (1824-1887), German physicist, was born at

Königsberg (Prussia) on the 12th of March 1824, and was educated at the

university of his native town, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1847. After

acting as _privat-docent_ at Berlin for some time, he became

extraordinary professor of physics at Breslau in 1850. Four years later

he was appointed professor of physics at Heidelberg, and in 1875 he was

transferred to Berlin, where he died on the 17th of October 1887.

Kirchhoff's contributions to mathematical physics were numerous and

important, his strength lying in his powers of stating a new physical

problem in terms of mathematics, not merely in working out the solution

after it had been so formulated. A number of his papers were concerned

with electrical questions. One of the earliest was devoted to electrical

conduction in a thin plate, and especially in a circular one, and it

also contained a theorem which enables the distribution of currents in a

network of conductors to be ascertained. Another discussed conduction in

curved sheets; a third the distribution of electricity in two

influencing spheres; a fourth the determination of the constant on which

depends the intensity of induced currents; while others were devoted to

Ohm's law, the motion of electricity in submarine cables, induced

magnetism, &c. In other papers, again, various miscellaneous topics were

treated--the thermal conductivity of iron, crystalline reflection and

refraction, certain propositions in the thermodynamics of solution and

vaporization, &c. An important part of his work was contained in his

_Vorlesungen über mathematische Physik_ (1876), in which the principles

of dynamics, as well as various special problems, were treated in a

somewhat novel and original manner. But his name is best known for the

researches, experimental and mathematical, in radiation which led him,

in company with R. W. von Bunsen, to the development of spectrum

analysis as a complete system in 1859-1860. He can scarcely be called

its inventor, for not only had many investigators already used the prism

as an instrument of chemical inquiry, but considerable progress had been

made towards the explanation of the principles upon which spectrum

analysis rests. But to him belongs the merit of having, most probably

without knowing what had already been done, enunciated a complete

account of its theory, and of thus having firmly established it as a

means by which the chemical constituents of celestial bodies can be

discovered through the comparison of their spectra with those of the

various elements that exist on this earth.

KIRCHHOFF, JOHANN WILHELM ADOLF (1826-1908), German classical scholar

and epigraphist, was born in Berlin on the 6th of January 1826. In 1865

he was appointed professor of classical philology in the university of

his native city. He died on the 26th of February 1908. He is the author

of _Die Homerische Odyssee_ (1859), putting forward an entirely new

theory as to the composition of the _Odyssey_; editions of Plotinus

(1856), Euripides (1855 and 1877-1878). Aeschylus (1880), Hesiod (_Works

and Days_, 1889), Xenophon, _On the Athenian Constitution_ (3rd ed.,

1889); _Über die Entstehungszeit des Herodotischen Geschichtswerkes_

(2nd ed., 1878); _Thukydides und sein Urkundenmaterial_ (1895).

The following works are the result of his epigraphical and

palaeographical studies: _Die Umbrischen Sprachdenkmäler_ (1851); _Das

Stadlrecht von Bantia_ (1853), on the tablet discovered in 1790 at

Oppido near Banzi, containing a plebiscite relating to the municipal

affairs of the ancient Bantia; _Das Gotische Runenalphabet_ (1852);

_Die Fränkischen Runen_ (1855); _Studien zur Geschichte des

Griechischen Alphabets_ (4th ed., 1887). The second part of vol. iv.

of the _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum_ (1859, containing the

Christian inscriptions) and vol. i. of the _C. I. Atticarum_ (1873,

containing the inscriptions before 403) with supplements thereto (vol.

iv. pts. 1-3, 1877-1891) are edited by him.

KIRGHIZ, a large and widespread division of the Turkish family, of which

there are two main branches, the Kara-Kirghiz of the uplands and the

Kirghiz-Kazaks of the steppe. They jointly number about 3,000,000, and

occupy an area of perhaps the same number of square miles, stretching

from Kulja westwards to the lower Volga, and from the headstreams of the

Ob southwards to the Pamir and the Turkoman country. They seem closely

allied ethnically to the Mongolians and in speech to the Tatars. But

both Mongols and Tatars belonged themselves originally to one racial

stock and formed part of the same hordes or nomadic armies: also the

Western Turks have to a large extent lost their original physique and

become largely assimilated to the regular "Caucasian" type. But the

Kirghiz have either remained nearly altogether unmixed, as in the

uplands, or else have intermingled in the steppe mainly with the Volga

Kalmucks in the west, and with the Dzungarian nomads in the east, all

alike of Mongol stock. Hence they have everywhere to a large extent

preserved the common Mongolian features, while retaining their primitive

Tatar speech. Physically they are a middle-sized, square-built race,

inclined to stoutness, especially in the steppe, mostly with long black

hair, scant beard or none, small, black and oblique eyes, though blue or

grey also occur in the south, broad Mongoloid features, high cheekbones,

broad, flat nose, small mouth, brachycephalous head, very small hands

and feet, dirty brown or swarthy complexion, often yellowish, but also

occasionally fair. These characteristics, while affiliating them

directly to the Mongol stock, also betray an admixture of foreign

elements, probably due to Finnish influences in the north, and Tajik or

Iranian blood in the south. Their speech also, while purely Turkic in

structure, possesses, not only many Mongolian and a few Persian and even

Arabic words, but also some terms unknown to the other branches of the

Mongolo-Tatar linguistic family, and which should perhaps be traced to

the Kiang-Kuan, Wu-sun, Ting-ling, and other peoples of South Siberia

partly absorbed by them.

_The Kara-Kirghiz._--The Kara or "Black" Kirghiz, so called from the

colour of their tents, are known to the Russians either as Chernyie

(Black) or Dikokammenyie (Wild Stone or Rocky) Kirghiz, and are the

Block Kirghiz of some English writers. They are on the whole the purest

and best representatives of the race, and properly speaking to them

alone belongs the distinctive national name Kirghiz or Krghiz. This term

is commonly traced to a legendary chief, Kirghiz, sprung of Oghuz-Khan,

ninth in descent from Japheth. It occurs in its present form for the

first time in the account of the embassy sent in 569 by the East Roman

emperor Justin II. to the Uighur Khan, Dugla-Ditubulu, where it is

stated that this prince presented a slave of the Kirghiz tribe to

Zemark, head of the mission. In the Chinese chronicles the word assumes

the form Ki-li-ki-tz', and the writers of the Yuan dynasty (1280-1367)

place the territory of these people 10,000 li north-west of Pekin, about

the headstreams of the Yenisei. In the records of the T'ang dynasty

(618-907) they are spoken of under the name of Kha-kia-tz' (pronounced

Khaka, and sometimes transliterated Haka), and it is mentioned that

these Khakas were of the same speech as the Khoei-khu. From this it

follows that they were of Mongolo-Tatar stock, and are wrongly

identified by some ethnologists with the Kiang-Kuan, Wu-sun, or

Ting-ling, all of whom are described as tall, with red hair, "green" or

grey eyes, and fair complexion, and must therefore have been of Finnish

stock, akin to the present Soyotes of the upper Yenisei.

The Kara-Kirghiz are by the Chinese and Mongolians called _Burut_,

where _ut_ is the Mongolian plural ending, as in Tangut, Yakut,

modified to _yat_ in Buryat, the collective name of the Siberian

Mongolians of the Baikal district. Thus the term _Bur_ is the common

Mongolian designation both of the Baikal Mongols and of the

Kara-Kirghiz, who occupied this very region and the upper Yenisei

valley generally till comparatively recent times. For the original

home of their ancestors, the Khakas, lay in the south of the present

governments of Yeniseisk and Tomsk, stretching thence southwards

beyond the Sayan range to the Tannuola hills in Chinese territory.

Here the Russians first met them in the 17th century, and by the aid

of the Kazaks exterminated all those east of the Irtish, driving the

rest farther west and south-westwards. Most of them took refuge with

their kinsmen, the Kara-Kirghiz nomad highlanders, whose homes, at

least since the 13th century, have been the Ala-tau range, the

Issyk-kul basin, the Tekes, Chu and Talass river valleys, the

Tian-shan range, the uplands draining both to the Tarim and to the

Jaxartes and Oxus, including Khokand, Karateghin and Shignan

southwards to the Pamir table-land, visited by them in summer. They

thus occupy most of the uplands along the Russo-Chinese frontier,

between 35° and 50° N. lat. and between 70° and 85° E. long.

The Kara-Kirghiz are all grouped in two main sections--the On or

"Right" in the east, with seven branches (Bogu, Sary-Bagishch,

Son-Bagishch, Sultu or Solye, Cherik, Sayak, Bassinz), and the Sol or

"Left" in the west, with four branches (Kokche or Kûchy, Soru, Mundus,

Kitai or Kintai). The Sol section occupies the region between the

Talass and Oxus headstreams in Ferghana (Khokand) and Bokhara, where

they come in contact with the Galchas or Highland Tajiks. The On

section lies on both sides of the Tian-shan, about Lake Issyk-kul, and

in the Chu, Tekes and Narin (upper Jaxartes) valleys.

The total number of Kara-Kirghiz exceeds 800,000.

All are essentially nomads, occupied mainly with stock breeding,

chiefly horses of a small but hardy breed, sheep of the fat-tailed

species, oxen used both for riding and as pack animals, some goats,

and camels of both species. Agriculture is limited chiefly to the

cultivation of wheat, barley and millet, from the last of which a

coarse vodka or brandy is distilled. Trade is carried on chiefly by

barter, cattle being taken by the dealers from China, Turkestan and

Russia in exchange for manufactured goods.

The Kara-Kirghiz are governed by the "manaps," or tribal rulers, who

enjoy almost unlimited authority, and may even sell or kill their

subjects. In religious matters they differ little from the Kazaks,

whose practices are described below. Although generally recognizing

Russian sovereignty since 1864, they pay no taxes.

_The Kazaks._--Though not unknown to them, the term Kirghiz is never

used by the steppe nomads, who always call themselves simply Kazaks,

commonly interpreted as riders. The first authentic reference to this

name is by the Persian poet and historian Firdousi (1020), who speaks of

the Kazak tribes as much dreaded steppe marauders, all mounted and armed

with lances. From this circumstance the term Kazak came to be gradually

applied to all freebooters similarly equipped, and it thus spread from

the Aralo-Caspian basin to South Russia, where it still survives under

the form of Cossack, spelt Kazak or Kozak in Russian. Hence though Kazak

and Cossack are originally the same word, the former now designates a

Mongolo-Tatar nomad race, the latter various members of the Slav family.

Since the 18th century the Russians have used the compound expression

Kirghiz-Kazak, chiefly in order to distinguish them from their own

Cossacks, at that time overrunning Siberia. Siegmund Herberstein

(1486-1566) is the first European who mentions them by name, and it is

noteworthy that he speaks of them as "Tartars," that is, a people rather

of Turki than Mongolian stock.

In their present homes, the so-called "Kirghiz steppes," they are far

more numerous and widespread than their Kara-Kirghiz kinsmen,

stretching almost uninterruptedly from Lake Balkash round the Aral and

Caspian Seas westwards to the lower Volga, and from the river Irtish

southwards to the lower Oxus and Ust-Urt plateau. Their domain, which

is nearly 2,000,000 sq. m. in extent, thus lies mainly between 45° and

55° N. lat. and from 45° to 80° E. long. Here they came under the sway

of Jenghiz Khan, after whose death they fell to the share of his son

Juji, head of the Golden Horde, but continued to retain their own

khans. When the Uzbegs acquired the ascendancy, many of the former

subjects of the Juji and Jagatai hordes fell off and joined the

Kazaks. Thus about the year 1500 were formed two powerful states in

the Kipchak and Kheta steppes, the Mogul-Ulus and the Kazak, the

latter of whom, under their khan Arslane, are said by Sultan Baber to

have had as many as 400,000 fighting men. Their numbers continued to

be swollen by voluntary or enforced accessions from the fragments of

the Golden Horde, such as the Kipchaks, Naimans, Konrats, Jalairs,

Kankali, whose names are still preserved in the tribal divisions of

the Kazaks. And as some of these peoples were undoubtedly of true

Mongolian stock, their names have given a colour to the statement that

all the Kazaks were rather of Mongol than of Turki origin. But the

universal prevalence of a nearly pure variety of the Turki speech

throughout the Kazak steppes is almost alone sufficient to show that

the Tatar element must at all times have been in the ascendant. Very

various accounts have been given of the relationship of the Kipchak to

the Kirghiz, but at present they seem to form a subdivision of the

Kirghiz-Kazaks. The Kara-Kalpaks are an allied but apparently separate

tribe.

The Kirghiz-Kazaks have long been grouped in three large "hordes" or

encampments, further subdivided into a number of so-called "races,"

which are again grouped in tribes, and these in sections, branches and

auls, or communities of from five to fifteen tents. The division into

hordes has been traditionally referred to a powerful khan, who divided

his states amongst his three sons, the eldest of whom became the

founder of the Ulu-Yuz, or Great Horde, the second of the Urta-Yuz, or

Middle Horde, and the third of the Kachi-Yuz, or Little Horde. The

last two under their common khan Abulkhair voluntarily submitted in

1730 to the Empress Anne. Most of the Great Horde were subdued by

Yunus, khan of Ferghana, in 1798, and all the still independent tribes

finally accepted Russian sovereignty in 1819.

Since 1801 a fourth division, known as the Inner or Bukeyevskaya

Horde, from the name of their first khan, Bukei, has been settled in

the Orenburg steppe.

But these divisions affect the common people alone, all the higher

orders and ruling families being broadly classed as White and Black

Kost or Bones. The White Bones comprise only the khans and their

descendants, besides the issue of the khojas or Moslem "saints." The

Black Bones include all the rest, except the _Telengut_ or servants of

the khans, and the _Kûl_ or slaves.

The Kazaks are an honest and trustworthy people, but heavy, sluggish,

sullen and unfriendly. Even the hospitality enjoined by the Koran is

displayed only towards the orthodox Sunnite sect. So essentially nomadic

are all the tribes that they cannot adopt a settled life without losing

the very sentiment of their nationality, and becoming rapidly absorbed

in the Slav population. They dwell exclusively in semicircular tents

consisting of a light wooden framework, and red cloth or felt covering,

with an opening above for light and ventilation.

The camp life of the Kazaks seems almost unendurable to Europeans in

winter, when they are confined altogether to the tent, and exposed to

endless discomforts. In summer the day is spent mostly in sleep or

drinking koumiss, followed at night by feasting and the recital of

tales, varied with songs accompanied by the music of the flute and

balalaika. But horsemanship is the great amusement of all true Kazaks,

who may almost be said to be born in the saddle. Hence, though excellent

riders, they are bad walkers. Though hardy and long-lived, they are

uncleanly in their habits and often decimated by small-pox and Siberian

plague. They have no fixed meals, and live mainly on mutton and goat and

horse flesh, and instead of bread use the so-called balamyk, a mess of

flour fried in dripping and diluted in water. The universal drink is

koumiss, which is wholesome, nourishing and a specific against all chest

diseases.

The dress consists of the chapân, a flowing robe of which one or two are

worn in summer and several in winter, fastened with a silk or leather

girdle, in which are stuck a knife, tobacco pouch, seal and a few other

trinkets. Broad silk or cloth pantaloons are often worn over the chapân,

which is of velvet, silk, cotton or felt, according to the rank of the

wearer. Large black or red leather boots, with round white felt pointed

caps, complete the costume, which is much the same for both sexes.

Like the Kara-Kirghiz, the Kazaks are nominally Sunnites, but Shamanists

at heart, worshipping, besides the Kudai or good divinity, the Shaitan

or bad spirit. Their faith is strong in the _talchi_ or soothsayer and

other charlatans, who know everything, can do everything, and heal all

disorders at pleasure. But they are not fanatics, though holding the

abstract doctrine that the "Kafir" may be lawfully oppressed, including

in this category not only Buddhists and Christians, but even Mahommedans

of the Shiah sect. There are no fasts or ablutions, mosques or mollahs,

or regular prayers. Although Mussulmans since the beginning of the 16th

century, they have scarcely yet found their way to Mecca, their pilgrims

visiting instead the more convenient shrines of the "saints" scattered

over eastern Turkestan. Unlike the Mongolians, the Kazaks treat their

dead with great respect, and the low steppe hills are often entirely

covered with monuments raised above their graves.

Letters are neglected to such an extent that whoever can merely write is

regarded as a savant, while he becomes a prodigy of learning if able to

read the Koran in the original. Yet the Kazaks are naturally both

musical and poetical, and possess a considerable number of national

songs, which are usually repeated with variations from mouth to mouth.

The Kazaks still choose their own khans, who, though confirmed by the

Russian government, possess little authority beyond their respective

tribes. The real rulers are the elders or umpires and sultans, all

appointed by public election. Brigandage and raids arising out of tribal

feuds, which were formerly recognized institutions, are now severely

punished, sometimes even with death. Capital punishment, usually by

hanging or strangling, is inflicted for murder and adultery, while

three, nine or twenty-seven times the value of the stolen property is

exacted for theft.

The domestic animals, daily pursuits and industries of the Kazaks differ

but slightly from those of the Kara-Kirghiz. Some of the wealthy steppe

nomads own as many as 20,000 of the large fat-tailed sheep. Goats are

kept chiefly as guides for these flocks; and the horses, though small,

are hardy, swift, light-footed and capable of covering from 50 to 60

miles at a stretch. Amongst the Kazaks there are a few workers in

silver, copper and iron, the chief arts besides, being skin dressing,

wool spinning and dyeing, carpet and felt weaving. Trade is confined

mainly to an exchange of live stock for woven and other goods from

Russia, China and Turkestan.

Since their subjection to Russia the Kazaks have become less lawless,

but scarcely less nomadic. A change of habit in this respect is opposed

alike to their tastes and to the climatic and other outward conditions.

See also TURKS.

LITERATURE.--Alexis Levshin, _Description des hordes et des steppes

des Kirghiz-Kazaks_, translated from the Russian by Ferry de Cigny

(1840); W. Radloff, _Proben der Volksliteratur der Türkischen Stämme

Südsiberiens_; Ch. de Ujfalvy, _Le Kohistan, le Ferghanah, et

Kouldja_; also _Bull. de la Soc. de Géo._ (1878-1879); Semenoff, paper

in _Petermann's Mittheilungen_ (1859), No. 3; Valikhanov's _Travels in

1858-1859_; Madame de Ujfalvy, papers in _Tour du Monde_ (1874);

Vambéry, _Die primitive Cultur des Turko-Tatarischen Volkes_; P. S.

Pallas, _Observations sur les Kirghiz_ (1769; French trans., 1803);

Andriev, "La Horde Moyenne," in _Bull. de la Soc. de Géogr. de St

Petersburg_ (1875); Radomtsev, _Excursion dans le steppe Kirghiz_;

Lansdell, _Russian Centralasia_ (1885); Jadrinzer, _La Sibérie_

(1886). Skrine and Ross, _Heart of Asia_ (1899); E. H. Parker, _A

Thousand Years of the Tartars_ (1895). Various Russian works by

Nalivkin, published in Turkestan, contain much valuable information,

and N. N. Pantusov, _Specimens of Kirghiz Popular Poetry_, with

Russian translations (Kazan, 1903-1904).

KIRIN, a province of central Manchuria, with a capital bearing the same

name. The province has an area of 90,000 sq. m., and a population of

6,500,000. The chief towns besides the capital are Kwang-chêng-tsze, 80

m. N.W. of the capital, and Harbin on the Sungari river. The city of

KIRIN is situated at the foot of the Lau-Ye-Ling mountains, on the left

bank of the Sungari or Girin-ula, there 300 yds. wide, and is served by

a branch of the Manchurian railway. The situation is one of exceptional

beauty; but the streets are narrow, irregular and indescribably filthy.

The western part of the town is built upon a swamp and is under water a

great part of the year. The dockyards are supplied with machinery from

Europe and are efficient. Tobacco is the principal article of trade, the

kind grown in the province being greatly prized throughout the Chinese

empire under the name of "Manchu leaf." Formerly ginseng was also an

important staple, but the supply from this quarter of the country has

been exhausted. Outside the town lies a plain "thickly covered with open

coffins containing the dead bodies of Chinese emigrants exposed for

identification and removal by their friends; if no claim is made during

ten years the remains are buried on the spot." Kirin was chosen by the

emperor K'anghi as a military post during the wars with the Eleuths; and

it owes its Chinese name of Ch'uen-ch'ang, i.e. Naval Yard, to his

building there the vessels for the transport of his troops. The

population was estimated at 300,000 in 1812; in 1909 it was about

120,000.

KIRK, SIR JOHN (1832- ), British naturalist and administrator, son of

the Rev. John Kirk, was born at Barry, near Arbroath, on the 19th of

December 1832. He was educated at Edinburgh for the medical profession,

and after serving on the civil medical staff throughout the Crimean War,

was appointed in February 1858 physician and naturalist to David

Livingstone's second expedition to Central Africa. He was by

Livingstone's side in most of his journeyings during the next five

years, and was one of the first four white men to behold Lake Nyassa

(Sept. 16, 1859). He was finally invalided home on the 9th of May 1863.

The reputation he gained during this expedition led to his appointment

in January 1866 as acting surgeon to the political agency at Zanzibar.

In 1868 he became assistant political agent, being raised to the rank of

consul-general in 1873 and agent in 1880. He retired from that post in

1887. The twenty-one years spent by Kirk in Zanzibar covered the most

critical period of the history of European intervention in East Africa;

and during the greater part of that time he was the virtual ruler of the

country. With Seyyid Bargash, who became sultan in 1870, he had a

controlling influence, and after the failure of Sir Bartle Frere's

efforts he succeeded in obtaining (June 5, 1873) the sultan's signature

to a treaty abolishing the slave trade in his dominions. In 1877 Bargash

offered to a British merchant--Sir W. Mackinnon--a lease of his mainland

territories, and he gave Kirk a declaration in which he bound himself

not to cede territory to any other power than Great Britain, a

declaration ignored by the British government. When Germany in 1885

claimed districts considered by the sultan to belong to Zanzibar, Kirk

intervened to prevent Bargash going in person to Berlin to protest and

induced him to submit to the dismemberment of his dominions. In the

delicate negotiations which followed Kirk used his powers to checkmate

the German designs to supplant the British in Zanzibar itself; this he

did without destroying the Arab form of government. He also directed the

efforts, this time successful, to obtain for Britain a portion of the

mainland--Bargash in May 1887 granting to Mackinnon a lease of territory

which led to the foundation of British East Africa. Having thus served

both Great Britain and Zanzibar, Kirk resigned his post (July 1887),

retiring from the consular service. In 1889-1890 he was a

plenipotentiary at the slave trade conference in Brussels, and was one

of the delegates who fixed the tariff duties to be imposed in the Congo

basin. In 1895 he was sent by the British government on a mission to the

Niger; and on his return he was appointed a member of the Foreign Office

committee for constructing the Uganda railway. As a naturalist Kirk took

high rank, and many species of the flora and fauna of Central Africa

were made known by him, and several bear his name, e.g. the _Otogale

kirkii_ (a lemuroid), the _Madoqua kirkii_ (a diminutive antelope), the

_Landolphia kirkii_ and the _Clematis kirkii_. For his services to

geography he received in 1882 the patrons' medal of the Royal

Geographical Society, of which society he became foreign secretary. Kirk

was created K.C.B. in 1900. He married, in 1867, Miss Helen Cooke.

KIRKBY, JOHN (d. 1290), English ecclesiastic and statesman, entered the

public service as a clerk of the chancery during the reign of Henry III.

Under Edward I. he acted as keeper of the great seal during the frequent

absences of the chancellor, Robert Burnell, being referred to as

vice-chancellor. In 1282 he was employed by the king to make a tour

through the counties and boroughs for the purpose of collecting money;

this and his other services to Edward were well rewarded, and although

not yet ordained priest he held several valuable benefices in the

church. In 1283 he was chosen bishop of Rochester, but owing to the

opposition of the archbishop of Canterbury, John Peckham, he did not

press his claim to this see. In 1286, however, two years after he had

become treasurer, he was elected bishop of Ely, and he was ordained

priest and then consecrated by Peckham. He died at Ely on the 26th of

March 1290. Kirkby was a benefactor to his see, to which he left some

property in London, including the locality now known as Ely Place, where

for many years stood the London residence of the bishop of Ely.

_Kirkby's Quest_ is the name given to a survey of various English

counties which was made under the bishop's direction probably in 1284

and 1285. For this see _Inquisitions and Assessments relating to

Feudal Aids_, 1284-1431, vol. i. (London, 1899).

KIRKCALDY (locally pronounced _Kerkawdi_), a royal, municipal and police

burgh and seaport of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 34,079. It lies

on the Firth of Forth, 26 m. N. of Edinburgh by the North British

railway, via the Forth Bridge. Although Columba is said to have planted

a church here, the authoritative history of the town does not begin for

several centuries after the era of the saint. In 1240 the church was

bestowed by David, bishop of St Andrews, on Dunfermline Abbey, and in

1334 the town with its harbour was granted by David II. to the same

abbey, by which it was conveyed to the bailies and council in 1450, when

Kirkcaldy was created a royal burgh. In the course of another century it

had become an important commercial centre, the salt trade of the

district being then the largest in Scotland. In 1644, when Charles I.

raised it to a free port, it owned a hundred vessels, and six years

later it was assessed as the sixth town in the kingdom. After the Union

its shipping fell off, Jacobite troubles and the American War of

Independence accelerating the decline. But its linen manufactures, begun

early in the 18th century, gradually restored prosperity; and when other

industries had taken root its fortunes advanced by leaps and bounds, and

there is now no more flourishing community in Scotland. The chief

topographical feature of the burgh is its length, from which it is

called the "lang toun." Formerly it consisted of little besides High

Street, with closes and wynds branching off from it; but now that it has

absorbed Invertiel, Linktown and Abbotshall on the west, and Pathhead,

Sinclairtown and Gallatown on the east, it has reached a length of

nearly 4 m. Its public buildings include the parish church, in the

Gothic style, St Brycedale United Free church, with a spire 200 ft.

high, a town-hall, corn exchange, public libraries, assembly rooms,

fever hospital, sheriff court buildings, people's club and institute,

high school (1894)--on the site of the ancient burgh school (1582)--the

Beveridge hall and free library, and the Adam Smith memorial hall. To

the west lies Beveridge Park of 110 acres, including a large sheet of

water, which was presented to the town in 1892. The harbour has an inner

and outer division, with wet dock and wharves. Plans for its extension

were approved in 1903. They include the extension of the east pier, the

construction of a south pier 800 ft. in length, and of a tidal harbour 5

acres in area and a dock of 4 acres. Besides the manufacture of

sheeting, towelling, ticks, dowlas and sail-cloth, the principal

industries include flax-spinning, net-making, bleaching, dyeing,

tanning, brewing, brass and iron founding, and there are potteries,

flour-mills, engineering works, fisheries, and factories for the making

of oil-cloth and linoleum. In 1847 Michael Nairn conceived the notion of

utilizing the fibre of cork and oil-paint in such a way as to produce a

floor-covering more lasting than carpet and yet capable of taking a

pattern. The result of his experiments was oil-cloth, in the manufacture

of which Kirkcaldy has kept the predominance to which Nairn's enterprise

entitled it. Indeed, this and the kindred linoleum business (also due to

Nairn, who in 1877 built the first linoleum factory in Scotland) were

for many years the monopoly of Kirkcaldy. There is a large direct export

trade with the United States. Among well-known natives of the town were

Adam Smith, Henry Balnaves of Halhill, the Scottish reformer and lord of

session in the time of Queen Mary; George Gillespie, the theologian and

a leading member of the Westminster Assembly, and his younger brother

Patrick (1617-1675), a friend of Cromwell and principal of Glasgow

University; John Ritchie (1778-1870), one of the founders of the

_Scotsman_; General Sir John Oswald (1771-1840), who had a command at

San Sebastian and Vittoria. Sir Michael Scott of Balwearie castle, about

1½ m. W. of the town, was sent with Sir David Wemyss to bring the Maid

of Norway to Scotland in 1290; Sir Walter Scott was therefore in error

in adopting the tradition that identified him with the wizard of the

same name, who died in 1234. Carlyle and Edward Irving were teachers in

the town, where Irving spent seven years, and where he made the

acquaintance of the lady he afterwards married. Kirkcaldy combines with

Dysart, Kinghorn and Burntisland to return one member to parliament.

KIRKCALDY OF GRANGE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1520-1573), Scottish politician,

was the eldest son of Sir James Kirkcaldy of Grange (d. 1556), a member

of an old Fifeshire family. Sir James was lord high treasurer of

Scotland from 1537 to 1543 and was a determined opponent of Cardinal

Beaton, for whose murder in 1546 he was partly responsible. William

Kirkcaldy assisted to compass this murder, and when the castle of St

Andrews surrendered to the French in July 1547 he was sent as a prisoner

to Normandy, whence he escaped in 1550. He was then employed in France

as a secret agent by the advisers of Edward VI., being known in the

cyphers as _Corax_; and later he served in the French army, where he

gained a lasting reputation for skill and bravery. The sentence passed

on Kirkcaldy for his share in Beaton's murder was removed in 1556, and

returning to Scotland in 1557 he came quickly to the front; as a

Protestant he was one of the leaders of the lords of the congregation in

their struggle with the regent, Mary of Lorraine, and he assisted to

harass the French troops in Fife. He opposed Queen Mary's marriage with

Darnley, being associated at this time with Murray, and was forced for a

short time to seek refuge in England. Returning to Scotland, he was

accessory to the murder of Rizzio, but he had no share in that of

Darnley; and he was one of the lords who banded themselves together to

rescue Mary after her marriage with Bothwell. After the fight at

Carberry Hill the queen surrendered herself to Kirkcaldy, and his

generalship was mainly responsible for her defeat at Langside. He seems,

however, to have believed that an arrangement with Mary was possible,

and coming under the influence of Maitland of Lethington, whom in

September 1569 he released by a stratagem from his confinement in

Edinburgh, he was soon "vehemently suspected of his fellows." After the

murder of Murray Kirkcaldy ranged himself definitely among the friends

of the imprisoned queen. About this time he forcibly released one of his

supporters from imprisonment, a step which led to an altercation with

his former friend John Knox, who called him a "murderer and

throat-cutter." Defying the regent Lennox, Kirkcaldy began to strengthen

the fortifications of Edinburgh castle, of which he was governor, and

which he held for Mary, and early in 1573 he refused to come to an

agreement with the regent Morton because the terms of peace did not

include a section of his friends. After this some English troops arrived

to help the Scots, and in May 1573 the castle surrendered. Strenuous

efforts were made to save Kirkcaldy from the vengeance of his foes, but

they were unavailing; Knox had prophesied that he would be hanged, and

he was hanged on the 3rd of August 1573.

See Sir James Melville's _Memoirs_, edited by T. Thomson (Edinburgh,

1827); J. Grant, _Memoirs and Adventures of Sir W. Kirkaldy_

(Edinburgh, 1849); L. A. Barbé, _Kirkcaldy of Grange_ (1897); and A.

Lang, _History of Scotland_, vol. ii. (1902).

KIRKCUDBRIGHT (pron. _Ker-kú-bri_), a royal and police burgh, and county

town of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 2386. It is situated

at the mouth of the Dee, 6 m. from the sea and 30 m. S.W. of Dumfries by

the Glasgow & South-Western railway, being the terminus of a branch

line. The old form of the name of the town was Kilcudbrit, from the

Gaelic _Cil Cudbert_, "the chapel of Cuthbert," the saint's body having

lain here for a short time during the seven years that lapsed between

its exhumation at Lindisfarne and the re-interment at Chester-le-Street.

The estuary of the Dee is divided at its head by the peninsula of St

Mary's Isle, but though the harbour is the best in south-western

Scotland, the great distance to which the tide retreats impairs its

usefulness. Among the public buildings are the academy, Johnstone public

school, the county buildings, town-hall, museum, Mackenzie hall and

market cross, the last-named standing in front of the old court-house,

which is now used as a drill hall and fire-station. No traces remain of

the Greyfriars' or Franciscan convent founded by Alexander II., nor of

the nunnery that was erected in the parish of Kirkcudbright. The

ivy-clad ruins of Bomby castle, founded in 1582 by Sir Thomas Maclellan,

ancestor of the barons of Kirkcudbright, stand at the end of the chief

street. The town, which witnessed much of the international strife and

Border lawlessness, was taken by Edward I. in 1300. It received its

royal charter in 1455. After the battle of Towton, Henry VI. crossed the

Solway (August 1461) and landed at Kirkcudbright to join Queen Margaret

at Linlithgow. It successfully withstood the English siege in 1547 under

Sir Thomas Carleton, but after the country had been overrun was

compelled to surrender at discretion. Lord Maxwell, earl of Morton, as a

Roman Catholic, mustered his tenants here to act in concert with the

Armada; but on the approach of King James VI. to Dumfries he took ship

at Kirkcudbright and was speedily captured. The burgh is one of the

Dumfries district group of parliamentary burghs. On St Mary's Isle was

situated the seat of the earl of Selkirk, at whose house Robert Burns

gave the famous Selkirk grace:--

"Some ha'e meat; and canna eat,

And some wad eat that want it;

But we ha'e meat, and we can eat,

And sae the Lord be thankit."

Fergus, lord of Galloway, a celebrated church-builder of the 12th

century, had his principal seat on Palace Isle in a lake called after

him Loch Fergus, near St Mary's Isle, where he erected the priory de

Trayle, in token of his penitence for rebellion against David I. The

priory was afterwards united as a dependent cell to the abbey of

Holyrood. DUNDRENNAN ABBEY, 4½ m. S.E., was, however, his greatest

achievement. It was a Cistercian house, colonized from Rievaulx, and was

built in 1140. There now remain only the transept and choir, a unique

example of the Early Pointed style. Tongueland (or Tungland), 2½ m. N.

by E., has interesting historical associations. It was the site of a

Premonstratensian abbey built by Fergus, and it was here that Queen Mary

rested in her flight from the field of Langside (May 13, 1568). The well

near Tongueland bridge from which she drank still bears the name of the

Queen's Well.

KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE (also known as the STEWARTRY OF KIRKCUDBRIGHT and

EAST GALLOWAY), a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. and N.W.

by Ayrshire, W. and S.W. by Wigtownshire, S. and S.E. by the Irish Sea

and Solway Firth, and E. and N.E. by Dumfriesshire. It includes the

small islands of Hestan and Little Ross, which are utilized as

lighthouse stations. It has an area of 575,565 acres or 899 sq. m. The

north-western part of the shire is rugged, wild and desolate. In this

quarter the principal mountains are Merrick (2764 ft.), the highest in

the south of Scotland, and the group of the Rinns of Kells, the chief

peaks of which are Corscrine (2668), Carlins Cairn (2650), Meikle

Millyea (2446) and Millfire (2350). Towards the south-west the chief

eminences are Lamachan (2349), Larg (2216), and the bold mass of

Cairnsmore of Fleet (2331). In the south-east the only imposing height

is Criffel (1866). In the north rises the majestic hill of Cairnsmuir of

Carsphairn (2612), and close to the Ayrshire border is the Windy

Standard (2287). The southern section of the shire is mostly level or

undulating, but characterized by much picturesque scenery. The shore is

generally bold and rocky, indented by numerous estuaries forming natural

harbours, which however are of little use for commerce owing to the

shallowness of the sea. Large stretches of sand are exposed in the

Solway at low water and the rapid flow of the tide has often occasioned

loss of life. The number of "burns" and "waters" is remarkable, but

their length seldom exceeds 7 or 8 m. Among the longer rivers are the

Cree, which rises in Loch Moan and reaches the sea near Creetown after a

course of about 30 m., during which it forms the boundary, at first of

Ayrshire and then of Wigtownshire; the Dee or Black Water of Dee (so

named from the peat by which it is coloured), which rises in Loch Dee

and after a course mainly S.E. and finally S., enters the sea at St

Mary's Isle below Kirkcudbright, its length being nearly 36 m.; the Urr,

rising in Loch Urr on the Dumfriesshire border, falls into the sea a few

miles south of Dalbeattie 27 m. from its source; the Ken, rising on the

confines of Ayrshire, flows mainly in a southerly direction and joins

the Dee at the southern end of Loch Ken after a course of 24 m. through

lovely scenery; and the Deugh which, rising on the northern flank of the

Windy Standard, pursues an extraordinarily winding course of 20 m.

before reaching the Ken. The Nith, during the last few miles of its

flow, forms the boundary with Dumfriesshire, to which county it almost

wholly belongs. The lochs and mountain tarns are many and well

distributed; but except Loch Ken, which is about 6 m. long by ½ m. wide,

few of them attain noteworthy dimensions. There are several passes in

the hill regions, but the only well-known glen is Glen Trool, not far

from the district of Carrick in Ayrshire, the fame of which rests partly

on the romantic character of its scenery, which is very wild around Loch

Trool, and more especially on its associations with Robert Bruce. It was

here that when most closely beset by his enemies, who had tracked him to

his fastness by sleuth hounds, Bruce with the aid of a few faithful

followers won a surprise victory over the English in 1307 which proved

the turning-point of his fortunes.

_Geology._--Silurian and Ordovician rocks are the most important in

this county; they are thrown into oft-repeated folds with their axes

lying in a N.E.-S.W. direction. The Ordovician rocks are graptolitic

black shales and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age. They occupy all

the northern part of the county north-west of a line which runs some 3

m. N. of New Galloway and just S. of the Rinns of Kells. South-east of

this line graptolitic Silurian shales of Llandovery age prevail; they

are found around Dalry, Creetown, New Galloway, Castle Douglas and

Kirkcudbright. Overlying the Llandovery beds on the south coast are

strips of Wenlock rocks; they extend from Bridgehouse Bay to

Auchinleck and are well exposed in Kirkcudbright Bay, and they can be

traced farther round the coast between the granite and the younger

rocks. Carboniferous rocks appear in small faulted tracts,

unconformable on the Silurian, on the shores of the Solway Firth. They

are best developed about Kirkbean, where they include a basal red

breccia followed by conglomerates, grits and cement stones of

Calciferous Sandstone age. Brick-red sandstones of Permian age just

come within the county on the W. side of the Nith at Dumfries.

Volcanic necks occur in the Permian and basalt dikes penetrate the

Silurian at Borgue, Kirkandrews, &c. Most of the highest ground is

formed by the masses of granite which have been intruded into the

Ordovician and Silurian rocks; the Criffel mass lies about Dalbeattie

and Bengairn, another mass extends east and west between the

Cairnsmore of Fleet and Loch Ken, another lies N.W. and S.E. between

Loch Doon and Loch Dee and a small mass forms the Cairnsmore of

Carsphairn. Glacial deposits occupy much of the low ground; the ice,

having travelled in a southerly or south-easterly direction, has left

abundant striae on the higher ground to indicate its course. Radiation

of the ice streams took place from the heights of Merrick, Kells, &c.;

local moraines are found near Carsphairn and in the Deagh and Minnoch

valleys. Glacial drumlins of boulder clay lie in the vales of the Dee,

Cree and Urr.

_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate and soil are better fitted for

grass and green crops than for grain. The annual rainfall averages 45.7

in. The mean temperature for the year is 48° F.; for January 38.5°; for

July 59°. The major part of the land is either waste or poor pasture.

More than half the holdings consist of 50 acres and over. Oats is the

predominant grain crop, the acreage under barley being small and that

under wheat insignificant. Turnips are successfully cultivated, and

potatoes are the only other green crop raised on a moderately large

scale. Sheep-rearing has been pursued with great enterprise. The average

is considerably in excess of that for Scotland. Blackfaced and Cheviots

are the most common on the high ground, and a cross of Leicester with

either is also in favour. Cattle-breeding is followed with steady

success; the black polled Galloway is the general breed, but Aryshires

have been introduced for dairying, cheese-making occupying much of the

farmers' attention. Horses are extensively raised, a breed of

small-sized hardy and spirited animals being specifically known as

Galloways. Most of the horses are used in agricultural work, but a large

number are also kept for stock; Clydesdales are bred to some extent.

Pig-rearing is an important pursuit, pork being supplied to the English

markets in considerable quantities. During the last quarter of the 19th

century the number of pigs increased 50%. Bee-keeping has been followed

with special care and the honey of the shire is consequently in good

repute. The proportion of woodland in the county is small.

_Industries._--The shire ranks next to Aberdeen as a granite-yielding

county and the quarries occupy a large number of hands. In some towns

and villages there are manufactures of linen, woollen and cotton goods;

at various places distilling, brewing, tanning and paper-making are

carried on, and at Dalbeattie there are brick and tile works. There is a

little ship-building at Kirkcudbright. The Solway fishery is of small

account, but salmon fishing is prosecuted at the mouth of certain

rivers, the Dee fish being notable for their excellence.

The only railway communication is by the Glasgow & South-Western railway

running from Dumfries to Castle Douglas, from which there is a branch to

Kirkcudbright, and the Portpatrick and Wigtownshire railway, beginning

at Castle Douglas and leaving the county at Newton Stewart. These are

supplemented by coaches between various points, as from New Galloway to

Carsphairn, from Dumfries to New Abbey and Dalbeattie, and from

Auchencairn to Dalbeattie.

_Population and Government._--The population was 39,985 in 1891 and

39,383 in 1901, when 98 persons spoke Gaelic and English. The chief

towns are Castle Douglas (pop. in 1901, 3018), Dalbeattie (3469),

Kirkcudbright (2386), Maxwelltown (5796) with Creetown (991), and

Gatehouse of Fleet (1013). The shire returns one member to parliament,

and the county town (Kirkcudbright) belongs to the Dumfries district

group of parliamentary burghs, and Maxwelltown is combined with

Dumfries. The county forms part of the sheriffdom of Dumfries and

Galloway, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Kirkcudbright.

The county is under school-board jurisdiction. There is an academy at

Kirkcudbright, high schools at Dumfries and Newton Stewart, and

technical classes at Kirkcudbright, Dalbeattie, Castle Douglas and

Dumfries.

_History._--The country west of the Nith was originally peopled by a

tribe of Celtic Gaels called Novantae, or Atecott Picts, who, owing to

their geographical position, which prevented any ready intermingling

with the other Pictish tribes farther north, long retained their

independence. After Agricola's invasion in A.D. 79 the country nominally

formed part of the Roman province, but the evidence is against there

ever having been a prolonged effective Roman occupation. After the

retreat of the Romans the Novantae remained for a time under their own

chiefs, but in the 7th century accepted the overlordship of Northumbria.

The Saxons, soon engaged in struggles with the Norsemen, had no leisure

to look after their tributaries, and early in the 9th century the

Atecotts made common cause with the Vikings. Henceforward they were

styled, probably in contempt, _Gallgaidhel_, or stranger Gaels (i.e.

Gaels who fraternized with the foreigners), the Welsh equivalent for

which, _Gallwyddel_, gave rise to the name of _Galloway_ (of which

Galway is a variant), which was applied to their territory and still

denotes the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wigtown. When

Scotland was consolidated under Kenneth MacAlpine (crowned at Scone in

844), Galloway was the only district in the south that did not form part

of the kingdom; but in return for the services rendered to him at this

crisis Kenneth gave his daughter in marriage to the Galloway chief, Olaf

the White, and also conferred upon the men of Galloway the privilege of

marching in the van of the Scottish armies, a right exercised and

recognized for several centuries. During the next two hundred years the

country had no rest from Danish and Saxon incursions and the continual

lawlessness of the Scandinavian rovers. When Malcolm Canmore defeated

and slew Macbeth in 1057 he married the dead king's widow Ingibiorg, a

Pictish princess, an event which marked the beginning of the decay of

Norse influence. The Galloway chiefs hesitated for a time whether to

throw in their lot with the Northumbrians or with Malcolm; but language,

race and the situation of their country at length induced them to become

lieges of the Scottish king. By the close of the 11th century the

boundary between England and Scotland was roughly delimited on existing

lines. The feudal system ultimately destroyed the power of the Galloway

chiefs, who resisted the innovation to the last. Several of the lords or

"kings" of Galloway, a line said to have been founded by Fergus, the

greatest of them all, asserted in vain their independence of the

Scottish crown; and in 1234 the line became extinct in the male branch

on the death of Fergus's great-grandson Alan. One of Alan's daughters,

Dervorguila, had married John de Baliol (father of the John de Baliol

who was king of Scotland from 1292 until his abdication in 1296), and

the people, out of affection for Alan's daughter, were lukewarm in

support of Robert Bruce. In 1308 the district was cleared of the English

and brought under allegiance to the king, when the lordship of Galloway

was given to Edward Bruce. Later in the 14th century Galloway espoused

the cause of Edward Baliol, who surrendered several counties, including

Kirkcudbright, to Edward III. In 1372 Archibald the Grim, a natural son

of Sir James Douglas "the Good," became Lord of Galloway and received in

perpetual fee the Crown lands between the Nith and Cree. He appointed a

steward to collect his revenues and administer justice, and there thus

arose the designation of the _Stewartry_ of Kirkcudbright. The

high-handed rule of the Douglases created general discontent, and when

their treason became apparent their territory was overrun by the king's

men in 1455; Douglas was attainted, and his honours and estates were

forfeited. In that year the great stronghold of the Thrieve, the most

important fortress in Galloway, which Archibald the Grim had built on

the Dee immediately to the west of the modern town of Castle Douglas,

was reduced and converted into a royal keep. (It was dismantled in 1640

by order of the Estates in consequence of the hostility of its keeper,

Lord Nithsdale, to the Covenant.) The famous cannon Mons Meg, now in

Edinburgh Castle, is said, apparently on insufficient evidence, to have

been constructed in order to aid James III. in this siege. As the

Douglases went down the Maxwells rose, and the debateable land on the

south-east of Dumfriesshire was for generations the scene of strife and

raid, not only between the two nations but also among the leading

families, of whom the Maxwells, Johnstones and Armstrongs were always

conspicuous. After the battle of Solway Moss (1542) the shires of

Kirkcudbright and Dumfries fell under English rule for a short period.

The treaty of Norham (March 24, 1550) established a truce between the

nations for ten years; and in 1552, the Wardens of the Marches

consenting, the debateable land ceased to be matter for debate, the

parish of Canonbie being annexed to Dumfriesshire, that of Kirkandrews

to Cumberland. Though at the Reformation the Stewartry became fervent in

its Protestantism, it was to Galloway, through the influence of the

great landowners and the attachment of the people to them, that Mary

owed her warmest adherents, and it was from the coast of Kirkcudbright

that she made her luckless voyage to England. Even when the crowns were

united in 1603 turbulence continued; for trouble arose over the attempt

to establish episcopacy, and nowhere were the Covenanters more cruelly

persecuted than in Galloway. After the union things mended slowly but

surely, curious evidence of growing commercial prosperity being the

enormous extent to which smuggling was carried on. No coast could serve

the "free traders" better than the shores of Kirkcudbright, and the

contraband trade flourished till the 19th century. The Jacobite risings

of 1715 and 1745 elicited small sympathy from the inhabitants of the

shire.

See Sir Herbert Maxwell, _History of Dumfries and Galloway_

(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. Andrew Symson, _A Large Description of

Galloway_ (1684; new ed., 1823); Thomas Murray, _The Literary History

of Galloway_ (1822); Rev. William Mackenzie, _History of Galloway_

(1841); P. H. McKerlie, _History of the Lands and their Owners in

Galloway_ (Edinburgh, 1870-1879); _Galloway Ancient and Modern_

(Edinburgh, 1891); J. A. H. Murray, _Dialect of the Southern Counties

of Scotland_ (London, 1873).

KIRKE, PERCY (c. 1646-1691), English soldier, was the son of George

Kirke, a court official to Charles I. and Charles II. In 1666 he

obtained his first commission in the Lord Admiral's regiment, and

subsequently served in the Blues. He was with Monmouth at Maestricht

(1673), and was present during two campaigns with Turenne on the Rhine.

In 1680 he became lieutenant-colonel, and soon afterwards colonel of one

of the Tangier regiments (afterwards the King's Own Royal Lancaster

Regt.) In 1682 Kirke became governor of Tangier, and colonel of the old

Tangier regiment (afterwards the Queen's Royal West Surrey). He

distinguished himself very greatly as governor, though he gave offence

by the roughness of his manners and the wildness of his life. On the

evacuation of Tangier "Kirke's Lambs" (so called from their badge)

returned to England, and a year later their colonel served as a

brigadier in Faversham's army. After Sedgemoor the rebels were treated

with great severity; but the charges so often brought against the

"Lambs" are now known to be exaggerated, though the regiment shared to

the full in the ruthless hunting down of the fugitives. It is often

stated that it formed Jeffreys's escort in the "Bloody Assize," but this

is erroneous. Brigadier Kirke took a notable part in the Revolution

three years later, and William III. promoted him. He commanded at the

relief of Derry, and made his last campaign in Flanders in 1691. He

died, a lieutenant-general, at Brussels in October of that year. His

eldest son, Lieut.-General Percy Kirke (1684-1741), was also colonel of

the "Lambs."

KIRKEE (or KIRKI), a town and military cantonment of British India in

Poona district, Bombay, 4 m. N.W. of Poona city. Pop. (1901), 10,797. It

is the principal artillery station in the Bombay presidency, and has a

large ammunition factory. It was the scene of a victory over Baji Rao,

the last peshwa, in 1817.

KIRKINTILLOCH, a municipal and police burgh of Dumbartonshire, Scotland.

Pop. (1901), 10,680. It is situated 8 m. N.E. of Glasgow, by the North

British railway, a portion of the parish extending into Lanarkshire. It

lies on the Forth & Clyde canal, and the Kelvin--from which Lord Kelvin,

the distinguished scientist, took the title of his barony--flows past

the town, where it receives from the north the Glazert and from the

south the Luggie, commemorated by David Gray. The Wall of Antoninus ran

through the site of the town, the Gaelic name of which (_Caer_, a fort,

not _Kirk_, a church) means "the fort at the end of the ridge." The town

became a burgh of barony under the Comyns in 1170. The cruciform parish

church with crow-stepped gables dates from 1644. The public buildings

include the town-hall, with a clock tower, the temperance hall, a

convalescent home, the Broomhill home for incurables (largely due to

Miss Beatrice Clugston, to whom a memorial was erected in 1891), and the

Westermains asylum. In 1898 the burgh acquired as a private park the

Peel, containing traces of the Roman Wall, a fort, and the foundation of

Comyn's Castle. The leading industries are chemical manufactures,

iron-founding, muslin-weaving, coal mining and timber sawing. LENZIE, a

suburb, a mile to the south of the old town, contains the imposing

towered edifice in the Elizabethan style which houses the Barony asylum.

David Gray, the poet, was born at Merkland, near by, and is buried in

Kirkintilloch churchyard, where a monument was erected to his memory in

1865.

KIRK-KILISSEH (KIRK-KILISSE or KIRK-KILISSIA), a town of European

Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, 35 m. E. of Adrianople. Pop.

(1905), about 16,000, of whom about half are Greeks, and the remainder

Bulgarians, Turks and Jews. Kirk-Kilisseh is built near the headwaters

of several small tributaries of the river Ergene, and on the western

slope of the Istranja Dagh. It owes its chief importance to its position

at the southern outlet of the Fakhi defile over these mountains, through

which passes the shortest road from Shumla to Constantinople. The name

Kirk-Kilisseh signifies "four churches," and the town possesses many

mosques and Greek churches. It has an important trade with

Constantinople in butter and cheese, and also exports wine, brandy,

cereals and tobacco.

KIRKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Adair county, Missouri,

U.S.A., about 129 m. N. by W. of Jefferson City. Pop. (1900), 5966,

including 112 foreign-born and 291 negroes; (1910), 6347. It is served

by the Wabash and the Quincy, Omaha & Kansas City railways. It lies on a

rolling prairie at an elevation of 975 ft. above the sea. It is the seat

of the First District Missouri State Normal School (1870); of the

American School of Osteopathy (opened 1892); and of the related A. T.

Still Infirmary (incorporated 1895), named in honour of its founder,

Andrew Taylor Still (b. 1820), the originator of osteopathic treatment,

who settled here in 1875. In 1908 the School of Osteopathy had 18

instructors and 398 students. Grain and fruit are grown in large

quantities, and much coal is mined in the vicinity of Kirksville. Its

manufactures are shoes, bricks, lumber, ice, agricultural implements,

wagons and handles. Kirksville was laid out in 1842, and was named in

honour of Jesse Kirk. It was incorporated as a town in 1857 and

chartered as a city of the third class in 1892. In April 1899 a cyclone

caused serious damage to the city.

KIRKWALL (Norse, _Kirkjuvagr_, "church bay"), a royal, municipal and

police burgh, seaport and capital of the Orkney Islands, county of

Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 3711. It is situated at the head of a bay

of the same name on the east of the island of Pomona, or Mainland, 247

m. N. of Leith and 54 m. N. of Wick by steamer. Much of the city is

quaint-looking and old-fashioned, its main street (nearly 1 m. long)

being in parts so narrow that two vehicles cannot pass each other. The

more modern quarters are built with great regularity and the suburbs

contain several substantial villas surrounded by gardens. Kirkwall has

very few manufactures. The linen trade introduced in the middle of the

18th century is extinct, and a like fate has overtaken the kelp and

straw-plaiting industries. Distilling however prospers, and the town is

important not only as regards its shipping and the deep-sea fishery, but

also as a distributing centre for the islands and the seat of the

superior law courts. The port has two piers. Kirkwall received its first

charter from James III. in 1486, but the provisions of this instrument

being disregarded by such men as Robert (d. 1592) and Patrick Stewart

(d. 1614), 1st and 2nd earls of Orkney, and others, the Scottish

parliament passed an act in 1670 confirming the charter granted by

Charles II. in 1661. The prime object of interest is the cathedral of St

Magnus, a stately cruciform red sandstone structure in the severest

Norman, with touches of Gothic. It was founded by Jarl Rognvald (Earl

Ronald) in 1137 in memory of his uncle Jarl Magnus who was assassinated

in the island of Egilshay in 1115, and afterwards canonized and adopted

as the patron saint of the Orkneys. The remains of St Magnus were

ultimately interred in the cathedral. The church is 234 ft. long from

east to west and 56 ft. broad, 71 ft. high from floor to roof, and 133

ft. to the top of the present spire--the transepts being the oldest

portion. The choir was lengthened and the beautiful eastern rose window

added by Bishop Stewart in 1511, and the porch and the western end of

the nave were finished in 1540 by Bishop Robert Reid. Saving that the

upper half of the original spire was struck by lightning in 1671, and

not rebuilt, the cathedral is complete at all points, but it underwent

extensive repairs in the 19th century. The disproportionate height and

narrowness of the building lend it a certain distinction which otherwise

it would have lacked. The sandstone has not resisted the effects of

weather, and much of the external decorative work has perished. The

choir is used as the parish church. The _skellat_, or fire-bell, is not

rung now. The church of St Olaf, from which the town took its name, was

burned down by the English in 1502; and of the church erected on its

site by Bishop Reid--the greatest building the Orkneys ever had--little

more than the merest fragment survives. Nothing remains of the old

castle, a fortress of remarkable strength founded by Sir Henry Sinclair

(d. 1400), earl and prince of Orkney and 1st earl of Caithness, its last

vestiges having been demolished in 1865 to provide better access to the

harbour; and the earthwork to the east of the town thrown up by the

Cromwellians has been converted into a battery of the Orkney Artillery

Volunteers. Adjoining the cathedral are the ruins of the bishop's

palace, in which King Haco died after his defeat at Largs in 1263. The

round tower, which still stands, was added in 1550 by Bishop Reid. It is

known as the Mass Tower and contains a niche in which is a small effigy

believed to represent the founder, who also endowed the grammar school

which is still in existence. To the east of the remains of the bishop's

palace are the ruins of the earl's palace, a structure in the Scottish

Baronial style, built about 1600 for Patrick Stewart, 2nd earl of

Orkney, and on his forfeiture given to the bishops for a residence.

Tankerness House is a characteristic example of the mansion of an Orkney

laird of the olden time. Other public buildings include the municipal

buildings, the sheriff court and county buildings, Balfour hospital, and

the fever hospital. There is daily communication with Scrabster pier

(Thurso), via Scapa pier, on the southern side of the waist of Pomona,

about 1½ m. to the S. of Kirkwall; and steamers sail at regular

intervals from the harbour to Wick, Aberdeen and Leith. Good roads place

the capital in touch with most places in the island and a coach runs

twice a day to Stromness. Kirkwall belongs to the Wick district group of

parliamentary burghs, the others being Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch and

Tain.

KIRRIEMUIR, a police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 4096.

It is situated on a height above the glen through which the Gairie

flows, 6¼ m. N.W. of Forfar by a branch line of the Caledonian railway

of which it is the terminus. There are libraries, a public hall and a

park. The staple industry is linen-weaving. The hand-loom lingered

longer here than in any other place in Scotland and is not yet wholly

extinct. The Rev. Dr Alexander Whyte (b. 1837) and J. M. Barrie (b.

1860) are natives, the latter having made the town famous under the name

of "Thrums." The original Secession church--the kirk of the Auld

Lichts--was founded in 1806 and rebuilt in 1893. Kinnordy, 1½ m. N.W.,

was the birthplace of Sir Charles Lyell the geologist; and Cortachy

castle, a fine mansion in the Scottish Baronial style, about 4 m. N., is

the seat of the earl of Airlie.

KIRSCH (or KIRSCHENWASSER), a potable spirit distilled from cherries.

Kirsch is manufactured chiefly in the Black Forest in Germany, and in

the Vosges and Jura districts in France. Generally the raw material

consists of the wild cherry known as _Cerasus avium_. The cherries are

subjected to natural fermentation and subsequent distillation.

Occasionally a certain quantity of sugar and water are added to the

cherries after crushing, and the mass so obtained is filtered or pressed

prior to fermentation. The spirit is usually "run" at a strength of

about 50% of absolute alcohol. Compared with brandy or whisky the

characteristic features of kirsch are (a) that it contains relatively

large quantities of higher alcohols and compound ethers, and (b) the

presence in this spirit of small quantities of hydrocyanic acid, partly

as such and partly in combination as benzaldehyde-cyanhydrine, to which

the distinctive flavour of kirsch is largely due.

KIR-SHEHER, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name in the Angora

vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of the Kizil Irmak

(_Halys_), on the Angora-Kaisarieh road. It is on the line of the

projected railway from Angora to Kaisarieh. The town gives its name to

the excellent carpets made in the vicinity. On the outskirts there is a

hot chalybeate spring. Population about 9000 (700 Christians, mostly

Armenians). Kir-sheher represents the ancient _Mocissus_, a small town

which became important in the Byzantine period: it was enlarged by the

emperor Justinian, who re-named it _Justinianopolis_, and made it the

capital of a large division of Cappadocia, a position it still retains.

KIRWAN, RICHARD (1733-1812), Irish scientist, was born at

Cloughballymore, Co. Galway, in 1733. Part of his early life was spent

abroad, and in 1754 he entered the Jesuit novitiate either at St Omer or

at Hesdin, but returned to Ireland in the following year, when he

succeeded to the family estates through the death of his brother in a

duel. In 1766, having conformed to the established religion two years

previously, he was called to the Irish bar, but in 1768 abandoned

practice in favour of scientific pursuits. During the next nineteen

years he resided chiefly in London, enjoying the society of the

scientific men living there, and corresponding with many savants on the

continent of Europe, as his wide knowledge of languages enabled him to

do with ease. His experiments on the specific gravities and attractive

powers of various saline substances formed a substantial contribution to

the methods of analytical chemistry, and in 1782 gained him the Copley

medal from the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1780;

and in 1784 he was engaged in a controversy with Cavendish in regard to

the latter's experiments on air. In 1787 he removed to Dublin, where

four years later he became president of the Royal Irish Academy. To its

proceedings he contributed some thirty-eight memoirs, dealing with

meteorology, pure and applied chemistry, geology, magnetism, philology,

&c. One of these, on the primitive state of the globe and its subsequent

catastrophe, involved him in a lively dispute with the upholders of the

Huttonian theory. His geological work was marred by an implicit belief

in the universal deluge, and through finding fossils associated with the

trap rocks near Portrush he maintained basalt was of aqueous origin. He

was one of the last supporters in England of the phlogistic hypothesis,

for which he contended in his _Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution

of Acids_ (1787), identifying phlogiston with hydrogen. This work,

translated by Madame Lavoisier, was published in French with critical

notes by Lavoisier and some of his associates; Kirwan attempted to

refute their arguments, but they proved too strong for him, and he

acknowledged himself a convert in 1791. His other books included

_Elements of Mineralogy_ (1784), which was the first systematic work on

that subject in the English language, and which long remained standard;

_An Estimate of the Temperature of Different Latitudes_ (1787); _Essay

of the Analysis of Mineral Waters_ (1799), and _Geological Essays_

(1799). In his later years he turned to philosophical questions,

producing a paper on human liberty in 1798, a treatise on logic in 1807,

and a volume of metaphysical essays in 1811, none of any worth. Various

stories are told of his eccentricities as well as of his conversational

powers. He died in Dublin in June 1812.

KISFALUDY, KÁROLY [CHARLES] (1788-1830), Hungarian author, was born at

Téte, near Raab, on the 6th of February 1788. His birth cost his mother

her life and himself his father's undying hatred. He entered the army as

a cadet in 1804; saw active service in Italy, Servia and Bavaria

(1805-1809), especially distinguishing himself at the battle of Leoben

(May 25, 1809), and returned to his quarters at Pest with the rank of

first lieutenant. It was during the war that he composed his first

poems, e.g. the tragedy _Gyilkos_ ("The Murder," 1808), and numerous

martial songs for the encouragement of his comrades. It was now, too,

that he fell hopelessly in love with the beautiful Katalin Heppler, the

daughter of a wealthy tobacco merchant. Tiring of the monotony of a

soldier's life, yet unwilling to sacrifice his liberty to follow

commerce or enter the civil service, Kisfaludy, contrary to his father's

wishes, now threw up his commission and made his home at the house of a

married sister at Vörröck, where he could follow his inclinations. In

1812 he studied painting at the Vienna academy and supported himself

precariously by his brush and pencil, till the theatre at Vienna proved

a still stronger attraction. In 1812 he wrote the tragedy _Klára Zách_,

and in 1815 went to Italy to study art more thoroughly. But he was back

again within six months, and for the next three years flitted from place

to place, living on the charity of his friends, lodging in hovels and

dashing off scores of daubs which rarely found a market. The united and

repeated petitions of the whole Kisfaludy family failed to bring about a

reconciliation between the elder Kisfaludy and his prodigal son. It was

the success of his drama _Ilka_, written for the Fehérvár dramatic

society, that first made him famous and prosperous. The play was greeted

with enthusiasm both at Fehérvár and Buda (1819). Subsequent plays, _The

Voivode Stiber_ and _The Petitioners_ (the first original Magyar

dramas), were equally successful. Kisfaludy's fame began to spread. He

had found his true vocation as the creator of the Hungarian drama. In

May 1820 he wrote three new plays for the dramatic society (he could

always turn out a five-act drama in four days) which still further

increased his reputation. From 1820 onwards, under the influence of the

great critic Kazinczy, he learnt to polish and refine his style, while

his friend and adviser György Gaal (who translated some of his dramas

for the Vienna stage) introduced him to the works of Shakespeare and

Goethe. By this time Kisfaludy had evolved a literary theory of his own

which inclined towards romanticism; and in collaboration with his elder

brother Alexander (see below) he founded the periodical _Aurora_ (1822),

which he edited to the day of his death. The _Aurora_ was a notable

phenomenon in Magyar literature. It attracted towards it many of the

rising young authors of the day (including Vörösmarty, Bajza and

Czuczor) and speedily became the oracle of the romanticists. Kisfaludy's

material position had now greatly improved, but he could not shake off

his old recklessness and generosity, and he was never able to pay a

tithe of his debts. The publication of _Aurora_ so engrossed his time

that practically he abandoned the stage. But he contributed to _Aurora_

ballads, epigrams, short epic pieces, and, best of all, his comic

stories. Kisfaludy was in fact the founder of the school of Magyar

humorists and his comic types amuse and delight to this day. When the

folk-tale became popular in Europe, Kisfaludy set to work upon

folk-tales also and produced (1828) some of the masterpieces of that

genre. He died on the 21st of November 1830. Six years later the great

literary society of Hungary, the _Kisfaludy Társaság_, was founded to

commemorate his genius. Apart from his own works it is the supreme merit

of Kisfaludy to have revived and nationalized the Magyar literature,

giving it a range and scope undreamed of before his time.

The first edition of Kisfaludy's works, in 10 volumes, appeared at

Buda in 1831, shortly after his death, but the 7th edition (Budapest

1893) is the best and fullest. See Ferenc Toldy, _Lives of the Magyar

Poets_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1870); Zsolt Beöthy, _The Father of

Hungarian Comedy_ (Budapest, 1882); Tamás Szana, _The Two Kisfaludys_

(Hung.) (Budapest, 1876). Kisfaludy's struggles and adventures are

also most vividly described in Jókai's novel, _Eppur si muove_

(Hung.).

SÁNDOR [ALEXANDER] KISFALUDY (1772-1844), Hungarian poet, elder brother

of the preceding, was born at Zala on the 27th of September 1772,

educated at Raab, and graduated in philosophy and jurisprudence at

Pressburg. He early fell under the influence of Schiller and Kleist, and

devoted himself to the resuscitation of the almost extinct Hungarian

literature. Disgusted with his profession, the law, he entered the Life

Guards (1793) and plunged into the gay life of Vienna, cultivating

literature, learning French, German and Italian, painting, sketching,

assiduously frequenting the theatre, and consorting on equal terms with

all the literary celebrities of the Austrian capital. In 1796 he was

transferred to the army in Italy for being concerned with some of his

brother officers of the Vienna garrison in certain irregularities. When

Milan was captured by Napoleon Kisfaludy was sent a prisoner of war to

Vaucluse, where he studied Petrarch with enthusiasm and fell violently

in love with Caroline D'Esclapon, a kindred spirit to whom he addressed

his melancholy _Himfy Lays_, the first part of the subsequently famous

sonnets. On returning to Austria he served with some distinction in the

campaigns of 1798 and 1799 on the Rhine and in Switzerland; but tiring

of a military life and disgusted at the slowness of his promotion, he

quitted the army in September 1799, and married his old love Rózá

Szegedy at the beginning of 1800. The first five happy years of their

life were passed at Kám in Vás county, but in 1805 they removed to Sümeg

where Kisfaludy gave himself up entirely to literature.

At the beginning of the 19th century he had published a volume of

erotics which made him famous, and his reputation was still further

increased by his _Regék_ or Tales. During the troublous times of 1809,

when the gentry of Zala county founded a confederation, the palatine

appointed Kisfaludy one of his adjutants. Subsequently, by command, he

wrote an account of the movement for presentation to King Francis, which

was committed to the secret archives, and Kisfaludy was forbidden to

communicate its contents. In 1820 the Marczebánya Institute crowned his

_Tales_ and the palatine presented him with a prize of 400 florins in

the hall of the Pest county council. In 1822 he started the _Aurora_

with his younger brother Károly (see above). When the academy was

founded in 1830 Kisfaludy was the first county member elected to it. In

1835 he resigned because he was obliged to share the honour of winning

the academy's grand prize with Vörösmarty. After the death of his first

wife (1832) he married a second time, but by neither of his wives had he

any child. The remainder of his days were spent in his Tusculum among

the vineyards of Sümeg and Somla. He died on the 28th of October 1844.

Alexander Kisfaludy stands alone among the rising literary schools of

his day. He was not even influenced by his friend the great critic

Kazinczy, who gave the tone to the young classical writers of his day.

Kisfaludy's art was self-taught, solitary and absolutely independent. If

he imitated any one it was Petrarch; indeed his famous _Himfy szerelmei_

("The Loves of Himfy"), as his collected sonnets are called, have won

for him the title of "The Hungarian Petrarch." But the passion of

Kisfaludy is far more sincere and real than ever Petrarch's was, and he

completely Magyarized everything he borrowed. After finishing the

sonnets Kisfaludy devoted himself to more objective writing, as in the

incomparable _Regék_, which reproduce the scenery and the history of the

delightful counties which surround Lake Balaton. He also contributed

numerous tales and other pieces to _Aurora_. Far less successful were

his plays, of which _Hunyádi János_ (1816), by far the longest drama in

the Hungarian language, need alone be mentioned.

The best critical edition of Sándor Kisfaludy's works is the fourth

complete edition, by David Angyal, in eight volumes (Budapest, 1893).

See Tamás Szana, _The two Kisfaludys_ (Hung.) (Budapest, 1876); Imre

Sándor, _The Influence of the Italian on the Hungarian Literature_

(Hung.) (Budapest, 1878); Kálmán Sümegi, _Kisfaludy and his Tales_

(Hung.) (Budapest, 1877). (R. N. B.)

KISH, or KAIS (the first form is Persian and the second Arabic), an

island in the Persian Gulf. It is mentioned in the 12th century as being

the residence of an Arab pirate from Oman, who exacted a tribute from

the pearl fisheries of the gulf and had the title of "King of the Sea,"

and it rose to importance in the 13th century with the fall of Siraf as

a transit station of the trade between India and the West. In the 14th

century it was supplanted by Hormuz and lapsed into its former

insignificance. The island is nearly 10 m. long and 5 m. broad, and

contains a number of small villages, the largest, Mashi, with about 100

houses, being situated on its north-eastern corner in 26° 34´ N. and 54°

2´ E. The highest part of the island has an elevation of 120 ft. The

inhabitants are Arabs, and nearly all pearl fishers, possessing many

boats, which they take to the pearl banks on the Arabian coast. The

water supply is scanty and there is little vegetation, but sufficient

for sustaining some flocks of sheep and goats and some cattle. Near the

centre of the north coast are the ruins of the old city, now known as

Harira, with remains of a mosque, with octagonal columns, masonry,

water-cisterns (two 150 ft. long, 40 ft. broad, 24 ft. deep) and a fine

underground canal, or aqueduct, half a mile long and cut in the solid

rock 20 ft. below the surface. Fragments of glazed tiles and brown and

blue pottery, of thin white and blue Chinese porcelain, of green céladon

(some with white scroll-work or figures in relief), glass beads,

bangles, &c., are abundant. Kish is the Kataia of Arrian; Chisi and Quis

of Marco Polo; Quixi, Queis, Caez, Cais, &c., of Portuguese writers; and

Khenn, or Kenn, of English.

KISHANGARH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. Area, 858

sq. m.; pop. (1901), 90,970, showing a decrease of 27% in the decade,

due to the famine of 1899-1900; estimated revenue, £34,000; there is no

tribute. The state was founded in the reign of the emperor Akbar, by a

younger son of the raja of Jodhpur. In 1818 Kishangarh first came into

direct relations with the British government, by entering into a treaty,

together with the other Rajput states, for the suppression of the

Pindari marauders by whom the country was at that time overrun. The

chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan. Maharaja

Madan Singh ascended the throne in 1900 at the age of sixteen, and

attended the Delhi Durbar of 1903 as a cadet in the Imperial Cadet

Corps. The administration, under the _diwan_, is highly spoken of.

Irrigation from tanks and wells has been extended; factories for ginning

and pressing cotton have been started; and the social reform movement,

for discouraging excessive expenditure on marriages, has been very

successful. The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway. The town of

KISHANGARH is 18 m. N.W. of Ajmere by rail. Pop. (1901), 12,663. It is

the residence of many Jain merchants.

KISHINEV (_Kishlanow_ of the Moldavians), a town of south-west Russia,

capital of the government of Bessarabia, situated on the right bank of

the Byk, a tributary of the Dniester, and on the railway between Odessa

and Jassy in Rumania, 120 m. W.N.W. from the former. At the beginning of

the 19th century it was but a poor village, and in 1812 when it was

acquired by Russia from Moldavia it had only 7000 inhabitants; twenty

years later its population numbered 35,000, while in 1862 it had with

its suburbs 92,000 inhabitants, and in 1900 125,787, composed of the

most varied nationalities--Moldavians, Walachians, Russians, Jews (43%),

Bulgarians, Tatars, Germans and Gypsies. A massacre (_pogrom_) of the

Jews was perpetrated here in 1903. The town consists of two parts--the

old or lower town, on the banks of the Byk, and the new or upper town,

situated on high crags, 450 to 500 ft. above the river. The wide suburbs

are remarkable for their gardens, which produce great quantities of

fruits (especially plums, which are dried and exported), tobacco,

mulberry leaves for silkworms, and wine. The buildings of the town are

sombre, shabby and low, but built of stone; and the streets, though wide

and shaded by acacias, are mostly unpaved. Kishinev is the seat of the

archbishop of Bessarabia, and has a cathedral, an ecclesiastical

seminary with 800 students, a college, and a gardening school, a museum,

a public library, a botanic garden, and a sanatorium with sulphur

springs. The town is adorned with statues of Tsar Alexander II. (1886)

and the poet Pushkin (1885). There are tallow-melting houses, steam

flour-mills, candle and soap works, distilleries and tobacco factories.

The trade is very active and increasing, Kishinev being a centre for the

Bessarabian trade in grain, wine, tobacco, tallow, wool and skins,

exported to Austria and to Odessa. The town played an important part in

the war between Russia and Turkey in 1877-78, as the chief centre of the

Russian invasion.

KISHM (also Arab. _Jazirat ut-tawilah_, Pers. _Jazarih i daraz_, i.e.

Long Island), an island at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, separated from

the Persian mainland by the Khor-i-Jafari, a strait which at its

narrowest point is less than 2 m. broad. On British Admiralty charts it

figures as "Clarence Strait," the name given to it by British surveyors

in 1828 in honour of the duke of Clarence (William IV.). The island is

70 m. long, its main axis running E.N.E. by W.S.W. Its greatest breadth

is 22 m. and the mean breadth about 7 m. A range of hills from 300 to

600 ft. high, with strongly marked escarpments, runs nearly parallel to

the southern coast; they are largely composed, like those of Hormuz and

the neighbouring mainland, of rock salt, which is regularly quarried in

several places, principally at Nimakdan (i.e. salt-cellar) and Salakh on

the south coast, and forms one of the chief products of the island,

finding its way to Muscat, India and Zanzibar. In the centre of the

island some hills, consisting of sandstone and marl, rise to an

elevation of 1300 ft. In its general aspect the island is parched and

barren-looking, like the south of Persia, but it contains fertile

portions, which produce grain, dates, grapes, melons, &c. Traces of

naphtha were observed near Salakh, but extensive boring operations in

1892 did not lead to any result. The town of Kishm (pop. 5000) is on the

eastern extremity of the island. The famous navigator, William Baffin,

was killed here in January 1622 by a shot from the Portuguese castle

close by, which a British force was then besieging. Lafit (Laft, Leit),

the next place in importance (reduced by a British fleet in 1809), is

situated about midway on the northern coast in the most fertile part of

the island. There are also many flourishing villages. At Basidu or

Bassadore (correct name Baba Sa'idu), on the western extremity of the

island, the British government maintained until 1879 a sanatorium for

the crews of their gunboats in the gulf, with barracks for a company of

sepoys belonging to the marine battalion at Bombay, workshops, hospital,

&c. The village is still British property, but its occupants are reduced

to a couple of men in charge of a coal depot, a provision store and

about 90 villagers. In December 1896 a terrible earthquake destroyed

about four-fifths of the houses on the island and over 1000 persons lost

their lives. The total population is generally estimated at about 15,000

to 20,000, but the German Admiralty's _Segelhandbuch für den Persischen

Golf_ for 1907 has 40,000.

Kishm is the ancient _Oaracta_, or _Uorochta_, a name said to have

survived until recently in a village called Brokt, or Brokht. It was

also called the island of the Beni Kavan, from an Arab tribe of that

name which came from Oman. (A. H.-S.)

KISKUNFÉLEGYHÁZA, a town of Hungary, in the county of

Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 80 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900),

33,242. Among the principal buildings are a fine town hall, a Roman

Catholic gymnasium and a modern large parish church. The surrounding

country is covered with vineyards, fruit gardens, and tobacco and corn

fields. The town itself, which is an important railway junction, is

chiefly noted for its great cattle-market. Numerous Roman urns and other

ancient relics have been dug up in the vicinity. In the 17th century the

town was completely destroyed by the Turks, and it was not recolonized

and rebuilt till 1743.

KISLOVODSK, a town and health-resort of Russian Caucasia, in the

province of Terek, situated at an altitude of 2690 ft., in a deep

caldron-shaped valley on the N. side of the Caucasus, 40 m. by rail S.W.

of Pyatigorsk. Pop. (1897), 4078. The limestone hills which surround the

town rise by successive steps or terraces, and contain numerous caves.

The mineral waters are strongly impregnated with carbonic acid gas and

have a temperature of 51° F. The principal spring is known as Narsan,

and its water is called by the Circassians the "drink of heroes."

KISMET, fate, destiny, a term used by Mahommedans to express all the

incidents and details of man's lot in life. The word is the Turkish form

of the Arabic _gismat_, from _gasama_, to divide.

KISS, the act of pressing or touching with the lips, cheek, hand or lips

of another, as a sign or expression of love, affection, reverence or

greeting. Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) connects the Teut. base _kussa_

with Lat. _gustus_, taste, and with Goth. _kustus_, test, from _kinsan_,

to choose, and takes "kiss" as ultimately a doublet of "choice."

For the liturgical _osculum pacis_ or "kiss of peace," see PAX. See

further C. Nyrop, _The Kiss and its History_, trans. by W. F. Harvey

(1902); J. J. Claudius, _Dissertatio de salulationibus veterum_

(Utrecht, 1702); and "_Baisers d'étiquette_" (1689) in _Archives

curieuses de l'histoire de France_ (1834-1890, series ii. tom. 12).

KISSAR, or GYTARAH BARBARYEH, the ancient Nubian lyre, still in use in

Egypt and Abyssinia. It consists of a body having instead of the

traditional tortoiseshell back a shallow, round bowl of wood, covered

with a sound-board of sheepskin, in which are three small round

sound-holes. The arms, set through the sound-board at points distant

about the third of the diameter from the circumference, have the

familiar fan shape. Five gut strings, knotted round the bar and raised

from the sound-board by means of a bridge tailpiece similar to that in

use on the modern guitar, are plucked by means of a plectrum by the

right hand for the melody, while the left hand sometimes twangs some of

the strings as a soft drone accompaniment.

KISSINGEN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the kingdom of

Bavaria, delightfully situated in a broad valley surrounded by high and

well-wooded hills, on the Franconian Saale, 656 ft. above sea-level, 62

m. E. of Frankfort-on-Main, and 43 N.E. of Würzburg by rail. Pop.

(1900), 4757. Its streets are regular and its houses attractive. It has

an Evangelical, an English, a Russian and three Roman Catholic churches,

a theatre, and various benevolent institutions, besides all the usual

buildings for the lodging, cure and amusement of the numerous visitors

who are attracted to this, the most popular watering-place in Bavaria.

In the Kurgarten, a tree-shaded expanse between the Kurhaus and the

handsome colonnaded Konversations-Saal, are the three principal springs,

the Rákóczy, the Pandur and the Maxbrunnen, of which the first two,

strongly impregnated with iron and salt, have a temperature of 51.26°

F.; the last (50.72°) is like Selters or Seltzer water. At short

distances from the town are the intermittent artesian spring

Solensprudel, the Schönbornsprudel and the Theresienquelle; and in the

same valley as Kissingen are the minor spas of Bocklet and Brückenau.

The waters of Kissingen are prescribed for both internal and external

use in a great variety of diseases. They are all highly charged with

salt, and productive government salt-works were at one time stationed

near Kissingen. The number of persons who visit the place amounts to

about 20,000 a year. The manufactures of the town, chiefly carriages and

furniture, are unimportant; there is also a trade in fruit and wine.

The salt springs were known in the 9th century, and their medicinal

properties were recognized in the 16th, but it was only during the 19th

century that Kissingen became a popular resort. The town belonged to the

counts of Henneberg until 1394, when it was sold to the bishop of

Würzburg. With this bishopric it passed later to Bavaria. On the 10th of

July 1866 the Prussians defeated the Bavarians with great slaughter near

Kissingen. On the 13th of July 1874 the town was the scene of the

attempt of the fanatic Kullmann to assassinate Prince Bismarck, to whom

a statue has been erected. There are also monuments to Kings Louis I.

and Maximilian I. of Bavaria.

See Balling, _Die Heilquellen und Bäder zu Kissingen_ (Kissingen,

1886); A. Sotier, _Bad Kissingen_ (Leipzig, 1883); Werner, _Bad

Kissingen als Kurort_ (Berlin, 1904); Leusser, _Kissingen für

Herzkranke_ (Würzburg, 1902); Diruf, _Kissingen und seine Heilquellen_

(Würzburg, 1892); and Roth, _Bad Kissingen_ (Würzburg, 1901).

KISTNA, or KRISHNA, a large river of southern India. It rises near the

Bombay sanatorium of Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats, only about 40

m. from the Arabian Sea, and, as it discharges into the Bay of Bengal,

it thus flows across almost the entire peninsula from west to east. It

has an estimated basin area of 97,000 sq. m., and its length is 800 m.

Its source is held sacred, and is frequented by pilgrims in large

numbers. From Mahabaleshwar the Kistna runs southward in a rapid course

into the nizam's dominions, then turns to the east, and ultimately falls

into the sea by two principal mouths, carrying with it the waters of the

Bhima from the north and the Tungabadhra from the south-west. Along this

part of the coast runs an extensive strip of land which has been

entirely formed by the detritus washed down by the Kistna and Godavari.

The river channel is throughout too rocky and the stream too rapid to

allow navigation even by small native craft. In utility for irrigation

the Kistna is also inferior to its two sister streams, the Godavari and

Cauvery. By far the greatest of its irrigation works is the Bezwada

anicut, begun by Sir Arthur Cotton in 1852. Bezwada is a small town at

the entrance of the gorge by which the Kistna bursts through the Eastern

Ghats and immediately spreads over the alluvial plain. The channel there

is 1300 yds. wide. During the dry season the depth of water is barely 6

ft., but sometimes it rises to as much as 36 ft., the maximum flood

discharge being calculated at 1,188,000 cub. ft. per second. Of the two

main canals connected with the dam, that on the left bank breaks into

two branches, the one running 39 m. to Ellore, the other 49 m. to

Masulipatam. The canal on the right bank proceeds nearly parallel to the

river, and also sends off two principal branches, to Nizampatam and

Comamur. The total length of the main channels is 372 m. and the total

area irrigated in 1903-1904 was about 700,000 acres.

KISTNA (or KRISHNA), a district of British India, in the N.E. of the

Madras Presidency. Masulipatam is the district headquarters. Area, 8490

sq. m. The district is generally a flat country, but the interior is

broken by a few low hills, the highest being 1857 ft. above sea-level.

The principal rivers are the Kistna, which cuts the district into two

portions, and the Munyeru, Paleru and Naguleru (tributaries of the

Gundlakamma and the Kistna); the last only is navigable. The Kolar lake,

which covers an area of 21 by 14 m., and the Romparu swamp are natural

receptacles for the drainage on the north and south sides of the Kistna

respectively.

In 1901 the population was 2,154,803, showing an increase of 16% in the

decade. Subsequently the area of the district was reduced by the

formation of the new district of Guntur (q.v.), though Kistna received

an accretion of territory from Godavari district. The population in 1901

on the area as reconstituted (5899 sq. m.) was 1,744,138. The Kistna

delta system of irrigation canals, which are available also for

navigation, connect with the Godavari system. The principal crops are

rice, millets, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, indigo, tobacco and a little

sugar-cane. There are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton.

The cigars known in England as Lunkas are partly made from tobacco grown

on _lankas_ or islands in the Kistna. The manufacture of chintzes at

Masulipatam is a decaying industry, but cotton is woven everywhere for

domestic use. Salt is evaporated, under government supervision, along

the coast. Bezwada, at the head of the delta, is a place of growing

importance, as the central junction of the East Coast railway system,

which crosses the inland portion of the district in three directions.

Some seaborne trade, chiefly coasting, is carried on at the open

roadsteads of Masulipatam and Nizampatam, both in the delta. The Church

Missionary Society supports a college at Masulipatam.

The early history of Kistna is inseparable from that of the northern

Circars. Dharanikota and the adjacent town of Amravati were the seats of

early Hindu and Buddhist governments; and the more modern Rajahmundry

owed its importance to later dynasties. The Chalukyas here gave place to

the Cholas, who in turn were ousted by the Reddi kings, who flourished

during the 14th century, and built the forts of Bellamkonda, Kondavi and

Kondapalli in the north of the district, while the Gajapati dynasty of

Orissa ruled in the north. Afterwards the entire district passed to the

Kutb Shahis of Golconda, until annexed to the Mogul empire by Aurangzeb

in 1687. Meantime the English had in 1611 established a small factory at

Masulipatam, where they traded with varying fortune from 1759, when,

Masulipatam being captured from the French by Colonel Forde, with a

force sent by Lord Clive from Calcutta, the power of the English in the

greater part of the district was complete.

KIT (1) (probably an adaptation of the Middle Dutch _kitie_, a wooden

tub, usually with a lid and handles; in modern Dutch _kit_ means a

tankard), a tub, basket or pail used for holding milk, butter, eggs,

fish and other goods; also applied to similar receptacles for various

domestic purposes, or for holding a workman's tools, &c. By transference

"kit" came to mean the tools themselves, but more commonly personal

effects such as clothing, especially that of a soldier or sailor, the

word including the knapsack or other receptacle in which the effects are

packed. (2) The name (perhaps a corruption of "cittern" Gr. [Greek:

kithara]) of a small violin, about 16 in. long, and played with a bow of

nearly the same length, much used at one time by dancing-masters. The

French name is _pochette_, the instrument being small enough to go into

the pocket.

KITAZATO, SHIBASABURO (1856- ), Japanese doctor of medicine, was born

at Kumamoto in 1856 and studied in Germany under Koch from 1885 to 1891.

He became one of the foremost bacteriologists of the world, and enjoyed

the credit of having discovered the bacilli of tetanus, diphtheria and

plague, the last in conjunction with Dr Aoyama, who accompanied him to

Hong-Kong in 1894 during an epidemic at that place.

KIT-CAT CLUB, a club of Whig wits, painters, politicians and men of

letters, founded in London about 1703. The name was derived from that of

Christopher Cat, the keeper of the pie-house in which the club met in

Shire Lane, near Temple Bar. The meetings were afterwards held at the

Fountain tavern in the Strand, and latterly in a room specially built

for the purpose at Barn Elms, the residence of the secretary, Jacob

Tonson, the publisher. In summer the club met at the Upper Flask,

Hampstead Heath. The club originally consisted of thirty-nine,

afterwards of forty-eight members, and included among others the duke of

Marlborough, Lords Halifax and Somers, Sir Robert Walpole, Vanbrugh,

Congreve, Steele and Addison. The portraits of many of the members were

painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller, himself a member, of a uniform size

suited to the height of the Barn Elms room in which the club dined. The

canvas, 36 × 28 in., admitted of less than a half-length portrait but

was sufficiently long to include a hand, and this is known as the

kit-cat size. The club was dissolved about 1720.

KITCHEN (O.E. _cycene_; this and other cognate forms, such as Dutch

_keuken_, Ger. _Küche_, Dan. _kökken_, Fr. _cuisine_, are formed from

the Low Lat. _cucina_, Lat. _coquina_, _coquere_, to cook), the room or

place in a house set apart for cooking, in which the culinary and other

domestic utensils are kept. The range or cooking-stove fitted with

boiler for hot water, oven and other appliances, is often known as a

"kitchener" (see COOKERY and HEATING). Archaeologists have used the term

"kitchen-midden," i.e. kitchen rubbish-heap (Danish _kökken-mödding_)

for the rubbish heaps of prehistoric man, containing bones, remains of

edible shell-fish, implements, &c. (see SHELL-HEAPS). "Midden," in

Middle English _mydding_, is a Scandinavian word, from _myg_, muck,

filth, and _dyng_, heap; the latter word gives the English "dung."

KITCHENER, HORATIO HERBERT KITCHENER, VISCOUNT (1850- ), British field

marshal, was the son of Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Kitchener and was born at

Bally Longford, Co. Kerry, on the 24th of June 1850. He entered the

Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1868, and was commissioned second

lieutenant, Royal Engineers, in 1871. As a subaltern he was employed in

survey work in Cyprus and Palestine, and on promotion to captain in 1883

was attached to the Egyptian army, then in course of re-organization

under British officers. In the following year he served on the staff of

the British expeditionary force on the Nile, and was promoted

successively major and lieutenant-colonel by brevet for his services.

From 1886 to 1888 he was commandant at Suakin, commanding and receiving

a severe wound in the action of Handub in 1888. In 1888 he commanded a

brigade in the actions of Gamaizieh and Toski. From 1889 to 1892 he

served as adjutant-general of the army. He had become brevet-colonel in

the British army in 1888, and he received the C.B. in 1889 after the

action of Toski. In 1892 Colonel Kitchener succeeded Sir Francis (Lord)

Grenfell as sirdar of the Egyptian army, and three years later, when he

had completed his predecessor's work of re-organizing the forces of the

khedive, he began the formation of an expeditionary force on the vexed

military frontier of Wady Halfa. The advance into the Sudan (see EGYPT,

_Military Operations_) was prepared by thorough administrative work on

his part which gained universal admiration. In 1896 Kitchener won the

action of Ferket (June 7) and advanced the frontier and the railway to

Dongola. In 1897 Sir Archibald Hunter's victory of Abu Hamed (Aug. 7)

carried the Egyptian flag one stage farther, and in 1898 the resolve to

destroy the Mahdi's power was openly indicated by the despatch of a

British force to co-operate with the Egyptians. The sirdar, who in 1896

became a British major-general and received the K.C.B., commanded the

united force, which stormed the Mahdist zareba on the river Atbara on

the 8th of April, and, the outposts being soon afterwards advanced to

Metemmeh and Shendy, the British force was augmented to the strength of

a division for the final advance on Khartum. Kitchener's work was

crowned and the power of the Mahdists utterly destroyed by the victory

of Omdurman (Sept. 2), for which he was raised to the peerage as Baron

Kitchener of Khartoum, received the G.C.B., the thanks of parliament and

a grant of £30,000. Little more than a year afterwards, while still

sirdar of the Egyptian army, he was promoted lieutenant-general and

appointed chief-of-staff to Lord Roberts in the South African War (see

TRANSVAAL, _History_). In this capacity he served in the campaign of

Paardeberg, the advance on Bloemfontein and the subsequent northward

advance to Pretoria, and on Lord Roberts' return to England in November

1900 succeeded him as commander-in-chief, receiving at the same time the

local rank of general. In June 1902 the long and harassing war came to

its close, and Kitchener was rewarded by advancement to the dignity of

viscount, promotion to the substantive rank of general "for

distinguished service," the thanks of parliament and a grant of £50,000.

He was also included in the Order of Merit.

Immediately after the peace he went to India as commander-in-chief in

the East Indies, and in this position, which he held for seven years, he

carried out not only many far-reaching administrative reforms but a

complete re-organization and strategical redistribution of the British

and native forces. On leaving India in 1909 he was promoted field

marshal, and succeeded the duke of Connaught as commander-in-chief and

high commissioner in the Mediterranean. This post, not of great

importance in itself, was regarded as a virtual command of the colonial

as distinct from the home and the Indian forces, and on his appointment

Lord Kitchener (after a visit to Japan) undertook a tour of inspection

of the forces of the empire, and went to Australia and New Zealand in

order to assist in drawing up local schemes of defence. In this mission

he was highly successful, and earned golden opinions. But soon after his

return to England in April 1910 he declined to take up his Mediterranean

appointment, owing to his dislike of its inadequate scope, and he was

succeeded in June by Sir Ian Hamilton.

KITE,[1] the _Falco milvus_ of Linnaeus and _Milvus ictinus_ of modern

ornithologists, once probably the most familiar bird of prey in Great

Britain, and now one of the rarest. Three or four hundred years ago

foreigners were struck with its abundance in the streets of London. It

was doubtless the scavenger in ordinary of that and other large towns

(as kindred species now are in Eastern lands), except where its place

was taken by the raven; for Sir Thomas Browne (c. 1662) wrote of the

latter at Norwich--"in good plentie about the citty which makes so few

kites to be seen hereabout." John Wolley has well remarked of the modern

Londoners that few "who see the paper toys hovering over the parks in

fine days of summer, have any idea that the bird from which they derive

their name used to float all day in hot weather high over the heads of

their ancestors." Even at the beginning of the 19th century the kite

formed a feature of many a rural landscape in England, as they had done

in the days when the poet Cowper wrote of them. "But an evil time soon

came upon the species. It must have been always hated by the henwife,

but the resources of civilization in the shape of the gun and the gin

were denied to her. They were, however, employed with fatal zeal by the

gamekeeper; for the kite, which had long afforded the supremest sport to

the falconer, was now left friendless,"[2] and in a very few years it

seems to have been exterminated throughout the greater part of England,

certain woods in the Western Midlands, as well as Wales, excepted. In

these latter a small remnant still exists; but the well-wishers of this

beautiful species are naturally chary of giving information that might

lead to its further persecution. In Scotland there is no reason to

suppose that its numbers suffered much diminution until about 1835, or

even later, when the systematic destruction of "vermin" on so many moors

was begun. In Scotland, however, it is now as much restricted to certain

districts as in England or Wales, and those districts it would be most

inexpedient to indicate.

The kite is, according to its sex, from 25 to 27 in. in length, about

one half of which is made up by its deeply forked tail, capable of great

expansion, and therefore a powerful rudder, enabling the bird while

soaring on its wide wings, more than 5 ft. in extent, to direct its

circling course with scarcely a movement that is apparent to the

spectator below. Its general colour is pale reddish-brown or cinnamon,

the head being greyish-white, but almost each feather has the shaft

dark. The tail feathers are broad, of a light red, barred with deep

brown, and furnish the salmon fisher with one of the choicest materials

of his "flies." The nest, nearly always built in the crotch of a large

tree, is formed of sticks intermixed with many strange substances

collected as chance may offer, but among them rags[3] seem always to

have a place. The eggs, three or four in number, are of a dull white,

spotted and blotched with several shades of brown, and often lilac. It

is especially mentioned by old authors that in Great Britain the kite

was resident throughout the year; whereas on the Continent it is one of

the most regular and marked migrants, stretching its wings towards the

south in autumn, wintering in Africa, and returning in spring to the

land of its birth.

There is a second European species, not distantly related, the _Milvus

migrans_ or _M. ater_ of most authors,[4] smaller in size, with a

general dull blackish-brown plumage and a less forked tail. In some

districts this is much commoner than the red kite, and on one occasion

it has appeared in England. Its habits are very like those of the

species already described, but it seems to be more addicted to fishing.

Nearly allied to this black kite are the _M. aegyptius_ of Africa, the

_M. govinda_ (the common pariah kite of India),[5] the _M. melanotis_ of

Eastern Asia, and the _M. affinis_ and _M. isurus_; the last is by some

authors removed to another genus or sub-genus as _Lophoictinia_, and is

peculiar to Australia, while _M. affinis_ also occurs in Ceylon, Burma,

and some of the Malay countries as well. All these may be considered

true kites, while those next to be mentioned are more aberrant forms.

First there is _Elanus_, the type of which is _E. caeruleus_, a

beautiful little bird, the black-winged kite of English authors, that

comes to the south of Europe from Africa, and has several congeners--_E.

axillaris_ and _E. scriptus_ of Australia being most worthy of notice.

An extreme development of this form is found in the African _Nauclerus

riocourii_, as well as in _Elanoides furcatus_, the swallow-tailed kite,

a widely-ranging bird in America, and remarkable for its length of wing

and tail, which gives it a marvellous power of flight, and serves to

explain the unquestionable fact of its having twice appeared in Great

Britain. To _Elanus_ also _Ictinia_, another American form, is allied,

though perhaps more remotely, and it is represented by _I.

mississippiensis_, the Mississippi kite, which is by some considered to

be but the northern race of the Neotropical _I. plumbea_. _Gampsonyx_,

_Rostrhamus_ and _Cymindis_, all belonging to the Neotropical region,

complete the series of forms that seem to compose the sub-family

_Milvinae_, though there may be doubt about the last, and some

systematists would thereto add the perns or honey-buzzards, _Perninae_.

(A. N.)