conduct. The pull of their individual desires is not the same, the
influence of the various social interests is not in the same
proportion. The situation is complicated by hereditary tendencies, and
by physical and social environment. Consequently every human being
possesses his own distinctive individuality or personality. Variations
of personality can be classified and various persons resemble each
other so much that types of personality are distinguished. Thus we
distinguish between weak personality and forceful personality,
according to the strength of individuation, a narrow or a broad
personality according as interests are few and selfish or broadly
social, a fixed or a changing personality according to conservatism or
unsettled disposition. Personality is a distinction not always
appreciated, a distinction that separates man from the brute because
of his self-consciousness and power of self-direction by rational
processes, and relieves him from the dead level that would exist in
society if every individual were made after the same pattern. It is
the secret of social as well as individual progress, for it is a great
personality that sways the group. It is the great boon of present life
and the great promise of continued life hereafter.
READING REFERENCES
ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 165-181.
ELLWOOD: _Sociology in its Psychological Aspects_, pages 94-123.
DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 96-98, 200-230.
NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 60-98.
DARWIN: _Descent of Man_, chap. XXI.
DRUMMOND: _Ascent of Man_, pages 41-57, 189-266.
GIDDINGS: _Inductive Sociology_, pages 249-278.
CHAPTER XLVI
SOCIAL PSYCHIC FACTORS
366. =The Social Mind.=--As individual life is compounded of many
psychic elements that make up one mind, so the life of every group
involves various factors of a psychic nature that constitute the
social mind. The social mind does not exist apart from individual
minds, but it is nevertheless real. When emotional excitement stirs a
mob to action, the unity of feeling is evidence of a social mind. When
a congregation recites a creed of the church the unity of belief shows
the existence of a social mind. When a political land-slide occurs on
the occasion of a presidential election in the United States, the
unity of will expresses the social mind. The emotional phase is
temporary, public opinion changes more slowly; all the time the social
mind is gaining experience and learning wisdom, as does the
individual. Social consciousness, which at first is slight, increases
gradually, until it fructifies in social purpose which results in
achievement. History is full of illustrations of such development.
367. =How the Social Mind is Formed.=--The formation of this social
mind and its subsequent workings may be illustrated from a common
occurrence in frontier history. Imagine three hunters meeting for the
first time around a camp-fire, and analyze their mental processes. The
first man was tired and hungry and camped to rest and eat. The second
happened to come upon the camp just as a storm was breaking, saw the
smoke of the fire, and turned aside for its comfort. The third picked
up the trail of the second and followed it to find companionship. Each
obeying a primal instinct and conscious of his kind, came into
association with others, and thus by the process of aggregation a
temporary group was formed. Sitting about the fire, each lighted his
pipe in imitation of one another; they communicated with one another
in language familiar to all; one became drowsy and the others yielded
to the suggestion to sleep. Waking in the morning, they continued
their conversation, and in sympathy with a common purpose and in
recognition of the advantages of association, they decided to keep
together for the remainder of the hunt. Thus was constituted the group
or social mind.
With the consciousness that they were congenial spirits and shared a
common purpose, each was willing to sacrifice some of his own habits
and preferences in the interest of the group. One man might prefer
bacon and coffee for breakfast, while a second wished tea; one might
wish to break camp at sunrise, another an hour later; each
subordinated his own desires for the greater satisfaction of camp
comradeship. The strongest personality in the group is the determining
factor in forming the habits of the group, though it may be an
unconscious leadership. The mind of the group is not the same as that
of the leader, for the mutual mental interaction produces changes in
all, but it approaches most nearly to his mind.
368. =Social Habits.=--By such processes of aggregation,
communication, imitation, and association, individuals learn from one
another and come to constitute a like-minded group. Sometimes it is a
genetic group like the family, sometimes an artificial group like a
band of huntsmen; in either case the group is held together by a
psychic unity and comes to have its peculiar group characteristics.
Fixed ways of thinking and acting are revealed. Social habits they may
be called, or folk-ways, as some prefer to name them. These habits are
quickly learned by the members of the group, and are passed on from
generation to generation by imitation or the teaching of tradition.
There are numerous conservative forces at work in society. Custom
crystallizes into law, tradition is fortified by religion, a system of
morals develops out of the folk-ways, the group life tends to become
static and uniform.
369. =Adaptation.=--Two influences are continually at work, however,
to change social habits--the forces of the natural environment and
interaction between different groups. Both of these compel adaptation
to surroundings if permanence of group life is to be secured. Family
life in the north country illustrates the working of this principle of
adaptation. In the days of settlement there was a partial adaptation
to the physical environment. Houses were built tight and warm to
provide shelter, abundant food was supplied from the farm, on which
men toiled long hours to make a living, homespun clothing was
manufactured to protect against the rigors of winter, but ignorance
and lack of sufficient means prevented complete adaptation, and
society was punished for its failure to complete the adaptation.
Climate was severe and the laws of health were not fully worked out or
observed, therefore few children lived to maturity, although the
birth-rate was high. Economic success came only as the reward of
patient and unremitting toil, the shiftless family failed in the
struggle for existence. Tradition taught certain agricultural methods,
but diminishing returns threatened poverty, unless methods were better
adapted to soil and climate. Thus the people were forced slowly to
improve their methods and their manner of living to conform to what
nature demanded.
No less powerful is the influence of the social environment. The
authority of custom or government tends to make every family conform
to certain methods of building a house, cooking food, cultivating
land, selling crops, paying taxes, voting for local officials, but let
one family change its habits and prove conclusively that it has
improved on the old ways, and it is only a question of time when
others will adapt themselves better to the situation that environs
them. The countryman takes a city daily and notes the weather
indications and the state of the market, he installs a rural telephone
and is able to make contracts for his crops by long-distance
conversation, he buys an improved piece of machinery for cultivating
the farm, a gasolene engine, or a motor-wagon for quick delivery of
produce; presently his neighbors discover that he is adapting himself
more effectually to his environment than they are, and one by one
they imitate him in adopting the new methods. By and by the community
becomes known for its progressiveness, and it is imitated by
neighboring communities.
This process of social adaptation is a mental process more or less
definite. A particular family may not consciously follow a definite
plan for improved adaptation, but little by little it alters its ways,
until in the course of two or three generations it has changed the
circumstances and habits that characterized the ancestral group. In
that case the change is slow. Certain families may definitely
determine to modify their habits, and within a few years accomplish a
telic change. In either case there are constantly going on the
processes of observation, discrimination, and decision, due to the
impact of mind upon mind, both within and outside of the group, until
mental reactions are moving through channels that are different from
the old.
370. =Genetic Progress.=--The modification of folk-ways in the
interest of better adaptation to environment constitutes progress.
Such modification is caused by the action of various mental stimuli.
The people of a hill village for generations have been contented with
poor roads and rough side-paths, along which they find an uneasy way
by the glimmer of a lantern at night. They are unaccustomed to
sanitary conveniences in their houses or to ample heating arrangements
or ventilation in school or church. They have thought little about
these things, and if they wished to make improvements they would be
handicapped by small numbers and lack of wealth. But after a time
there comes an influx of summer visitors; some of them purchase
property and take up their permanent residence in the village. They
have been accustomed to conveniences; in other words, to a more
complete adaptation to environment; they demand local improvements and
are willing to help pay for them. More money can be raised for
taxation, and when public opinion has crystallized so that social
action is possible, the progressive steps are taken.
What takes place thus in a small way locally is typical of what is
going on continually in all parts of the world. Accumulating wealth
and increasing knowledge of the good things of the city make country
people emigrate or provide themselves with a share of the good things
at home. The influence of an enthusiastic individual or group who
takes the lead in better schools, better housing, or better government
is improving the cities. The growing cosmopolitanism of all peoples
and their adoption of the best that each has achieved is being
produced by commerce, migration, and "contact and cross-fertilization
of cultures."
371. =Telic Progress.=--Most social progress has come without the full
realization of the significance of the gradual changes that were
taking place. Few if any individuals saw the end from the beginning.
They are for the most part silent forces that have been modifying the
folk-ways in Europe and America. There has been little conception of
social obligation or social ideals, little more than a blind obedience
to the stimuli that pressed upon the individual and the group. But
with the awakening of the social consciousness and a quickening of the
social conscience has come telic progress. There is purpose now in the
action of associations and method in the enactments of legislatures
and the acts of administrative officers. There are plans and
programmes for all sorts of improvements that await only the proper
means and the sanction of public opinion for their realization. Like a
runner poised for a dash of speed, society seems to be on the eve of
new achievement in the direction of progress.
372. =Means of Social Progress.=--There are three distinct means of
telic progress. Society may be lifted to a higher level by compulsion,
as a huge crane lifts a heavy girder to the place it is to occupy in
the construction of a great building. A prohibitory law that forbids
the erection of unhealthy tenements throughout the cities of a state
or nation is a distinctly progressive step, compulsory in its nature.
Or the group may be moved by persuasion. A board of conciliation may
persuade conflicting industrial groups to adjust their differences by
peaceful methods, and thus inaugurate an ethical movement in industry
greatly to the advantage of all parties. Or progress may be achieved
by the slow process of education. The average church has been
accustomed to conceive of its functions as pertaining to the
individual rather than to the whole social order. It cannot be
compelled to change by governmental action, for the church is free and
democratic in America. It cannot easily be persuaded to change its
methods in favor of a social programme. By the slower process of
training the young people it can and does gradually broaden its
activities and make itself more efficiently useful to the community in
which it finds its place.
373. =Criticism as a Means of Social Education.=--Education is not
confined to the training of the schools. It is a continuous process
going on through the life of the individual or the group. It is the
intellectual process by which the mind is focussed on one problem
after another that rises above the horizon of experience and uses its
powers to improve the adaptation now existing between the situation
and the person or the group. The educational process is complex. There
must be first the incitement to thought. Most effective in this
direction is criticism. If the roads are such a handicap to the
comfort and safety of travel that there is caustic criticism at the
next town meeting, public opinion begins to set definitely in the
direction of improvement. If city government is corrupt and the tax
rate mounts steadily without corresponding benefits to the taxpayers,
the newspapers call the attention of citizens to the fact, and they
begin to consider a change of administration. Criticism is the knife
that cuts to the roots of social disease, and through the infliction
of temporary pain effects a cure. Criticism has started many a reform
in church and state. The presence of the critic in any group is an
irritant that provokes to progressive action.
374. =Discussion.=--Criticism leads to discussion. There is sure to be
a conflict of ideas in every group. Conservative and progressive
contend with each other; sometimes it is a matter of belief, sometimes
of practice. Knots of individuals talk matters over, leaders debate
on the public platform, newspapers take part on one side or the other.
In this way national policies are determined, first by Congress or
Parliament, and then by the constituents of the legislators. Freedom
of discussion is regarded as one of the safeguards of popular
government. If social conduct should be analyzed on a large scale it
would be found that discussion is a constant factor. In every business
deal there is discussion of the pros and cons of the proposition, in
every case that comes before the courts there are arguments made on
both sides, in the maintenance of every social institution that costs
money there is a consideration of its worth. Even if the discussion
does not find voice, the human intellect debates the question in its
silent halls. So universal is the practice of discussion and so prized
is the privilege that this is sometimes called the Age of Discussion.
375. =Decision.=--Determination of action follows criticism and
discussion in the group, as volition follows thinking in the case of
the individual. One hundred years ago college education was classical.
In the time of the Renaissance and the Reformation a revival of
interest in the classics produced a reaction against mediævalism, and
in time fastened a curriculum upon the universities that was composed
mainly of the ancient languages, mathematics, and a deductive
philosophy and theology. In the nineteenth century there began a
criticism of the classical curriculum. It was declared that such a
course of study was narrow and antiquated, that new subjects, such as
history, the modern languages, and the sciences were better worth
attention, and presently it was argued that a person could not be
truly educated until he knew his own times by the study of sociology,
politics, economics, and other social sciences. Of course, there was
earnest resentment of such criticism, and discussion ensued. The
argument for the plaintiff seemed to be well sustained, and one by one
the governing boards of the colleges decided to admit new studies to
the curriculum, at first grudgingly and then generously, until
classical education has become relatively unpopular. Public opinion
has accepted the verdict, and many schools have gone so far as to make
vocational education supplant numerous academic courses. Similarly
criticism, discussion, and change of front have occurred in political
theories, in the attitude of theologians to science, in the practice
of medicine, and even in methods of athletic training.
Criticism and discussion, therefore, instead of being deprecated,
ought to be welcome everywhere. Without them society stagnates, the
intellect grows rusty, and prejudice takes the place of rational
thought and volition. Feeling is bottled up and is likely to ferment
until it bursts its confinement and spreads havoc around like a
volcano. Free speech and a free press are safety-valves of democracy,
the sure hope of progress throughout society.
376. =Socialized Education.=--A second step in the educational process
is incitement to action. As criticism and discussion are necessary to
stimulate thought, so knowledge and conviction are essential to
action. The educational system that is familiar is individualistic in
type because it emphasizes individual achievement, and is based on the
conviction that individual success is of greatest consequence in life.
There is increasing demand for a socialized education which will have
as its foundation a body of sociological information that will teach
individuals their social relations, a fund of ideas that will be
bequeathed from generation to generation as the finest heritage, and a
system of social ethics that will produce a conviction of social
obligation. The will to do good is the most effective factor that
plays a part in social life. This socializing education has its place
in the school grades, properly becomes a major subject of study in the
higher schools, and ideally belongs to every scheme of continued
education in later life. The social sciences seem likely to vie with
the physical sciences, if not eventually to surpass them as the most
important department of human knowledge, for while the physical
sciences unlock the mysteries of the natural world the social sciences
hold the key to the meaning of ideal human life.
READING REFERENCES
ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 329-340.
GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 132-152, 376-399.
GIDDINGS: _Descriptive and Historical Sociology_, pages 124-185.
COOLEY: _Social Organization_, pages 3-22.
WARD: _Psychic Factors of Civilization_, pages 291-312.
BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 329-348.
DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 67-68, 84-87, 243-257.
ELLWOOD: _Sociology and Modern Social Problems_, revised edition,
pages 354-367.
CHAPTER XLVII
SOCIAL THEORIES
377. =Theories of Social Order and Efficiency.=--Out of social
experience and social study have emerged certain theories of social
order and efficiency which have received marked attention and which
to-day are supported by cogent arguments. These theories fall under
the three following heads: (1) Those theories that make social order
and efficiency dependent upon the control of external authority; (2)
those theories that trust to the force of public opinion trained by
social education; (3) those theories that regard self-control coming
through the development of personality as the one essential for a
better social order.
378. =External Authority in History.=--The first theory rests its case
on the facts of history. Certain social institutions like the family,
the state, and the church have thrown restraint about the individual,
and when this restraint is removed he tends to run amuck. From the
beginning the family was the unit of the social order, and the
authority of its head was the source of wisdom. Self-control was not a
substitute for paternal discipline, but was a fact only in presence of
the dread of paternal discipline. The idea of absolute authority
passed over into the state, and absolutism was the theory of
efficiency in the ancient state, down to the fall of the Roman Empire
in the West. It was a theory that made slavery possible. It
strengthened the position of the high priest of every religious cult,
created the thought of the kingdom of God and moulded the Christian
creeds, and made possible the mediæval papacy. It has been the
fundamental principle of all monarchical government. It has remained a
royal theory in eastern Europe and Asia until our own day, and
survives in the political notion of the right of the strongest and in
the business principle that capital must control the industrial system
if prosperity and efficiency are to endure.
Irresponsible absolutism has been giving way slowly to paternalism.
This showed itself first in a growing conviction that kings owed it to
their subjects to rule well. Certain enlightened monarchs consulted
the interests of the people and, relying on their own wisdom,
instituted measures of reform. This type of paternalism was not
successful, but it has been imitated by modern states, even republics
like the United States, in various paternalistic measures of economic
and social regulation. Those who hold the theory that external
authority is necessary have been urgent in calling for the regulation
of railroads, of trusts, and of combinations of labor, until some have
felt that the authority of representative democracy bore more heavily
than the authority of monarchy. It is the principle of those who favor
government regulation that only by governmental restraint can free
competition continue, and everybody be assured of a square deal; their
opponents argue that such restraint throttles ambition and is
destructive of the highest efficiency that comes as a survival of the
fittest in the economic struggle.
379. =Socialism.=--Socialism is a third variety of the theory that
social order and efficiency depend on external authority. Socialists
aim at improving the social welfare by the collective control of
industry. While the advocates of government regulation give their main
attention to problems of production, the Socialists emphasize the
importance of the proper distribution of products to the consumers,
and would exercise authority in the partition of the rewards of labor.
They propose that collective ownership of the means of production take
the place of private ownership, that industry be managed by
representatives of the people, that products be distributed on some
just basis yet to be devised by the people. All that will be left to
them as individuals will be the right to consume and the possession of
material things not essential to the socialistic economy. Certain
Socialist theories go farther than this, but this is the essence of
Socialism. Socialists vary, also, as to the use of revolutionary or
evolutionary means of obtaining their ends.
The main objections that are made to the theory of Socialism are: (1)
That it is contrary to nature, which develops character and progress
through struggle; (2) that private property is a natural right, and
that it would be unjust to deprive individuals of what they have
secured through thrift and foresight, even in the interest of the
whole of society; (3) that an equitable distribution of wealth would
be impossible in any arbitrary division; (4) that no government can
possibly conduct successfully such huge enterprises as would fall to
it; (5) that Socialism would destroy private incentive and enterprise
by taking away the individual rewards of effort; (6) that a
socialistic régime would be as unendurable an interference with
individual liberty as any absolutist or paternal government that the
past has seen.
380. =Educated Public Opinion.=--The second group of theorists is
composed of those who would get rid of prohibitions and regulations as
far as possible, and trust to the force of an educated public opinion
to maintain a high level of social order and efficiency. It is a part
of the theory that constraint exercised by a government established by
law marks a stage of lower social development than restraint exercised
by the force of public opinion. But it must be an educated public
opinion, trained to appreciate the importance of society and its
claims upon the individual, to function rationally instead of
impulsively, and to seek the methods that will be most useful and
least expensive for the social body. This training of public opinion
is the task of the school first and then of the press, the pulpit, and
the public forum. Public and private commissions, organized and
maintained to furnish information and suggest better methods, make
useful contributions; public reports, if presented intelligibly,
impartially, and concisely, are among the helpful instruments of
instruction; reform pamphlets will again perform valuable service, as
they have in past days of moral and social intensity; but it is
especially through the newspapers and the forums for public discussion
that the social thinker can best reach his audience, and through these
means that commission reports can best be brought to the attention of
the people. It may very likely be necessary that press and platform be
subsidized either by government or by private endowment to do this
work of social training.
381. =Individualism.=--The third group of theorists rejects all
varieties of external control as of secondary value, and has no faith
in the working of public opinion, however well educated, unless the
character of the individuals that make up the group is what it should
be. These theorists regard self-control coming through the development
of personal worth as the one essential for a better social order. This
individualist theory is held by those who are still in bondage to the
individualism that has characterized social thinking in the last four
hundred years. There is much in the history of that period that
justifies faith in the worth of the individual. Along the lines of
material progress, especially, the individualist has made good.
Looking upon what has been achieved the modern democrat expects
further improvement in society through individual betterment.
The arguments in defense of the individualist theory are: (1) That
natural science has proved that social development is achieved only
through individual competition, and that the best man wins; (2) that
experience has shown that progress has been most rapid where the
individual has had largest scope; (3) that it is the teaching of
Christian ethics that the individual must work out the salvation of
his own character, must learn by experience how to gain self-reliance
and strength of will, and so has the right to fashion his own course
of conduct.
382. =The Development of Personal Worth.=--It is evident, however,
that the usefulness of the individual, both to himself and to others,
depends on his personal worth. The self-controlled man is the man of
personal worth, but self-control is not easy to secure. Defendants of
the first two theories may admit that self-control is an ideal, but
they claim that in the progress of society it must follow, not
antedate, external authority and the cultivation of public opinion,
and that time is not yet come. Only the few can be trusted yet to
follow their best judgment on all occasions, to be on the alert to
maintain in themselves and others highest efficiency. Human nature is
slowly in the making. One by one men and women rise to higher levels;
social regeneration must therefore wait on individual regeneration.
Seeing the need of a dynamic that will create personal worth, the
individualist has turned to religion and preached a doctrine of
personal salvation. He has seen what religion has done to transform
character, and he believes with confidence that it and it alone can
create social salvation if we give it time.
At the present time there is an increasing number of social thinkers
who regard each of these three theories as containing elements of
value, but believe that there is something beyond them that is
necessary to the highest efficiency. They consider that external
authority has been necessary, and look upon a strong centralized
government with power to create social efficiency as essential, but
they expect that an increasing social consciousness will make the
exercise of authority gradually less necessary. They have great
confidence in trained public opinion, but do not forget that opinion
must be vitalized by a strong motive, and mere education does not
readily supply the motive. They look for a time when individual worth
will be greater than now, and they recognize religion as a powerful
dynamic in the building of character, but they regard religion as
turned inward too much upon the individual. They would develop
individual character for the sake of society, and make a socialized
religion the motive power to vitalize public opinion so that it shall
function with increasing efficiency. A socialized religion supplies a
principle, a method, and a power. The Hebrew prophets and Jesus laid
down the principle that there is a solidarity of interests to which
the claims of the individual must be subordinate and must be
sacrificed on occasion. The prophets and Jesus taught a method of
experimentation, calling upon the people whom they addressed to test
the principle and see if it worked. The prophets and Jesus showed that
power comes in the will to do and in actual obedience to the
principle. They looked for an improved social system reared on this
basis which would be a real "kingdom of God," not merely the economic
commonwealth of the Socialist, but a commonwealth governed by the
principle of consecration to the social welfare, spiritual as well as
physical.
383. =Social Ideals.=--At the basis of every theory lies the
individual with social relations. To socialize him external authority
is the primitive agent. This authority may give way in time to the
restraint of public opinion made intelligent by a socialized
education, but effective public opinion is dependent on the
development of personal worth in the individual. The most powerful
dynamic for such development and for social welfare in general is a
socialized religion. If all this be true, what is it that comprises
social welfare? In a word, it is the efficient functioning of every
social group. The family, the community, the nation, and every minor
group, will serve effectually the economic, cultural, social, and
spiritual needs of the individuals of whom it is composed. Perfect
functioning can follow only after a long period of progress. Such
progress is the ideal that society sets for itself. In that process
there must be full recognition of all the factors that enter into
social life. There is the individual with his rights and obligations,
who must be protected and encouraged to grow. There are the
institutions like the family, the church, and the state that must
receive recognition and maintenance. There must be liberty for each
group to function freely without arbitrary interference, as long as
its privileges and acts do not interfere with the public good. Ideal
social control is to be exercised by an enlightened and
self-restrained public opinion energized by a socialized religion. All
improvements must not be looked for in a moment, but can come only
slowly and by frequent testing if they are to be permanently
accepted. The system that would result would be neither absolutist,
socialistic, nor individualistic, but would contain the best elements
of all. It would not be forced upon a people, but would be worked out
slowly by education and experiment. Social institutions would not be
tyrannous but helpful, and human happiness would be materially
increased.
READING REFERENCES
ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 352-381.
NEARING AND WATSON: _Economics_, pages 443-493.
BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 373-392.
DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 351-361.
SKELTON: _Socialism_, pages 16-61.
CARNEGIE: _Problems of To-day_, pages 121-139.
CHAPTER XLVIII
THE SCIENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
384. =Sociology vs. Social Philosophy.=--Sociology is one of the
recent sciences. It had to wait for the scientific method of exact
investigation and the scientific principle of forming conclusions upon
abundant data. Naturally, theories of society were held long before
any science came into existence, but they were of value only as
philosophizing. Some of these theories were published and attracted
the attention of thoughtful persons, but they did not affect social
life. Some of them developed into philosophies of history, based on
the preconceived ideas of their authors. Now and then in the first
part of the nineteenth century certain social experiments were made in
the form of co-operative communities, which it was fondly hoped would
become practical methods for a better social order, but they almost
uniformly failed because they were artificial rather than of natural
growth, and because they were based on principles that public opinion
had not yet sanctioned. The story of the predecessors of modern
sociology naturally is preliminary to the history of sociology itself.
385. =Philosophers and Prophets.=--Two classes of men in ancient time
worked on the problems of society, one from the practical standpoint,
the other from the philosophic. One group of names includes the great
statesmen and lawgivers, like Moses, who laid the foundations of the
Hebrew nation and gave it the nucleus of a legal system; Solon and
Lycurgus, traditional lawgivers of Athens and Sparta, and several of
the earlier kings and later emperors of Rome. The other group is
composed of men who thought much about human life and disseminated
their opinions by writing and teaching. For the most part they were
idealistic philosophers, but their influence was far-reaching in time.
In the list belong Plato, who in his _Republic_ outlined an ideal
society that was the prototype of later fanciful commonwealths;
Aristotle, who made a real contribution to political science in his
_Politics_; Cicero, who himself participated actively in government
and wrote out his theories or spoke them in public, and Augustine, who
gave his conception of a Christian state in the _City of God_.
During the period when ancient ways were giving place to modern, and a
transition was taking place in the realm of ideas, Thomas More, in his
_Utopia_, and Campanella in his _City of the Sun_, published their
conceptions of an ideal state, while Machiavelli took society as it
was, and in his _Prince_ suggested how it might be governed better.
These are all evidences that there was dissatisfaction with existing
systems, but no unanimity of opinion as to possible improvements.
Later theories were no more satisfactory. The French Revolutionary
philosophers, especially Rousseau, with his theory of voluntary social
contract, and the Utopian dreamers who followed, were longing for
justice and political efficiency, but their theories seem crude and
visionary from the point of view of the social science of the present
day.
386. =Experimenting with Society.=--Robert Owen in England and Fourier
and Saint-Simon in France were prophets of an ideal order which they
tried to establish. Believing that all men were intended to be happy,
and that happiness depended on a reorganization of the social
environment in which property should be socialized, at least in part,
they organized volunteers into model communities, expecting that their
success would attract men everywhere to imitate the new organization.
The arrangement of industry was planned in detail, a co-operative
system was organized that would keep every man busy at useful labor
without working him too hard, would take away the profits of the
middleman by a well-planned system of distribution, and would allow
liberty in social relations as far as consistent with the general
good, but would subordinate the individual to the community. Certain
of the Utopians thought that it would be necessary for the state to
determine the minutiæ of daily life, and for a few directors to
prescribe activities, and they introduced a uniformity in dress, food,
and houses that savored of the old-fashioned orphan asylum. These
features, together with the failure to understand that social
institutions could not be made to order, and that human nature was not
of such quality as to make an ideal commonwealth at once actual, soon
wrecked these utopian schemes and brought to an end the first period
of socialistic experiments.
387. =Biological Sociologists.=--Not a few writers in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries, before sociology was born, recognized the
need and the possibility of a true science of society. Scholars were
studying and writing upon other sciences that are related to
sociology--biology, history, economics, and politics. Scientific
information about the various races of mankind was accumulating. At
length Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, found a place for sociology among
the sciences and declared it to be the highest of them all. In 1842 he
completed the publication of the _Positive Philosophy_, in which he
maintained that human society is an organism similar to biological
organisms, and that its activities can be systematized and
generalizations be deduced therefrom for the formation of a true
science. In his _Descriptive Sociology_ and later works Herbert
Spencer in England amplified the theory of Comte and arranged a mass
of facts as evidence of its truth. He put too much emphasis on
biological resemblances in the opinion of present-day sociologists,
but his emphasis on inductive study and his generalizations from
biology were important contributions to the development of the new
science.
388. =Psychological Sociologists.=--Comte and Spencer were followed by
other biological sociologists whose names are well known to students
of the science. Interest was aroused in Great Britain, on the
continent of Europe, and in America. Students were influenced by
conclusions that were being reached in biology, in economics, and in
other allied departments of thought, but the one science which became
most prominent to the minds of sociologists was psychology. Ward's
_Dynamic Sociology_, published in 1883, marked an epoch, because it
called special attention to the psychic factors that enter into social
life. After him it became increasingly clear that the true social
forces were psychic, though physical conditions affected social
progress. A younger school of sociologists has come into existence,
and the science is being developed on that basis. More than one
individual thinker has made his special contribution, and there is
still a variety of opinion on details, but the general principles of
the science are being worked out in substantial agreement. It is not
to be expected that such a complex and comprehensive science could be
completed in its short history of approximately half a century, or
that it can ever be made exact, like mathematics or the natural
sciences, but there is every reason to expect the development of a
body of classified facts that will be of inestimable value in
attacking social problems, and of principles that will serve as a
guide through the labyrinth of social life. The value of any science
is not in the perfection of its system, but in the practical
application which can be made of it to human progress.
389. =Relation of Sociology to the Natural Sciences.=--Sociology has
relations to an outer circle of general sciences and to an inner
circle of social sciences. It is itself but one of the social
sciences, though it is regarded as chief among them. Man looks out
upon the universe, of which he is but an atom, and asks questions.
Astronomy brings to him the findings of its telescopes and spectrum
analyses. Geology explains the transformations that have taken place
in the earth on which he lives. Physics and chemistry analyze its
substance and reveal the laws of nature. Biology opens up the field of
life. Psychology investigates the structure and functions of the human
mind, and shows that all activity is at base mental. At last the new
sociology discloses human life in all its complex relationships, the
function of the social mind, and the channels through which it works.
Since social life is lived in a world where physical and mental
factors are constantly in action, there is a close connection between
all the sciences. Although social life is not so closely similar to
animal life as was thought previously, the principles of biology are
important to the sociologist because biology is the science of all
life. Psychology is important because it is the science of all mind.
390. =Relations of Sociology and Other Social Sciences.=--There are
many phases of human experience and differences of relationship.
Obviously the specific sciences that deal with them have a still
closer relation to sociology. Economics, for example, has as its field
the economic relations and activities that are connected with the
business of making a living. The production, distribution, and use of
material things is the subject that absorbs the economist. The
sociologist makes use of the facts and principles of economics to
throw light on the economic functions of society, but the economic
field is only one sector of his concern. In a similar way political
science is related to sociology. It deals with the organization and
development of government and embraces the departments of national and
international law, but the governmental function of the social group
is but one of the divisions of the interests that absorb the
sociologist. He uses the data and conclusions of the political
scientists, but in a more general way. It is the same with the
sociologist and history. History supplies much of the data of the
sociologist from the records of the past. It deals with social life in
the concrete, and historical interpretation is essential to an
understanding of social phenomena, but sociology takes the past with
the present, analyzes both, and generalizes from both as to the laws
of the social process. Pedagogy deals with the history and principles
of education. Sociology is interested in the educational function of
the family, of the community, and of the nation, but again its
interest is from the standpoint of abstraction and generalization.
Ethics is a science that treats of the right and wrong conduct of
human beings. It is very closely associated with sociology, because
the valuation of conduct depends on social effects, but the moral
functioning of the group is but one phase of social life, and,
therefore, ethics is far narrower in its range than sociology.
Theology, the science of religion, has sociological implications. As
far as it is a science and not a philosophy, it rests upon human
interest and human experience, and it is becoming increasingly
recognized that these human interests depend on social relationships,
but all the religious interests of men are but one part of the field
of sociology.
It is clear that each of the social sciences holds a relation to
sociology of the particular to the general. Sociology seeks out the
laws and principles that unify all the rest. It does not include them
all, as does the term social science, but it correlates and interprets
them all. It is not the same as philosophy, for that subject has for
its field all knowledge, and especially tries to probe to the secrets
of all being, and to learn the meaning of the universe as a whole,
while sociology is restricted to social life. Each has its distinct
place among the studies of the human mind, and each should be
distinguished carefully from its rivals and associates.
391. =Social Classification.=--When we enter into the field of
sociology itself we find other distinctions to be necessary. The
novice frequently confounds similar terms. Not infrequently sociology
and socialism are used as synonymous terms by persons who know little
of either, so that it is necessary to point out that socialism is a
particular theory of social organization and functioning, while
sociology is the general science that includes all varieties of social
theory, along with social fact, and especially is it necessary to
explain that any fallacies of socialistic theory do not invalidate
well-established conclusions of social science. Another common error
is to identify sociology with social reform. Social pathology is too
important a branch of sociology to be omitted or minimized, but it is
only one division of the subject, and all measures as well as theories
of social reform are only a small part of the concern of sociology.
Such terms as philanthropy, criminology, and penology all have
connection with sociology, but they need to be carefully
differentiated from the more general term.
Sociology itself has been variously classified under the terms pure
and applied, static and dynamic, descriptive and theoretical. Terms
have changed somewhat, as the psychological emphasis has supplanted
the biological. It is important that terms should be used correctly
and should be sanctioned by custom, but it is not necessary to make
sharp distinction between all the different divisions, old and new.
Classification is a matter of convenience and technic; though it may
have a scientific basis, it is entirely a matter of form. There is
always danger that a particular classification may become a fetich. It
is the life of society that we study, it is the improvement of social
relations at which we aim. Whatever method best contributes to this
end is valid in classification for all except those who delight in
science for science's sake.
392. =The Permanent Place of Sociology.=--The study of the science of
social life is eminently worth while, for it deals with matters that
are of vital importance to the human race and every one of its
individual members. For that reason it is likely to receive growing
recognition as among the most important subjects with which the human
mind can deal. It is vast in its range, exacting in its demand of
unremitting investigation and careful generalization, stimulating in
its intense practicality. Its abstractions require the closest
reasoning of the scholar, but its basis in the concrete facts of daily
life tends to make it popular. Once understood and appreciated,
sociology is likely to become the guide-book by which social effort
will be directed, and the standard by which it will be measured. As
progress becomes in this way more telic it will become more rapid.
Social life will approach more nearly the norm that sociology
describes, but until the day that society ceases to be pathological,
sociology will teach a social ideal as a goal toward which society
must bend its energies. As human life is the most precious gift that
the world bestows, so the science of that life is worthy of being
called the gem of the sciences.
READING REFERENCES
DEALEY: _Sociology_, pages 19-40.
BLACKMAR AND GILLIN: _Outlines of Sociology_, pages 13-47,
541-564.
GIDDINGS: _Principles of Sociology_, pages 3-51.
ELLWOOD: _Sociology in Its Psychological Aspects_, pages 29-65.
ROSS: _Foundations of Sociology_, pages 15-28, 256-348.
SMALL: _General Sociology_, pages 40-97.
INDEX
Achievement, 5, 115, 341.
Activity, 2-6, 88, 111, 117, 164, 170, 188, 236, 237, 298, 346.
Adaptation, 31, 234, 333-335, 342, 343, 349-351.
Administration, 320, 321.
Adultery, 75-78, 81.
Æsthetics, 144.
Aggregation, 348.
Agricultural clubs, 107, 118.
Agricultural colleges, 107, 164.
Agricultural fairs, 107.
Agriculture, 52, 99, 100, 104, 106, 118.
Almshouses, 272.
American Civic Federation, 148.
American Federation of Labor, 192.
American Vigilance Association, 85.
Amusements, 86, 164, 238-240.
Ancestor-worship, 32.
Arbitration, 191, 194, 195, 335, 336.
Art, 283.
Assimilation, 327.
Association, 6-9, 17-23, 53, 54, 88, 108, 109, 111, 118, 133, 152,
164, 170, 188, 233, 236, 240, 254, 294, 307, 308, 337, 338,
344-346, 348, 349.
Athletics, 109, 111, 112, 196, 237, 240, 308, 309.
Attention, 345, 351.
Banks, 106, 307.
Big Brother idea, 251.
Biological analogies, 342, 343.
Birth-rate, 42.
Boards of Conciliation, 194, 195.
Boy Scouts, 110, 251.
Boys' Clubs, 110.
Cabinet, 320, 321.
Camp-Fire Girls, 112.
Catholic Church, 76, 271, 276.
Census of marriage and divorce, 35, 74, 77.
Change, 10-13, 88, 129, 170, 173-176, 189, 236, 351.
Charity, 242, 267, 271-277.
Charity organization, 57, 267, 272-276.
Charter, 257, 260, 261.
Chautauqua Movement, 118, 133, 309.
Child labor, 49-53, 190, 191, 235.
Children, 42-59.
Dependency of, 56-58.
Relief of, 57, 58.
Rights of, 42, 48, 53-55.
Children's aid societies, 58.
Chinese Exclusion Act, 329.
Christianity, 32, 76.
Church, The, 156-161, 252, 287-293, 310, 311, 338, 353.
In the city, 287-293.
In the country. See Rural church.
Church charity, 275, 276.
Church organization, 290-293.
City, The, 169 ff., 294-299.
Attraction of, 171, 172.
Characteristics of, 169.
Economic interests in, 180.
Government of, 256-262.
Growth of, 170.
History of, 177-179.
Importance of, 176.
Improvement of, 295-298.
In the making, 294-298.
Manager, 261, 262.
Neighborhood, 284, 285.
Opportunities in, 173, 175.
Classes, 212-218.
Classification, 370.
Clubs, 107, 110-112, 116, 118, 133, 134, 148.
Collective bargaining, 194.
College life, 10, 12, 85, 131, 132.
Commerce, 205, 206, 337.
Commission government, 260, 261.
Commissions, 195, 199, 233.
Communication, 116, 118, 281, 288, 294, 307, 336, 337, 349.
Community house, 163, 164.
Community leadership, 164-168.
Community obligation, 154.
Competition, 107, 198, 227.
Conference, 297, 298.
Conflict, 31, 115, 186, 187, 194, 320, 328, 334, 353.
Congregational churches, 77.
Control, 9, 10, 88, 136, 142, 170, 188, 189, 197-199, 203, 208-210,
234, 246, 256, 258, 298, 303, 314, 352, 357, 358.
Co-operation, 31, 53, 63, 89, 90, 105-107, 129, 130, 198-200, 205,
206, 297, 298, 365.
Cost of living, 69, 76, 89.
Country store, 116.
Court of Domestic Relations, 79.
Courts. See Judiciary.
Craft guilds, 182.
Crime, 75, 84, 90, 154, 228, 235, 240, 242, 244, 246, 248-255.
Causes of, 248-250.
Discharge, 253, 254.
Prevention of, 250-252.
Punishment, 252-254.
Reformation, 252, 254.
Criticism, 353.
Crowds, 22, 23.
Cruelty, 48, 49, 75, 77, 78.
Custom, 139, 152, 334, 349.
Dance-halls, 82, 84, 238, 240.
Decision, 351, 354.
Defectives, 84, 86.
Degeneracy, 43-46, 218, 219, 228.
Delinquency, 154.
See Crime.
Democracy, 141, 189, 190, 196, 298, 309, 316-319, 327.
Democracy in industry, 189, 190.
Department stores, 201, 203.
Dependency, 56, 57, 271.
See Charity.
Desertion, 70, 75, 77, 78, 267.
Desires, 334, 345-347.
Difficulties of working people, 263-270.
Discrimination, 345, 351.
Discussion, 284-286, 353, 354.
Division of labor, 62, 125.
Divorce, 74-80, 88.
Catholic attitude toward, 76
Causes of, 75, 76, 267.
Difficulty of, 77.
History of, 76.
In Europe, 74-78.
Laws of, 74-79.
Protestant attitude toward, 76, 77.
Remedies for, 78, 79.
Divorce court, 79.
Divorce proctor, 79.
Drama, 283, 284.
See Theatre.
Duelling, 194.
Dynamic society, 2, 10.
East, The, 100, 139, 140, 224.
Economics, 180, 368.
Education, 55, 120-131, 280, 327, 328, 331, 339, 346, 353-355.
Agricultural, 124, 127, 128.
Cultural, 122, 132.
Industrial, 251, 331.
Moral and religious, 160, 251, 287, 291.
Principles of, 120-124.
Rural, 120-131.
Vocational, 121, 123, 267, 268, 296.
Weaknesses of, 123, 124.
Edwards family, 45, 46.
Elberfeld system, 275.
Election, 317, 318.
Employers' liability, 191, 192.
Environment, 25, 26, 40, 47, 48, 99, 100, 105, 121, 125, 169, 235,
248, 327, 334, 340-343, 345, 350, 351.
Erdman Act, 195.
Ethics, 202, 368.
Eugenics, 43-47, 90.
Euthenics, 47, 48.
Evangelical Alliance, 311.
Evangelism, 288, 289.
Evolution, 342, 343.
Exchange, 64, 201-203.
Executive, 320, 321.
Experimentation, 128, 187.
Factory life, 188.
Factory system, 51, 182-184.
Family, 24 f., 88-90.
Changes in, 65, 67-69, 76.
Functions of, 26, 27, 88.
History of, 29-33.
Mediæval, 33, 37-39.
On the farm, 25, 26, 64, 65, 350.
Reform, 88-90.
Roman, 32, 37.
Study of, 24.
Urban, 68.
Farmers' Institute, 118.
Farmers' Union, 117.
Federal Council of churches, 77, 310,
311.
Federation, 334, 335.
Feeble-mindedness, 44, 84.
Feeling, 344, 345, 355.
Feminism, 71, 72.
Folk-ways. See Social habits.
Forum, 284-286, 360.
Friendly visiting, 274.
Galveston plan, 260, 261.
Gambling, 153, 235, 239.
Gangs, 22, 109-111.
Germans, 223, 259, 260, 269, 322, 335.
Girls' clubs, in, 111, 112.
Government, 136-143, 195, 208, 256-262, 313-327.
City, 256-262.
National, 313-323.
Rural, 136-143.
Government ownership, 208, 209.
Grange, 117, 284.
Great Britain, 44, 259, 269, 316, 317, 322.
Group consciousness, 18, 192.
Habits, 334, 345.
Hague Conferences, 335.
Health, 85, 144-148, 196, 233, 242, 267, 307, 308.
Clubs, 148.
Nurses and physicians, 147, 148, 296.
Officials, 146, 147.
Hebrew Charities, 276.
Heredity, 26, 46, 249, 342.
History, 368.
Home, 37-42.
Children in the, 42, 90.
Education in the, 39, 55, 56.
History of the, 37-39.
Ideal, 40.
Man in the, 70.
Modern, 39, 40, 67-71.
Rural, 121, 122.
Values of the, 39, 40.
Women in the, 69.
Home economics, 60-66.
Hospitals, 272, 296.
Hours of labor, 190, 207.
Housing, 86, 89, 230-234, 252, 350.
Hull House, 277, 278.
Imitation, 349, 351.
Immigrants and Immigration, 82, 86, 102, 170, 171, 221-229, 250, 327-329.
Asiatic, 328, 329.
Causes and effects of, 227, 228.
German, 223.
History of, 221-226.
Irish, 222.
Italian, 224, 225.
Jewish, 225, 226.
Lesser peoples, 226.
Problems of, 327.
Scandinavians, 223, 224.
Slavs, 225.
Imprisonment, 78.
See Crime.
Impulse, 345.
Individual, The, 128, 144, 151, 152, 192, 203, 248, 343-347, 360.
Individualism, 72, 73, 75, 78, 88, 89, 107, 144, 149, 360.
Industrial control, 189, 190.
Industrial problem, 183, 186-200.
Principles for solution of the, 197-200.
Industrial reform, 190.
Industrial revolution, 178, 184.
Industrial schools, 58.
Initiative, 261.
Insanity, 44, 78, 244.
Instincts, 27, 109, 111, 112, 344, 345, 348.
Insurance, 106, 269.
Intemperance, 75, 78, 84, 90, 153, 233, 240, 241.
Results of, 242-244.
See Temperance.
Interests, 302-304, 311, 334, 345-347.
International law, 320, 335.
International Workers of the World, 193.
Internationalism, 333-339.
Invention, 184, 206, 341, 345.
Irish, 222.
Italians, 224, 225.
Jews, 225, 226.
Judiciary, 321, 322.
Jukes, 44, 45.
Juvenile courts, 154, 254.
Kallikak family, 45.
Labor, 61-63.
Division of, 62.
Hired, 63.
Organization of, 192, 193.
Labor bureaus, 191, 193, 268.
Labor conditions, 184.
Labor exchanges, 269.
Labor unions, 192, 193, 207.
Lack of support, 75.
Law, 136, 137, 142, 258, 321, 322, 349.
Lawgivers, 364.
Lawlessness, 54, 55, 235.
Legislation, 319, 320.
See Social legislation.
Liberty, 54, 55.
Libraries, 132, 282, 283.
License, 83, 246.
Like-mindedness, 192, 308.
Local Government Act, 259.
Local option, 141, 246.
Manufacturing, 180-185.
History of, 181-183.
Marriage, 27, 20-36, 46, 76, 79, 84.
Ideals of, 35, 36, 79.
Laws of, 34, 35, 77, 78.
Reforms, 35.
Mass meeting, 19.
Massachusetts Society for Promoting Good Citizenship, 260.
Maternity benefits, 44.
Metronymic period, 30.
Misery, 263.
Missions, 338, 339.
Mobs, 22, SS, 348.
Monogamy, 29, 31, 33.
Monopoly, 208-210, 242.
Morals, 151-155, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237, 242, 349.
Definition of, 151.
In the city, 175, 230, 232, 235, 237.
Rural, 151-155.
Morals commission, 86.
Morals court, 86.
Moving pictures, 82, 86, 112, 238, 240, 283.
Municipal ownership, 260.
Municipal reform, 260.
Music, 133, 164, 165, 237, 241, 283, 284, 310.
Nation, The, 300-332.
Economics in, 306, 307.
Education in, 309.
Functions of, 305-311, 314.
Government of, 313-323.
Health in, 307, 308.
History of, 301, 302.
Philanthropy in, 310.
Problems of, 324-332.
Sport in, 308.
National Bureau of Education, 309.
National Conference of Charities and Corrections, 273, 310.
National Conference on Unemployment, 269.
National Divorce Reform League, 77.
National Education Association, 309.
National Insurance Act, 44.
National Municipal League, 260.
National Reform League, 260.
Nature study, 127.
Neglect, 48, 75.
Negro problem, 329-331.
Newspapers, 252, 281, 284, 336, 353, 354, 360.
Occupations, 104, 181, 235, 345.
Offices, 204.
Organization, 2, 8, 9, 22, 23, 109, 110, 111, 118, 133, 140, 149,
182-184, 188, 196, 210, 259, 260, 200-293, 317-323.
Organization of labor, 192, 193.
Parks, 238.
Parole, 253.
Paternalism, 358.
Patriarchal household, 30, 32, 49, 61.
Pauperism, 268.
Personality, 1, 54, 344, 347, 349.
Personal worth, 360, 361.
Persuasion, 352.
Philosophers, 364, 365.
Placing-out system, 57, 58.
Play, 53, 54, 109, 235, 236, 239.
Playgrounds, 108, 235, 236.
Police, 258, 259.
Political science, 368.
Politics, 137, 138, 141, 142, 194, 244, 252, 260.
Polyandry, 31.
Polygyny, 30, 31.
Population, 100-103, 176, 177, 223, 232, 248.
Characteristics of, 100, 101.
Composition of, 101, 102, 223.
Congestion of, 207.
Growth of, 102.
Poverty, 84, 90, 228, 242, 246, 266-270.
Causes of, 267-269.
Remedies for, 267, 268.
Press, The, 280-282.
Primaries, 141, 260, 261.
Probation, 251, 253.
Profanity, 153, 235.
Profit-sharing, 196.
Progress, 351-353.
Genetic, 351, 352.
Telic, 352, 353.
Prophets, 365, 366.
Prosperity, 324, 325.
Prostitution, 81-88.
Protestant-Episcopal Church, 77.
Psychology, 344-346.
Public opinion, 34, 35, 59, 78, 79, 81, 82, 123, 142, 210, 237, 246,
252, 282, 320, 359-361.
Punishment. See Crime.
Race problem, 327-332.
Railways, 207, 208.
Raines Law hotels, 84.
Reading-circles, 133.
Reason, 3, 4, 17.
Recall, 261.
Recreation, 53, 54, 108-114, 164, 196, 235, 238, 252, 254, 308, 309.
Referendum, 141, 193, 198, 261.
Reformatories, 84, 86.
Relief, 57, 58, 267, 271-277.
Religion, 34, 39, 230, 287-293, 349, 361.
Religious education, 160, 287, 291.
Remarriage, 77.
Rescue homes, 86.
Royal Commission on Divorce, 78.
Rural church, 156-161.
Function of, 157, 160.
Minister of, 158.
Needs of, 159, 160.
New, 160.
Problems of, 158, 159.
Value of, 156, 157.
Rural emigration, 67, 102, 172, 173.
Rural Life Commission, 153, 154.
Russell Sage Foundation, 268, 295.
St. Vincent de Paul Society, 276.
Saloon, The, 84, 173, 238, 240, 241, 243.
Salvation Army, 293.
Scandinavians, 223, 224.
Schools, The, 120-131, 141, 236, 280.
Consolidated, 125, 129,
Continuation, 129, 165.
Curriculum of, 121, 122, 127, 128, 354.
District, 124, 125, 284.
Normal, 123, 130, 131.
State, 58.
Teaching in, 124, 129, 130.
School districts, 140.
Scientific management, 196.
Segregation, 83, 85, 250, 272, 296.
Self-control, 360, 361.
Servant class, 62, 63, 69, 82, 89, 182.
Settlements, 277-279.
Sewing-circles, 116, 117.
Sex hygiene, 55, 90.
Sexual impurity, 81, 88, 90, 153, 154, 233.
See Prostitution.
Slavery, 62, 182.
Slavs, 225.
Slums, 38, 231-233.
Sociability, 108, 111, 164, 171.
Social analysis, 340-371.
Social centres, 117, 163, 164, 176-179, 241, 242, 284-286.
Social characteristics, 2-14, 88, 129.
Social contract, 315.
Social degeneration, 103.
Social development, 2, 334, 342, 360.
Social education, 35, 39, 46, 56, 80, 86, 87, 90, 110, 121, 123, 237,
254, 330, 331.
Social elements. See Social factors.
Social factors, 4, 16, 17, 68, 187, 188, 333, 334, 340-356.
Physical, 343.
Psychic, 344-356.
Social groups, 14-23, 53, 54, 349, 350.
Social habits, 349, 351.
Social ideals, 362, 363.
Social institutions, 21, 24, 57, 58, 90, 115-120, 162, 168, 169, 237,
280, 337-339, 357.
Social legislation, 44, 52, 53, 142, 190, 191, 194, 222, 250, 268.
Social mind, 17-19, 54, 344, 348.
Social organization. See Organization.
Social pathology, 369.
Social problems, 14, 210, 221, 228, 242, 298.
Social reform, 369.
Social relations, 1, 6-8, 24, 31, 47, 90, 108, 169, 187, 189, 195,
203, 237, 314, 332, 334, 365.
Social science, 128, 129, 298, 355, 365.
Social selection, 31, 342, 343.
Social service, 89.
Social sympathy, 89.
Social theories, 315, 357-363, 365.
Social utility, 4.
Social values, 39, 40, 108, 337.
Social weaknesses, 13, 14, 88, 123, 124, 170, 175, 189, 324.
Social welfare, 73, 186, 191, 196, 202, 210, 212, 300, 343, 358.
Socialism, 197, 314, 358, 359, 369.
Objections to, 359.
Society, 1, 2.
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children, 57.
Sociology, 2, 364-371.
Biological, 366.
Psychological, 366.
Relations of, 367-369.
Source material, 2.
South, The, 99, 100, 140, 261.
South Carolina dispensary system, 242.
Southern Sociological Conference, 310.
Standard of living, 207, 222, 231, 327, 329.
State, The, 57, 272, 313-323.
History of, 315, 316.
Theories of, 315.
State schools, 58.
Static society, 2, 10, 139, 169.
Sterilization, 250.
Stimulus, 18, 56, 238, 283, 341, 344, 345, 347, 351, 352.
Stock exchange, 202.
Street trades, 235.
Strikes, 193, 194.
Struggle for existence, 342, 343.
Summer visitors, 148, 149, 351.
Sweating, 52.
Syndicalism, 197.
Telephone, 106.
Temperance, 244.
Anti-Saloon League, 245.
Education, 245.
Good Templars, 245.
No license, 245.
Prohibition, 245, 246.
Regulation, 246.
Total abstinence, 245.
Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 245, 338.
Tenant farming, 101.
Tenements, 69, 82, 84-86, 230-234, 239, 263.
Theatre, 82, 238, 240, 283.
Theology, 369.
Theories. See Social theories.
Town meetings, 140-142, 163, 284-286.
Toynbee Hall, 278.
Tradition, 349, 350.
Transportation, 204-208, 336, 337.
Trusts, 209, 210.
Unemployment, 199, 269.
United Mine Workers, 193.
United States, 302-304, 335.
United States Census, 67.
United States Department of Agriculture, 306.
United States Patent Office, 306.
Universities, 131, 132, 308, 309, 354.
University of Wisconsin, 131, 132.
University Settlement, 278.
Unorganized groups, 16-23.
Utopians, 365.
Venereal disease, 44, 85.
Vice commissions, 83-85.
Vice reform, 85, 86.
Village, The, 115, 301.
Improvement Society, 148, 149.
Nurse, 147, 148.
Vocational training, 35, 296.
Volunteer Prison League, 254.
Wages, 84, 86, 89, 203, 204, 207, 222, 228.
War, 90, 194, 249, 334.
West, The, 99, 102, 223, 224, 261.
White-slave traffic, 83, 86, 244.
See Prostitution.
Will of the individual, 264, 344, 355, 362.
Will of the people, 138, 320.
Woman's Christian Temperance Union, 245, 338.
Woman's clubs, 134.
Woman's work, 61, 62, 84, 190, 191.
Working people, The, 183, 184, 212, 230-234, 238, 263-270.
Worship, 288, 289.
Young Men's Christian Association, 153, 163, 173, 241, 293, 298, 338.
Young Women's Christian Association, 293, 298.
* * * * *