THE EARLY BOURBONS, 1700-1759
[Sidenote: Basis and consequences of Spanish reforms of the eighteenth
century.]
The eighteenth century in Spain was of intense import as affecting the
ultimate interests of the Americas. It was an era of regeneration, of a
somewhat remarkable recovery from the decadent state which Spain had
reached by the time of the reign of the last Hapsburg monarch. It was
accompanied, however, by Spain’s engaging in a series of wars, due in
some cases to unwise ambitions of an imperialistic character in European
affairs and in others to unavoidable necessity as a result of the
aggressions of foreign powers. It was a period when international
morality with its attendant diplomatic intrigue and unprovoked attacks
was in a low state, and Spain was often a sufferer thereby; indeed, many
interesting parallels might be drawn between European diplomatic
practices in the eighteenth century and those of William II of Germany
in the twentieth. England, Austria, and France were at various times the
opponents of Spain, but the first-named gradually emerged as the most
persistent, aggressive, and dangerous of her enemies. If the prospects
of wars were the principal motive force which induced the life-giving
reforms,--so that Spain might acquire wealth and efficiency which could
be converted into military strength,--the wars themselves tended to
increase the needs of the state. Thus in the case of the Americas the
very improvements which were introduced were to contribute to bring
about the eventual separation of Spain from her colonies, in the first
place because they occasioned a development in resources and capacity
which gave prospects of success when the revolts should come, and in the
second because Spain drew too heavily upon the colonies in promoting
European objects without giving an adequate return, wherefore discontent
was fostered. Nevertheless, her efforts were at least to have the merit
of saving those colonies to themselves, thus conserving the influence of
Spanish-speaking peoples in the world, with indirect effects on the
history of the United States.
[Sidenote: Causes of the War of the Spanish Succession.]
With the exception of Austria, whose candidate for the Spanish throne,
the Archduke Charles, was unwilling to recognize the validity of the
document which had chosen the grandson of Louis XIV, the European
nations were disposed to view the accession of Philip V (1700-1746) with
favor, especially since the French monarch consented to the conditions
imposed in the will of Charles II that the crowns of France and Spain
should be independent and never be united in a single person. This
seemed to insure a maintenance of the equilibrium in Europe almost more
certainly than the crowning of the Archduke Charles would have done,
wherefore most of the powers recognized Philip V. It was at this time
that the autocratic Louis XIV, whose many victorious wars had given him
an undue confidence, made one of the serious mistakes of his life. In
certain formal letters he recognized in Philip V such rights of
succession to the French throne as he would ordinarily have had but for
the terms of his acquisition of Spain, and caused these documents to be
recorded before the Parlement of Paris. Other events also tended to show
that Louis XIV meant to dispose of Spain as if that country belonged to
him. When he presented the Spanish ambassador at Versailles to Philip V
the Castilian envoy exclaimed: “God be praised! The Pyrenees have
disappeared! Now we are all one!” This remark was indicative of the
opinions which by that time had become current. This new element in the
situation, together with certain other impolitic acts of the French king
against the interests of England and the Protestant Netherlands, caused
the countries just named to join with Austria and the Holy Roman Empire
in 1701 in an alliance for a war against Louis XIV and Philip V. Austria
wished to acquire the crown of Spain for the archduke, while the
English and the Dutch were primarily desirous of avoiding a
Franco-Spanish union, wherefore they insisted on the dethronement of
Philip V, accepting the pretensions of Charles. England was particularly
inspired by a fear that her commerce and expansion in the new world
would be prejudiced, or even crushed, by the joint power of France and
Spain. Furthermore, the profits of contraband trade with the Spanish
colonies were likely to be cut off under the energetic rule of the king
of France, then the most powerful monarch in Europe, and direct
indications to that effect occurred in 1701, when the _asiento_
(contract), or right to introduce negro slaves into America, was granted
to a French company and several South American ports were occupied by
French ships.
[Sidenote: The war in Spain.]
[Sidenote: The Catalan espousal of the archduke’s cause.]
[Sidenote: The capture of Gibraltar by the English.]
[Sidenote: Events leading to peace.]
The War of the Spanish Succession, as the great conflict beginning
actively in 1702 has been called, had Spain as one of its principal
battle-grounds, since both Philip V and the archduke were there. The
struggle was one of great vicissitudes, as evidenced by the number of
times Madrid itself changed hands. Most of the people in the peninsula
favored Philip V, but the Catalans early displayed a tendency toward the
other side. Their resentment over the injuries received at the hands of
their French allies in the revolt of 1640 had not yet cooled, and they
especially objected to being governed by a king who represented the
absolutist ideals of the French Bourbons, for it was logical to expect
that it might mean a danger to their much cherished _fueros_, or
charters. Certain conflicts with royal officials seemed to indicate that
the government of Philip V intended to insist on the omnipotence of its
authority, thus increasing the discontent, to which was added the
encouragement to revolt arising from the greatness of the forces aligned
against the Bourbons, for in addition to the powers already mentioned
Savoy and Portugal had cast in their lot in 1703 and 1704. An allied
attempt of 1704 to land in Catalonia having proved a failure the Bourbon
officers employed rigorous measures to punish those Catalans who had
aided in the movement. The principal effect was to rouse indignation to
such a point that in 1705 a determined outbreak took place. Henceforth,
Catalonia could be counted on the side of the allies. In the same year
an alliance was contracted with the English, who made promises to the
Catalans which they were going to be far from fulfilling. Meanwhile, the
allied failure to get a foothold in Catalonia in 1704 had been
compensated by an incident of that campaign which was to be one of the
most important events of the war. On its way south from Catalonia in
that year the English squadron, under the command of Admiral Rooke,
seized Gibraltar, which happened to be poorly defended at the time.
Numerous attempts were made to recover it, but neither then nor since
were the Spaniards able to wrest this guardian of the strait from
English hands. In 1708 the island of Minorca was captured, to remain in
the possession of England for nearly a century. In 1711 the Holy Roman
Emperor died, as a result of which the archduke ascended the imperial
throne as the Emperor Charles VI. This event proved to be decisive as
affecting the war, for it made the candidacy of Charles for the Spanish
crown almost as unwelcome as had been the earlier prospect of a
Franco-Spanish union. Other factors contributed to make the former
archduke’s allies desirous of peace, chief of which was that Louis XIV
had been so thoroughly beaten that there was no longer any danger of his
insisting on the rights of Philip V to the crown of France.
[Sidenote: The peace of Utrecht.]
[Sidenote: Abandonment of the Catalans by the allies.]
England (in which country a new government representing the mercantile
classes and the party of peace had just come into power) took the lead
among the allies in peace negotiations, and was soon followed by all the
parties engaged, except Charles VI and a few of the German princes.
Between 1711 and 1714 a series of treaties was arranged, of which the
principal one was that of Utrecht in 1713. As concerned Spain the most
noteworthy provisions were: Philip V’s renunciation for himself and his
heirs of any claim to the French throne; the cession of Gibraltar and
Minorca to England; the grant of the negro slave-trade _asiento_ in the
Americas to the English, together with accompanying rights which made
this phase of the treaties a veritable entering wedge for English
commerce in the Spanish colonies; and the surrender of the Catholic
Netherlands, Milan, Naples, and Sardinia to Austria, and of Sicily to
Savoy. In 1720 Austria and Savoy exchanged the two islands which had
fallen to their lot, and the latter took on the official title of the
kingdom of Sardinia. On the above-named conditions Philip V was allowed
to retain the Spanish dominions of the peninsula and of the Americas. If
Spain could have but known it, the treaties were altogether favorable to
her, but ambition was to undo their beneficial effects. One troublesome
point in the various peace conferences was the so-called case of the
Catalans. It had been generally believed that England in accordance with
her earlier treaty with the Catalans would insist on the preservation of
the much mooted _fueros_ and that Philip V would make the concession, as
had Philip IV before him. Philip V showed himself to be obstinate on
this point, for, not once, but several times, he positively refused to
yield. Furthermore, the English government, desirous of peace, the
prospective advantages of which for England were already clear,
repeatedly charged its ambassadors not to hold out for the Catalan
_fueros_. Some attempts to secure them were made, but when they failed
to overcome the persistent objections of Philip V provision was made for
a general amnesty to the Catalans, who were to enjoy the same rights as
the inhabitants of Castile. The rights of Castilians, however, together
with the duties which were implied, were precisely what the Catalans did
not want. The conduct of Charles VI was equally unmoral. He did, indeed,
make repeated attempts to save the _fueros_, and declared that he would
never abandon the Catalans. Yet he signed a convention withdrawing his
troops from Catalonia, and left the people of that land to their fate.
The latter were not disposed to yield without a struggle, and sustained
a war against Philip V for more than a year. The fall of Barcelona in
1714 put an end to the unequal conflict.
[Sidenote: The French influence in Spain during the War of the Spanish
Succession.]
[Sidenote: Madame des Ursins.]
[Sidenote: Instances of resistance by Philip V to domination by Louis
XIV.]
One of the interesting factors of the era of the war was that of the
French influence in Spain, which was to have a pronounced effect on the
internal development of the country, and, by extension, on that of the
colonies. Philip V was seventeen years of age when he ascended the
throne, but, though he many times proved his valor in battle, he was in
other respects a weak and irresolute character, without striking virtues
or defects, fond of hunting, and exceedingly devout,--in fine, of a type
such that he was inevitably bound to be led by others. These traits
fitted in with the policies of Louis XIV, who fully intended to direct
the affairs of Spain in his own interest. He charged Philip V never to
forget that he was a Frenchman, and, indeed, with the exceptions
presently to be noted, Philip was quite ready to submit to the will of
his grandfather. From the first, Louis XIV surrounded the Spanish king
with French councillors, some of whom occupied honorary positions only,
while others filled important posts in the government of Spain, and
still others, notably the French ambassadors and French generals,
exercised actual authority without having any official connection with
the country. One of the most important of all was Madame des Ursins,
maid of honor to the queen, sent to Spain by Louis XIV because as the
widow of the Duke of Braciano, a Spanish grandee, she was familiar with
the customs of the country. This lady won the complete confidence of the
queen, who in turn was able to dominate her husband. It may be said for
Madame des Ursins that she was faithful to the interests of the Spanish
monarchs, though promoting the entry of French influences, at that time
much to be desired in Spain. Indeed, she not infrequently sided with
Philip V against the wishes of Louis XIV, which on one occasion led to
her recall by the French monarch. Finding, however, that he could not
control Spanish affairs without her aid, Louis allowed her to return to
Spain. Despite the enormous pressure exercised against him in favor of
France, Philip V occasionally rebelled. One instance of his obstinacy
has already been cited respecting the case of the Catalan _fueros_. A
more important issue arose out of the presumptions of Louis XIV to
dispose of Philip’s crown, as an avenue of escape for himself. In every
year from 1706 to 1712 Louis XIV endeavored to sacrifice the interests
of Spain or of Philip V in order to propitiate the allies into a grant
of peace. In particular he was desirous of procuring the resignation of
Philip from the throne of Spain in favor of the House of Austria, saving
to Philip the Spanish dominions in Italy. Philip was obdurate when
suggestions were made of his abandoning Spain, and more than once, even
when the situation looked hopeless, declared his intention of dying at
the head of his troops, rather than abdicate the throne to which he felt
divinely entitled. Louis XIV was even disposed to compel him by force of
arms to acquiesce, and several times withdrew his military support, but
the Spanish king would not yield. Fortunately for Philip the allies
played into his hands by demanding too much, with the result that Louis
XIV on such occasions would renew his support of Philip. Nevertheless,
it was the urgings of Louis XIV which prevailed upon Philip to surrender
the Spanish dominions in Italy and the Low Countries as well as to
renounce his claim to the throne of France. In all of these tribulations
of the Spanish king credit should be given to María Luisa of Savoy, the
spirited young queen of Spain. Not yet fourteen at the time of her
marriage, in 1701, she at all times displayed a courage and ability
which endeared her to the Spanish people. Though her father, the Duke of
Savoy, joined the allies against France and Spain, she did not waver in
her attachment to the land of her adoption. Inspired by her the Spanish
people (except the Catalans) displayed an ardent spirit of nationalism
for the first time in history, and were loyally devoted to the king and
queen. Nevertheless, despite Spanish patriotism and Philip’s obdurate
resistance to Louis XIV’s plans concerning the peninsula, there was the
underlying truth of a profound French influence over Spain. This was
best represented by men who, like Orry and Amelot, were responsible for
far-reaching reforms, the effects of which will be discussed in the
chapters on institutions.
[Sidenote: The popular young queen, María Luisa of Savoy.]
[Sidenote: Isabel Farnesio and the resumption of a policy of imperialism
in Italy.]
Unfortunately for Philip and for Spain the queen died, early in the year
1714. A young Italian abbot named Alberoni happened to be at court in
that year and he suggested to Madame des Ursins that a certain Isabel
Farnesio (Elizabeth Farnese) of Parma would make a suitable wife for
Philip V. According to him the sweet gentleness of her character would
enable Madame des Ursins to maintain her power at the Spanish court. In
December of the same year the wedding took place. Thus did the lady who
has received the sobriquet, the “Termagant of Spain,” become the wife of
Philip V. On her first meeting with Madame des Ursins she dismissed her,
and proceeded to become herself the dominant influence near the crown.
Isabel Farnesio was in fact a woman of extraordinary energy and force of
character, besides being so attractive as to be irresistible to the weak
king, who was so violently and capriciously attached to her that he even
chastised her with blows, at times, in a kind of jealous fury.
Nevertheless, she submitted to anything, provided she could retain a
hold on her husband, for she was ambitious for her children and for
Italy, and meant to utilize Spanish power in furtherance of her aims.
Early in 1715 she procured the elevation of Alberoni (soon to become a
cardinal) to the direction of affairs in the Spanish state, as the
instrument to procure her objects. The chief tenets in her policy were
the breaking of the intimate relation with France and the recovery of
the Italian possessions, based on the twofold desire of throwing the
Austrians out of Italy (a patriotic Italian wish, possibly more
attributable to Alberoni than to the queen) and of creating
principalities for the children of her own marriage with Philip. These
aims were furthered by playing upon the wishes of Philip to recover his
rights to the French throne. Philip V had not willingly renounced his
claim at the time Louis XIV had persuaded him to do so, and many of the
events for the next few years are explained by his aspirations to obtain
that crown for himself or for one of his sons. The Italian ambitions of
Isabel Farnesio, however, were the enduring keynote of Spanish policy
for some thirty years.
[Sidenote: Diplomatic intrigue and war in the first period of the
Italian pretensions of Isabel Farnesio.]
The break with France was not long in coming. In 1715 Louis XIV died,
and, contrary to the expectations of Philip, not Philip V, but the Duke
of Orleans, whom the Spanish king regarded as a personal opponent, was
named as regent for the sickly Louis XV, who was not expected to live
very long,--though in fact he was to reign for fifty-nine years. The
breach was widened by a series of treaties between England, the
Protestant Netherlands, and France in the next two years with a view to
the execution of the treaty of Utrecht. To assure the peace of Europe it
was necessary to procure the adhesion of Philip V and Charles VI, who
alone of the parties to the War of the Spanish Succession had not made
peace with each other, although no hostilities had taken place for some
time. Such a peace did not fit in, however, with the plans of Isabel
Farnesio, and when the emperor furnished a pretext in 1717 for the
renewal of hostilities a Spanish army was suddenly dispatched to
Sardinia which overran that island. England as guarantor of the
neutrality of Italy protested, and endeavored to effect a peace between
the two contestants by an offer to Philip of Charles’ renunciation of
his claims to the Spanish crown, together with a promise of the duchies
of Parma and Tuscany and a vague suggestion of England’s willingness to
restore Gibraltar and Minorca. The English proposal was rejected, and in
1718 an expedition was sent into Sicily (then in the possession of
Savoy, although the already mentioned exchange with Austria had been
discussed). The Spaniards were received with enthusiasm, and soon had a
mastery of the island. Meanwhile, Austria entered the triple alliance,
which thereby became quadruple, on the basis of the emperor’s offers to
renounce his pretensions to the throne of Spain and to consent to the
succession of Charles, son of Isabel Farnesio and Philip V, to the
duchies of Parma, Plasencia, and Tuscany in exchange for Philip’s return
of Sicily and Sardinia and his renunciation of all dominion in Italy and
the Low Countries. These terms were offered to Philip, who refused them,
despite the English ambassador’s insinuation of his country’s
willingness to return Gibraltar and Minorca if Philip would accept.
While the British government was thus negotiating for peace through
diplomatic channels it also took steps in another way to insure Spanish
acquiescence in the allied proposals. An English fleet under Admiral
Byng was ordered to attack the Spanish fleet without previous
announcement of a warlike intent, managing the affair, if possible, so
as to cast the blame on the Spanish commander. Byng found the Spanish
fleet in Sicilian waters, destroyed it, and landed Austrian troops in
Sicily. Several months later, in December, 1718, England declared war on
Spain, which was followed in January, 1719, by a declaration of war
against Philip V on the part of France. Hopelessly outnumbered, Spain
nevertheless displayed a surprising capacity for resistance. Defeat was
inevitable, however, and late in 1719 Alberoni, whose extraordinary web
of intrigues was deemed responsible for the existing situation, was
dismissed from power, a condition exacted by the allies, and in 1720
peace was made on the basis of the earlier proposals of the quadruple
alliance. Philip was ready to comply with these terms, but the emperor
was now unwilling to grant what had been required of him. The result was
a new alliance in 1721 of England, France, and Spain, of which the most
noteworthy terms were England’s definite promise to restore Gibraltar to
Spain and an agreement for a double matrimonial alliance between the
French and Spanish courts; a Spanish princess aged three was betrothed
to Louis XV, then eleven years old, while a French princess was to marry
Philip’s eldest son, Luis. In addition the rights of Isabel’s son
Charles to the Italian duchies were reaffirmed. The marriage of Luis and
the French princess was duly celebrated in 1722, and the Spanish
princess was sent to the French court to be educated.
[Sidenote: Abdication of Philip V and reasons therefor.]
[Sidenote: Brief reign of Luis I and Philip’s resumption of the throne.]
For several years Philip had been expressing a desire to abdicate. In
January, 1724, he carried his previously announced intention into
effect, declaring that he proposed to consecrate the remainder of his
life to the service of God and the important work of maintaining his own
health. There has been much speculation as to whether these were his
real designs,--all the more so, since the ambitious queen at no time
protested against this step. Although there is no direct evidence to
that effect, it is more than probable that Philip and Isabel wanted to
be ready to take advantage of the situation which might arise if Louis
XV should die, as was expected. At any rate Philip’s eldest son was
proclaimed king, as Luis I, but the reign was of brief duration. In the
same year 1724 Luis contracted smallpox and died. As there was a
general disinclination to the succession of Philip’s second son,
Ferdinand, then a minor, the former king was asked to accept the crown
again, and despite certain compunctions he felt in the matter he at
length agreed to do so.
[Sidenote: Ripperdá and the Austrian alliance.]
The second reign of Philip V was dominated as before by the Italian
ambitions of Isabel Farnesio, with the French aspirations of the king
remaining a factor. By this time the Baron of Ripperdá, an adventurer
who had previously been the Dutch representative at the Spanish court,
had become the agent through whom Isabel hoped to achieve her ends. Few
more unconscionable liars and intriguers are recorded in history than
this audacious courtier, who was able to deceive even Isabel Farnesio.
It occurred to the queen that the vexed question of the Italian duchies
might be settled through an embassy to Vienna. Accordingly, Ripperdá was
sent, with the principal object of procuring the betrothal of two
Austrian archduchesses to Isabel’s sons, Charles and Philip. Ripperdá
found Charles VI disinclined to consent to the betrothals, but lied both
to the emperor and to Philip, telling each that the other accepted his
petitions. His deceptions would certainly have been unmasked, had it not
been for an unexpected turn in events. In 1725 the French regent,
fearful lest Louis XV might die without issue, sent back the Spanish
princess who had been betrothed to him, because she was still too young
to marry. The natural consequence was a rupture between France and
Spain, facilitating a treaty between Charles VI and Philip V. The matter
of the marriage was now secondary to the political need of support.
Charles and Philip agreed to the terms proposed to the latter in 1718 by
the quadruple alliance. In addition Philip guaranteed the Pragmatic
Sanction, whereby the succession of Charles VI’s eldest daughter to his
Austrian estates was to be secured, and gave extensive commercial
privileges to Austria, particularly to the Ostend Company of the
Catholic, or Austrian, Netherlands, enabling that company to secure
trading rights in Spain and the Americas. A defensive alliance was
arranged, one feature of which was the emperor’s agreement to use his
good offices to cause England to fulfil her promised restoration of
Gibraltar and Minorca to Spain. Finally, Charles VI definitely abandoned
his oft-repeated demand for the recognition of the Catalan _fueros_. For
his triumphs of 1725 Ripperdá was made a grandee of Spain, owing his
promotion, in part at least, to his assurance that the marriage
alliances were practically secure. He became first minister at the
Spanish court, a post which he asked for, falsely asserting that Charles
VI desired it. Such a tissue of lies could not be sustained
indefinitely. His duplicity having been discovered he lost his position
in 1726, and was imprisoned when he seemed to confess guilt by taking
refuge in the English embassy. Escaping in 1728 he went to northern
Africa, where he passed the remaining nine years of his life.
[Sidenote: The acquisition of Naples for Isabel’s son Charles.]
The Austrian treaties of 1725 were to have important consequences.
England, France, the Protestant Netherlands, Prussia, Sweden, and
Denmark immediately formed an alliance, and war seemed imminent. Spain
desired it, but Austria declined to engage, much to the resentment of
the Spanish court. Spain made a fruitless attempt to recapture
Gibraltar, however, in 1727, but consented to peace in the same year
without attaining her ends, although the definitive treaty was not
signed until 1729. One factor in the agreement was the desire of Isabel
Farnesio to avenge herself on Charles VI, not only for his failure to
join in the recent war, but also to requite his refusal to accept the
marriage projects she had proposed. Even when the emperor consented to
the attainment in 1731 of Isabel’s ambitions for her son concerning the
three duchies of northern Italy, she did not put aside her vengeful
plans. Charles of Bourbon in fact landed in Italy in that year to take
possession of the duchies. A fresh step in the plans of Isabel was the
treaty of 1733 with France, often called by analogy with the later
treaty of 1761-1762 the “first Family Compact.” The opportunity to
strike at Austria, which both France and Spain desired, was now at hand,
for Austria was in the meshes of a war over the Polish succession. Spain
declared war on Austria late in 1733, and in the next year overran
Naples and Sicily. In 1734, too, Prince Charles was brought from his
duchies to be crowned king of Naples, or the Two Sicilies. Thus had
Isabel Farnesio restored the questionably desirable Italian inheritance
to Spain, but the duchies were lost. France was ready to make peace in
1735; so she calmly offered Charles VI the three duchies in exchange for
a recognition of Spanish Charles as king of the Two Sicilies. Spain
protested, but could do nothing more than submit. These terms were
accepted in 1735, although peace was not signed until three years later.
It is interesting to note that the Catalans had not yet given up hope of
their _fueros_. A body of Catalan patriots visited England in 1736 to
ask for the fulfilment of the earlier English promise to maintain the
_fueros_, but the British government paid no attention to the petition.
[Sidenote: The War of Jenkins’ Ear.]
War was not long in making its reappearance on the Spanish horizon. For
a long time there had been various causes of dispute with England, the
most important of which arose out of the English contraband trade in the
Spanish colonies. The _asiento_ treaty had been used by English
merchants as the entering wedge for British commerce, and their
violations of the law had met with reprisals at times, especially when
English smugglers were caught by the more faithful of the Spanish
officials in the colonies. One Englishman, named Jenkins, brought home
his ear preserved in alcohol, claiming that the Spaniards had cut it
off. Such acts as this, whether of actual occurrence or not, fitted in
with English conceptions of Spanish cruelty, and furnished a pretext for
war to the rising party of British imperialists, headed by William Pitt.
Indemnities were demanded by England and agreed to by Spain, but when
the latter put in a counter-claim the British government threatened war,
which was soon declared, late in 1739. This conflict, called in English
histories the War of Jenkins’ Ear, demonstrated that the internal
reforms in Spain had not been without effect. The West Indies were the
principal field of the struggle, but Spain was able to defend
herself,--as witness the successful defence of Cartagena, which Admiral
Vernon was so sure he was going to capture that he had commemorative
medals struck off in advance. In Europe the most noteworthy events were
the Spanish attempts to capture Gibraltar and Port Mahón, Minorca, both
of which ended in failure. France soon came into the war on Spain’s
side, and the conflict became European when it merged into the great War
of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748).
[Sidenote: The War of the Austrian Succession and the acquisition of the
North Italian duchies for Isabel’s son Philip.]
The various princes of Europe had guaranteed Charles VI’s Pragmatic
Sanction one or more times, but when the emperor died, in 1740, each of
them proceeded along the line of political interest. Urged on by Isabel
Farnesio, Philip V renewed his pretensions to the duchies in northern
Italy and to other Italian territories in Austrian hands which had
formerly belonged to Spain. France, Prussia, and other states of lesser
importance also made certain claims. England’s interest lay with the
opponent of France and Spain, wherefore she joined with Austria. In a
military way the war was very nearly indecisive, and there was a general
desire for peace by the year 1746. This attitude received a fresh
impulse by the accession of Ferdinand VI to the Spanish throne in that
year, for he was a determined partisan of peace. The treaty of 1748 was
entirely favorable to Isabel Farnesio in that she obtained the duchies
of Parma, Plasencia, and Guastalla for her son Philip; Tuscany was no
longer available, having been in other hands since the agreement of
1735. The dispute with England was settled by a recognition of
commercial advantages in favor of that country, especially those growing
out of the _asiento_; two years later the _asiento_ was annulled in
exchange for a heavy payment by Spain. Meanwhile, the voyage of Anson
around the world, 1739-1742, had in fact dealt a blow to Spain in
America, revealing the Spanish secrets of the Pacific. The peace of 1748
marked the culminating point in the aspirations of Isabel Farnesio.
After more than thirty years of effort she had almost completely
attained her ends. Spain had paid the bills, with little to compensate
her except glory and at the cost of losses in the colonies, which though
not translated into cessions of territory were to have ultimate effects
to the disadvantage of Spain.
[Sidenote: Importance of the peaceful reign of Ferdinand VI.]
The reign of Ferdinand VI (1746-1759) looms little in external
narrative, because it was an era of peace, but on that very account it
was important in institutions. The achievements of Charles III were made
possible by the policies of economic regeneration which were so strongly
to the fore in the reign of Ferdinand VI. Ferdinand, who may have been
deficient enough in some respects, who took very little part himself in
affairs of government, and who displayed tendencies to melancholia and
even insanity, was firmly of the opinion that Spain needed peace, and at
a time when Europe was engaging in another great conflict, the Seven
Years’ War, he declined the overtures of both France and England, the
leading opponents in the struggle, even when accompanied by such
tempting bait as the latter’s offer of the restitution of much-desired
Gibraltar and Minorca. In 1759 he died without issue, and his
half-brother, Charles, son of Isabel Farnesio, came to the throne of
Spain, after a long experience as a ruler in Italy. Thus did the
“Termagant of Spain” achieve yet a new victory to reward her maternal
ambition,--and meanwhile the Two Sicilies were not lost to her line, for
that kingdom passed to her grandson Ferdinand, the third son of
Charles.