MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN SPAIN, 1031-1276
_Moslem Spain_
[Sidenote: Economic vicissitudes.]
The political vicissitudes of Moslem Spain could not fail to have an
unfavorable effect on industry and commerce. The economic decline did
not at once manifest itself and was not continuous in any event, for the
periods of depression were often followed by others of great prosperity.
Agriculture, industry, and the arts profited by new impulses, and trade
was carried on with eastern Mediterranean lands. The Christian conquests
meant an end of these commercial relations, but many of the industries
survived in the hands of Moslems, now become Mudéjares.
[Sidenote: Moslem intellectual achievements.]
[Sidenote: Averröes and Maimónides.]
In intellectual culture, Moslem Spain was even greater than it had been
in the days of its political power,--at least in the higher
manifestations of that culture. The _taifa_ kings encouraged freedom of
thought and expression, even when unorthodox; yet, in literature and
science the greatest heights were reached, by both Jewish and Moslem
writers, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, during the rule of the
intolerant Almoravides and Almohades. That, too, was the period of their
greatest influence on the Christians. The principal service of Moslem
Spain to western Europe was, as has been said, the transmission of Greek
thought, although not in its purity, but with the modifications and
variants of its later days, especially those of the Alexandrian school.
In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries many European scholars of note
visited Spain, and took back with them the Greco-oriental thought which
was to be the chief basis of the philosophy and science of Christendom,
until the true Greek texts were discovered at the time of the
Renaissance. The Moslems were further advanced in medicine than the
other western European peoples, and were the first in Europe since the
days of the Greeks to cultivate the study of botany. In pure mathematics
and its applications, such as in astronomy and the pseudo-science of
astrology, they were equally to the fore. Their greatest influence was
to make itself felt, however, in the realm of philosophy, especially in
the works of Averröes and Maimónides, scholars who are to be compared
with Saint Isidore, both as respects the greatness of their
achievements, and as concerns the breadth, almost universality, of their
attainments. Averröes of Cordova (1126-1198), as commentator and
propagator of the ideas of Aristotle and Plato, was perhaps the
principal resort of western European scholarship for an early knowledge
of Greek thought. He was also a distinguished doctor and mathematician.
Maimónides (or Moisés ben Maimón), also of Cordova (1139-1205), was the
founder of the rationalistic explanation of Jewish doctrine and a bitter
opponent of the neoplatonism[27] of the Alexandrian school, but he was
much influenced by Aristotle, whose ideas he contributed to disseminate
in western Europe. He was also a celebrated physician. In addition to
individual treatises on the various sciences, many encyclopedias were
written inclusive of all. As might be expected, the rhetorical taste of
Moslem Spain found abundant expression, in both poetry and prose, and in
subject-matter of a heroic, fabulous, satirical, or amatory character.
History, which at this time was more akin to literature than to science,
was also much cultivated. Aben-Hayyán of Cordova wrote a history in
sixty volumes, of the epoch in which he lived; and there were others
almost equally prolific who dealt with different phases of the history
of Moslem Spain. In the sciences, Jewish scholars followed the current
of their Moslem masters, but in philosophy and literature they developed
originality, inspired by their religious sentiments. Their poetry had a
somewhat more elevated tone than that of the Moslems.
[Sidenote: Architectural mediocrity.]
Although the Almoravides and Almohades were great builders, this period
was less important in Moslem architecture than either the preceding or
the following eras. The principal characteristic seems to have been a
withdrawal from Visigothic and classical forms, but the execution was
less correct and in poorer taste than formerly.
_León and Castile_
[Sidenote: Advance of agriculture and stock-raising.]
The advance of the conquests, leaving large areas back from the frontier
in the enjoyment of a measure of peace, furthered economic development.
There continued to be civil wars in the interior, and personal security
against abuses of the lords and the attacks of bandits was none too
great, but matters were very much better than before, as a result of
legislation favorable to property, the greater importance of the towns,
and the emancipation of the servile classes. Agriculture was
encouraged,--for example, by laws granting unbroken lands to whoever
should cultivate them. The conquest made itself directly felt through
the introduction of the vine and the olive of Moslem Spain into regions
which had not previously cultivated them. Works of irrigation and the
buildings of roads, so important for the agricultural prosperity of
Spain, seem not to have been undertaken, however. Stock-raising was much
more actively pursued than agriculture, due in part to the traditional
importance of that occupation, and in part to the ease with which that
form of wealth could be withdrawn from the hazards of war,--an advantage
which agriculture, naturally, could not share. The age-long war of the
stock-raisers against the farmers was usually favorable to the former,
who were wont to appropriate commons for their animals and even to enter
cultivated fields and damage or despoil them. Associations of
stock-raisers to protect their interests were already in existence.
[Sidenote: Industrial and commercial beginnings.]
In the thirteenth century Castilian Spain made a beginning of industrial
and commercial life, of which Santiago de Compostela had been perhaps
the only representative prior to that date. Laborers united in guilds,
just as in other western European lands, working together according to
the laws of their guild, and living in the same street. Many of them
were foreigners, Jews, or Mudéjares. An export trade of raw materials
and wine developed between the towns of the north coast and the
merchants of Flanders, England, and Germany, and just at the end of the
period the capture of Seville added commercial wealth to Castile,
through the trade of that city in the western Mediterranean. Interior
commerce still encountered the difficulties which had harassed it in
earlier times, but some of them were overcome through the development of
fairs to facilitate exchange. Certain days in the year, usually
corresponding with the feast of the patron saint of the town, were set
aside by important centres for a general market, or fair, on which
occasions special measures were undertaken to assure the safety of the
roads and to protect all who might attend,--Moslem and Jews as well as
Christians. Men naturally travelled in large groups at such times, which
was an additional means of security. The season of the fair might be the
only occasion in a year when a town could procure a supply of goods not
produced at home, wherefore this institution assumed great importance.
The increased use of coin as a medium of exchange demonstrates the
commercial advance of this period over the preceding.
[Sidenote: The intellectual awakening.]
In every branch of intellectual culture there was a vigorous awakening
at this time. The classical traditions of the Spanish clergy and the
Mozárabes were reinforced by western European influences coming
especially from France, while the Greco-oriental culture of the
Mudéjares and Mozárabes merged with the former to produce a Spanish
civilization, which became marked after the conquests of the thirteenth
century. In the twelfth century universities had sprung up in Italy and
France, where the Roman and the canon law, theology, and philosophy
were taught. In those countries the formal organization of the
universities had grown naturally out of the gatherings of pupils around
celebrated teachers, but Spain had no Irnerius or Abélard, wherefore the
origins of the universities of the peninsula were the result of official
initiative. In 1212 or 1214 Alfonso VIII founded a university at
Palencia, but this institution lived only thirty-one years. About the
year 1215 Alfonso IX of León made a beginning of the more celebrated
University of Salamanca, the fame of which belongs, however, to the next
following era. By the close of the eleventh century the Castilian
language had become definitely formed, as also the Leonese and Galician
variants. By the middle of the twelfth century all three had become
written languages, and, by the middle of the thirteenth, Latin works
were already being translated into the Romance tongues.
[Sidenote: Romance poetry.]
[Sidenote: Beginnings of the drama.]
One of the earliest forms of Romance literature was that of popular
poetry of an epic character, singing the deeds of Christian warriors.
This was of French origin, coming in with French crusaders and the monks
of Cluny. Two long poems of this class, both dealing with the life of
the Cid, have been preserved. One, the _Poema_ (Poem), is believed to
date from the middle of the twelfth century, while the other, the
_Crónica_ (Chronicle), is probably of later origin. Both mix legend with
fact, but the former is the less legendary. In the thirteenth century
another type of poetry developed in Castile called _mester de clerecía_
(office of the clergy), also bound up with French influences, but more
erudite and formally correct and usually religious in subject-matter, a
Spanish expression of European scholasticism. From the side of Aragon
came the influence of southern France, in the lyrical and erotic poetry
of the Provençal troubadours. Galicia was much affected by these foreign
impulses, due to the journeys of pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela, and
developed a notable poetry of its own. In this period, too, the
Castilian theatre had its origins, in the mystery plays of the church
and in the popular performances of jugglers in the streets. Whereas the
former were in the nature of a religious ceremony, the latter, which
were ultimately to exercise the greater influence, were of a secular
character, usually satirical, and given to great liberty of expression.
[Sidenote: History and science.]
In historical literature there were two names of some note in this
period. Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, archbishop of Toledo (1170-1247),
reduced the early Spanish chronicles to a narrative form, embellished by
erudite references which his classical knowledge enabled him to employ.
He may be regarded as the father of Spanish historiography. Naturally,
given the age, his works were not free from legends and errors, and do
not display the critical spirit of modern times. Bishop Lucas of Tuy
(died 1288), though far inferior to Jiménez de Rada in both method and
criticism, wrote a life of Saint Isidore and other works which enjoyed
great popularity in the thirteenth century. In scientific literature
there were no great names, for this was a period of study and the
translation of Arabic and western European texts, rather than one of
original composition.
[Sidenote: Romanesque architecture.]
[Sidenote: Early Gothic architecture.]
[Sidenote: Mudéjar architecture.]
[Sidenote: Sculpture, painting, and the lesser arts.]
Just as the Romance tongues replaced the Latin, so Romanesque
architecture took the place of the decadent classical styles. Although
there was not a little variety in details, this style was characterized
in León and Castile by an accentuation of the cruciform ground plan,
robustness of form, heaviness in proportions, and profuse ornamentation,
often of a rude type. Arches were sometimes round, and sometimes
slightly pointed. Over the crossing there often appeared a polygonal
dome or a tower with arcades and a cap. The wooden roof was supplanted
by barrel-vaulting in stone, and this led to a strengthening of the
walls, reducing the window space, and to the use of heavy piers or
columns and of exterior buttresses attached to the walls. The west
front, or portal, of churches was adorned in luxurious style, notably
with the sculptured work of men, animals, or foliage. At the same time,
new influences proceeding out of France were making themselves felt, and
by the thirteenth century the so-called Gothic style of architecture was
firmly established. In this the entire edifice was subordinated to the
treatment of the vault, which attained to a great height through the use
of the true pointed arch and of transversals to receive the weight of
the vault. For this purpose the flying buttress, now free from the
walls, was greatly developed. Edifices not only became higher, but also
were enabled to use a large amount of space for windows, since the walls
no longer had to sustain the thrust. At the same time decorative effects
were increased, not only in porticoes, but also in the glass of the
windows, the capitals of columns, water-spouts, pinnacles and towers,
and in various forms of sculpture. The spaces between the buttresses
were often filled in to form chapels. Remarkable as was the advance made
in architecture, the work of this period was sober and robust when
compared with the later Gothic work. Nevertheless, the development was
very great, and is to be explained, very largely, by social causes, such
as the advance in the population and importance of the cities and of the
middle class. Greater cathedrals were therefore needed, but they were
also desired from motives of vanity, which prompt new social forces to
construct great monuments. The cathedrals became not only a religious
centre but also a place of meeting for the discussion of business and
political affairs, the heart and soul of the cities in which they were
located. Gothic architecture also manifested itself in military and
civil edifices. The castle was the characteristic type of the former.
The material now became stone, instead of wood. As in other parts of
Europe, there were the surrounding moat and the bridge, the walls with
their salients and towers, the buildings inside for the artisans on the
one hand, and for the lord and his soldiers on the other, and the
powerfully built tower of homage to serve as a last resort. The growth
of the towns gave rise to the erection of local government buildings, or
town halls, and private dwellings began to have an important
architectural character. Another style of architecture, usually called
Mudéjar, existed in this period, combining Arabic with Christian
elements, of which the latter were Gothic of a simplified character. The
roof was of wood, but with the ornamentation of the period. The body of
the edifice was of brick, which was left without covering on the
outside, giving a reddish tone to the building. Sculpture had an
important vogue as an adjunct of architecture. Gradually, it passed from
the badly proportioned, stiff figures of the earlier years to something
approaching realism and to a great variety of form. Painting was notable
only for its use in the adornment of manuscripts and of windows, and in
these respects the work done was of a high order. Both sculpture and
painting were employed to represent sacred history or allegory. Rich
tiles were much used, both in the form of azulejos, and in that of
compositions of human figures, in which the usual symbolism appeared.
The gold work and furniture also bore witness to the greater wealth of
this period as compared with earlier times.
_Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia_
[Sidenote: Economic differences in the kingdom of Aragon.]
[Sidenote: Catalan commerce.]
Much that has been said about León and Castile as regards material
prosperity might be repeated for Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia. Aragon
proper was the poorest part of this region, economically. Stock-raising
and industries growing out of it were the principal occupations there.
Catalonia, though not backward in agriculture, was not too well adapted
to it, since certain crops, notably grain, could not be raised, but it
had a varied industrial life and an active commerce. Valencia was the
most favored region, being agriculturally wealthy, on account of the
extensive use of irrigation, and, like Catalonia, having a rich
industrial and commercial life. This was true also of Majorca. The
Catalans had been engaged in Mediterranean commerce since the ninth
century, but in this period their trade reached much greater
proportions. Although Catalan boats went to every part of the
Mediterranean, the principal relations were with Italy; there were
frequent commercial treaties with Pisa and Genoa. Jaime I brought about
the sending of commercial representatives, or consuls, to foreign
countries, and was responsible for the establishment of mercantile
bodies, called _consulados de mar_ (commercial tribunals of the sea) in
Catalan ports. A special maritime law sprang up, and was embodied in a
code, called the _Libro del consulado de mar_ (Book of the _consulado_
of the sea).
[Sidenote: Intellectual manifestations.]
[Sidenote: Raymond Lull.]
The intellectual movement in Aragon and Catalonia ran along lines
parallel to that in León and Castile, but with more frequent contact
with French and Italian thought. Jaime I followed the custom of the era
in founding universities, establishing one at Lérida and another at
Valencia. One great name appeared in the literary history of this
period, reaching over into the next, that of Raimundo Lulio, known to
English scholars as Raymond Lull, or Lully (1232-1315), a philosopher,
mystic, and poet, who wrote many books which had a noteworthy influence
on European thought. Writing in the vulgar tongue and in a style adapted
to the general public, he attacked the pantheistic ideals of Averröes
and held that all sciences, though they have their individual
principles, lead to a single all-embracing science, which, for him, was
Christianity; in other words, he represented the reconcilement of
Christianity with reason and science. The development of the Romance
tongues followed the same course as in Castile, but the Catalan became
widely separated from the other peninsular tongues, being more akin to
the Provençal, or language of southern France. The Provençal influence
on poetry was earlier in evidence in Catalonia than in Castile, and was
more pronounced. Lyric poetry, accompanied by music, was so high in
favor that great nobles and the kings themselves cultivated it. Alfonso
II (1162-1196) was the first Spanish troubadour, and other kings
followed, including Jaime I. History was the most important form of
prose literature, and the principal work was that of Jaime I himself, a
chronicle of the vicissitudes of his reign. Jaime I also compiled a
collection of proverbs and the sayings of wise men.
[Sidenote: Architecture.]
The Romanesque art of this region was less heavy and more gracefully
proportioned than that of Castile,--possibly, the result of Italian
influences. Catalan Gothic architecture was especially affected by
Italian art,--so much so, that it lacked some of the principal elements
of the Gothic.
_Navarre_
Attention need be called only to the profound French influence in this
region.