THE EARLY PEOPLES, TO 206 B.C.
[Sidenote: Prehistoric Spain.]
The Iberian Peninsula has not always had the same form which it now has,
or the same plants, animals, or climate which are found there today. For
example, it is said that Spain was once united by land with Africa, and
also by way of Sicily, which had not yet become an island, with southern
Italy, making a great lake of the western Mediterranean. The changes as
a result of which the peninsula assumed its present characteristics
belong to the field of geology, and need to be mentioned here only as
affording some clue to the earliest colonization of the land. In like
manner the description of the primitive peoples of Spain belongs more
properly to the realm of ethnology. It is worthy of note, however, that
there is no proof that the earliest type of man in Europe, the
Neanderthal, or Canstadt, man,[4] existed in Spain, and it is believed
that the next succeeding type, the Furfooz man, entered at a time when a
third type, the Cromagnon, was already there. Evidences of the Cromagnon
man are numerous in Spain. Peoples of this type may have been the
original settlers of the Iberian Peninsula.[5] Like the Neanderthal and
Furfooz men they are described generally as paleolithic men, for their
implements were of rough stone. After many thousands of years the
neolithic man, or man of the polished stone age, developed in Spain as
in other parts of the world. In some respects the neolithic man of Spain
differed from the usual European type, but was similar to the neolithic
man of Greece. This has caused some writers to argue for a Greek origin
of the early Spanish peoples, but others claim that similar
manifestations might have developed independently in each region.
Neolithic man was succeeded by men of the ages of the metals,--copper,
bronze, and iron. The age of iron, at least, coincided with the entry
into Spain of peoples who come within the sphere of recorded history. As
early as the bronze age a great mixture of races had taken place in
Spain, although the brachycephalic successors of the Cromagnon race were
perhaps the principal type. These were succeeded by a people who
probably arrived in pre-historic times, but later than the other races
of those ages--that dolichocephalic group to which has been applied the
name Iberians. They were the dominating people at the time of the
arrival of the Phœnicians and Greeks.
[Sidenote: The Iberians.]
The early Spanish peoples left no literature which has survived,
wherefore dependence has to be placed on foreign writers. No writings
prior to the sixth century B.C. which refer to the Iberian Peninsula are
extant, and those of that and the next two centuries are too meagre to
throw much light on the history or the peoples of the land. These
accounts were mainly those of Greeks, with also some from Carthaginians.
In the first two centuries B.C. and in the first and succeeding
centuries of the Christian era there were more complete accounts, based
in part on earlier writings which are no longer available. One of the
problems resulting from the paucity of early evidences is that of the
determination of Iberian origins. Some hold that the name Iberian should
not have an extensive application, asserting that it belongs only to the
region of the Ebro (_Iberus_), the name of which river was utilized by
the Greek, Scylax, of the sixth century B.C., in order to designate the
tribes of that vicinity. Most writers use the term Iberians, however, as
a general one for the peoples in Spain at the dawn of recorded history,
maintaining that they were akin to the ancient Chaldeans and Assyrians,
who came from Asia into northern Africa, stopping perhaps to have a
share in the origin of the Egyptian people, and entering Spain from the
south. According to some authors the modern Basques of northern Spain
and the Berbers of northern Africa are descendants of the same people,
although there are others who do not agree with this opinion. Some
investigators have gone so far as to assert the existence of a great
Iberian Empire, extending through northern Africa, Spain, southern
France, northern Italy, Corsica, Sicily, and perhaps other lands. This
empire, they say, was founded in the fifteenth century B.C., and fought
with the Egyptians and Phœnicians for supremacy in the Mediterranean,
in alliance, perhaps, with the Hittites of Asia Minor, but was defeated,
and fell apart in the twelfth or eleventh century B.C., at which time
the Phœnicians entered Spain.
[Sidenote: The Celtic invasion.]
The origin of the Celts is more certain. Unlike the Iberians they were
of Indo-European race. In the third century B.C. they occupied a
territory embracing the greater part of the lands from the modern Balkan
states through northern Italy and France, with extremities in Britain
and Spain. They entered the peninsula possibly as early as the sixth
century B.C., but certainly not later than the fourth, coming by way of
the Pyrenees. It is generally held that they dominated the northwest and
west, the regions of modern Galicia and Portugal, leaving the Pyrenees,
eastern Spain, and part of the south in full possession of the Iberians.
In the centre and along the northern and southern coasts the two races
mingled to form the Celtiberians, in which the Iberian element was the
more important. These names were not maintained very strictly; rather,
the ancient writers were wont to employ group names of smaller
sub-divisions for these peoples, such as Cantabrians, Turdetanians, and
Lusitanians.
[Sidenote: Celtiberian civilization.]
It is not yet possible to distinguish clearly between Iberian and Celtic
civilization; in any event it must be remembered that primitive
civilizations resemble one another very greatly in their essentials.
There was certainly no united Iberian or Celtic nation within historic
times; rather, these peoples lived in small groups which were
independent and which rarely communicated with one another except for
the commerce and wars of neighboring tribes. For purposes of war tribal
bodies federated to form a larger union and the names of these
confederations are those which appear most frequently in contemporary
literature. The Lusitanians, for example, were a federation of thirty
tribes, and the Galicians of forty. The social and political
organization of these peoples was so similar to others in their stage of
culture, the world over, that it need only be indicated briefly. The
unit was the gens, made up of a number of families, forming an
independent whole and bound together through having the same gods and
the same religious practices and by a real or feigned blood
relationship. Various gentes united to form a larger unit, the tribe,
which was bound by the same ties of religion and blood, although they
were less clearly defined. Tribes in turn united, though only
temporarily and for military purposes, and the great confederations were
the result. In each unit from gens to confederation there was a chief,
or monarch, and deliberative assemblies, sometimes aristocratic, and
sometimes elective. The institutions of slavery, serfdom, and personal
property existed. Nevertheless, in some tribes property was owned in
common, and there is reason to believe that this practice was quite
extensive. In some respects the tribes varied considerably as regards
the stage of culture to which they had attained. Those of the fertile
Andalusian country were not only far advanced in agriculture, industry,
and commerce, but they also had a literature, which was said to be six
thousand years old. This has all been lost, but inscriptions of these
and other tribes have survived, although they have yet to be translated.
On the other hand the peoples of the centre, west, and north were in a
rude state; the Lusitanians of Portugal stood out from the rest in
warlike character. Speaking generally, ancient writers ascribed to the
Spanish peoples physical endurance, heroic valor, fidelity (even to the
point of death), love of liberty, and lack of discipline as salient
traits.
[Sidenote: The Phœnicians in Spain.]
The first historic people to establish relations with the Iberian
Peninsula were the Phœnicians. Centuries before, they had formed a
confederation of cities in their land, whence they proceeded to
establish commercial relations with the Mediterranean world. The
traditional date for their entry into Spain is the eleventh century,
when they are believed to have conquered Cádiz. Later they occupied
posts around nearly all of Spain, going even as far as Galicia in the
northwest. They exploited the mineral wealth of the peninsula, and
engaged in commerce, using a system not unlike that of the British
factories of the eighteenth century in India in their dealings with the
natives. Their settlements were at the same time a market and a fort,
located usually on an island or on an easily defensible promontory,
though near a native town. Many of these Phœnician factories have
been identified,--among others, those of Seville, Málaga, Algeciras, and
the island of Ibiza, as well as Cádiz, which continued to be the most
important centre. These establishments were in some cases bound
politically to the mother land, but in others they were private
ventures. In either case they were bound by ties of religion and
religious tribute to the cities of Phœnicia. To the Phœnicians is
due the modern name of the greater part of the peninsula. They called it
“Span,” or “Spania,” meaning “hidden (or remote) land.” In course of
time they were able to extend their domination inland, introducing
important modifications in the life of the Iberian tribes, if only
through the articles of commerce they brought.
[Sidenote: The Carthaginian conquest.]
The conquest of Phœnicia by the kings of Assyria and Chaldea had an
effect on far-away Spain. The Phœnician settlements of the peninsula
became independent, but they began to have ever more extensive relations
with the great Phœnician colony of Carthage on the North African
coast. This city is believed to have acquired the island of Ibiza in
much earlier times, but it was not until the sixth century B.C. that the
Carthaginians entered Spain in force. At that time the people of Cádiz
are said to have been engaged in a dangerous war with certain native
tribes, wherefore they invited the Carthaginians to help them. The
latter came, and, as has so often occurred in history, took over for
themselves the land which they had entered as allies.
[Sidenote: The Greeks in Spain.]
Meanwhile, the Greeks had already been in Spain for some years.
Tradition places the first Greek voyage to the Spanish coast in the year
630 B.C. Thereafter there were commercial voyages by the Greeks to the
peninsula, followed in time by the founding of settlements. The
principal colonizers were the Phocians, proceeding from their base at
Marseilles, where they had established themselves in the seventh century
B.C. Their chief post in Spain was at Emporium (on the site of Castellón
de Ampurias, in the province of Gerona, Catalonia), and they also had
important colonies as far south as the Valencian coast and yet others in
Andalusia, Portugal, Galicia, and Asturias. Their advance was resisted
by the Phœnicians and their Carthaginian successors, who were able to
confine the Greeks to the upper part of the eastern coast as the
principal field of their operations. The Greek colonies were usually
private ventures, bound to the city-states from which they had proceeded
by ties of religion and affection alone. They were also independent of
one another. Their manner of entry resembled that already described in
the case of the Phœnicians, for they went first to the islands near
the coast, and thence to the mainland, where at length they joined with
native towns, although having a separate, walled-off district of their
own,--comparable to the situation at the present day in certain ports of
European nations on the coast of China. Once masters of the coast the
Greeks were able to penetrate inland and to introduce Greek goods and
Greek influences over a broad area of the peninsula. To them is
attributed the introduction of the vine and the olive, which ever since
have been an important factor in the economic history of Spain.
[Sidenote: Spain under the Barcas.]
The principal objects of the Carthaginians in Spain were to develop the
rich silver mines of the land and to engage in commerce. In furtherance
of these aims they established a rigorous military system, putting
garrisons in the cities, and insisting on tribute in both soldiers and
money. In other respects they left both the Phœnician colonies and
the native tribes in full enjoyment of their laws and customs, but
founded cities of their own on the model of Carthage. They did not
attempt a thorough conquest of the peninsula until their difficulties
with the rising power of Rome pointed out its desirability. In the
middle of the third century B.C., Carthage, which had long been the
leading power in the western Mediterranean, came into conflict with Rome
in the First Punic War. As a result of this war, which ended in 242
B.C., Rome took the place of Carthage in Sicily. It was then that
Hamilcar of the great Barca family of Carthage suggested the more
thorough occupation of Spain as a counterpoise to the Roman acquisition
of Sicily, in the hope that Carthage might eventually engage with
success in a new war with Rome. He at length entered Spain with a
Carthaginian army in 236 B.C., having also been granted political powers
which were so ample that he became practically independent of direction
from Carthage. The conquest was not easy, for while many tribes joined
with him, others offered a bitter resistance. Hamilcar achieved vast
conquests, built many forts, and is traditionally supposed to have
founded the city of Barcelona, which bears his family name. He died in
battle, and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal
followed a policy of conciliation and peace, encouraging his soldiers to
marry Iberian women, and himself wedding a Spanish princess. He made his
capital at Cartagena, building virtually a new city on the site of an
older one. This was the principal military and commercial centre in
Spain during the remainder of Carthaginian rule. There the Barcas
erected great public buildings and palaces, and ruled the country like
kings. Hasdrubal was at length assassinated, leaving his command to
Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar. Though less than thirty years of age
Hannibal was already an experienced soldier and was also an ardent
Carthaginian patriot, bitterly hostile to Rome. The time now seemed ripe
for the realization of the ambitions of Hamilcar.
[Sidenote: Siege of Saguntum.]
In order to check the Carthaginian advance the Romans had long since put
themselves forward as protectors of the Greek colonies of Spain. Whether
Saguntum was included in the treaties they had made or whether it was a
Greek city at all is doubted today, but when Hannibal got into a
dispute with that city and attacked it Rome claimed that this violated
the treaty which had been made by Hasdrubal. It was in the year 219 B.C.
that Hannibal laid siege to Saguntum. The Saguntines defended their city
with a heroic valor which Spaniards have many times manifested under
like circumstances. When resistance seemed hopeless they endeavored to
destroy their wealth and take their own lives. Nevertheless, Hannibal
contrived to capture many prisoners, who were given to his soldiers as
slaves, and to get a vast booty, part of which he forwarded to Carthage.
This arrived when the Carthaginians were discussing the question of
Saguntum with a Roman embassy, and, coupled with patriotic pride, it
caused them to sustain Hannibal and to declare war on Rome in the year
218 B.C.
[Sidenote: Expulsion of the Carthaginians by the Romans.]
Hannibal had already organized a great army of over 100,000 men, in
great part Spanish troops, and had started by the land route for Italy.
His brilliant achievements in Italy, reflecting, though they do, not a
little glory on Spain, belong rather to the history of Rome. The Romans
had hoped to detain him in Spain, and had sent Gnæus Scipio to
accomplish this end. When he arrived in Spain he found that Hannibal had
already gone. He remained, however, and with the aid of another army
under his brother, Publius Cornelius Scipio, was able to overrun a great
part of Catalonia and Valencia. In this campaign the natives followed
their traditional practice of allying, some with one side, others with
the other. Hannibal’s brother Hasdrubal was at length able to turn the
tide, defeating the two Scipios in 211 B.C. He then proceeded to the aid
of Hannibal in Italy, but his defeat at the battle of the Metaurus was a
deathblow to Carthage in the war against Rome. The Romans, meanwhile,
renewed the war in Spain, where the youthful Publius Cornelius Scipio,
son of the Scipio of the same name who had been killed in Spain, had
been placed in command. By reckless daring and good fortune rather than
by military skill Scipio won several battles and captured the great city
of Cartagena. He ingratiated himself with native tribes by promises to
restore their liberty and by several generous acts calculated to please
them,--as, for example, his return of a native girl who had been given
to him, on learning that she was on the point of being married to a
native prince. These practices helped him to win victory after victory,
despite several instances of desperate resistance, until at length in
206 B.C. the Carthaginians abandoned the peninsula. It was this same
Scipio who later defeated Hannibal at Zama, near Carthage, in 202 B.C.,
whereby he brought the war to an end and gained for himself the surname
Africanus.
[Sidenote: Results of Carthaginian occupation.]
The Carthaginians had been in Spain for over two hundred years, and, as
was natural, had influenced the customs of the natives. Nevertheless,
their rule was rather a continuation, on a grander scale, of the
Phœnician civilization. From the standpoint of race, too, they and
their Berber and Numidian allies, who entered with them, were perhaps of
the same blood as the primitive Iberians. They had developed far beyond
them, however, and their example assisted the native tribesmen to attain
to a higher culture than had hitherto been acquired. If Rome was to
mould Spanish civilization, it must not be forgotten that the
Phœnicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians had already prepared the way.