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[Illustration: MAP OF SPAIN AND PORTUGAL
COMPILED BY CHARLES E. CHAPMAN]
A HISTORY OF SPAIN
[Illustration: colophon]
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS
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MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA
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THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
TORONTO
A HISTORY OF SPAIN
FOUNDED ON THE
_HISTORIA DE ESPAÑA Y DE LA CIVILIZACIÓN ESPAÑOLA_
OF RAFAEL ALTAMIRA
BY
CHARLES E. CHAPMAN, PH.D.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HISTORY
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1918
_All rights reserved_
COPYRIGHT, 1918,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1918.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
TO MY SON
SEVILLE DUDLEY CHAPMAN
BORN IN THE CITY WHOSE NAME
HE BEARS
PREFACE
The present work is an attempt to give in one volume the main features
of Spanish history from the standpoint of America. It should serve
almost equally well for residents of both the English-speaking and the
Spanish American countries, since the underlying idea has been that
Americans generally are concerned with the growth of that Spanish
civilization which was transmitted to the new world. One of the chief
factors in American life today is that of the relations between
Anglo-Saxon and Hispanic America. They are becoming increasingly
important. The southern republics themselves are forging ahead; on the
other hand many of them are still dangerously weak, leaving possible
openings for the not unwilling old world powers; and some of the richest
prospective markets of the globe are in those as yet scantily developed
lands. The value of a better understanding between the peoples of the
two Americas, both for the reasons just named and for many others,
scarcely calls for argument. It is almost equally clear that one of the
essentials to such an understanding is a comprehension of Spanish
civilization, on which that of the Spanish American peoples so largely
depends. That information this volume aims to provide. It confines
itself to the story of the growth of Spanish civilization in Spain, but
its ultimate transfer to the Americas has been constantly in the
writer’s mind in the choice of his material, as will appear from the
frequent allusions in the text. An attempt is made to treat Spanish
institutions not as static (which they never were) but in process of
evolution, from period to period. The development of Spanish
institutions in the colonies and the later independent states, it is
hoped, will be the subject of another volume. Neither story has ever
been presented according to the present plan to the American public.
Emphasis here has been placed on the growth of the civilization, or
institutions, of Spain rather than on the narrative of political events.
The latter appears primarily as a peg on which to hang the former. The
volume is topically arranged, so that one may select those phases of
development which interest him. Thus one may confine himself to the
narrative, or to any one of the institutional topics, social, political,
religious, economic, or intellectual. Indeed, the division may be
carried even further, so that one may single out institutions within
institutions. As regards proportions the principal weight is given to
the periods from 1252 to 1808, with over half of the volume devoted to
the years 1479 to 1808. The three centuries from the sixteenth to the
nineteenth are singled out for emphasis, not only because they were the
years of the transmission of Spanish civilization to the Americas, but
also because the great body of the Spanish institutions which affected
the colonies did so in the form they acquired at that time. To treat
Spain’s gift to Spanish America as complete by the year 1492 is as
incorrect as to say that the English background of United States history
is necessary only to the year 1497, when John Cabot sailed along the
North American coast, or certainly not later than 1607, when Jamestown
was founded. In accord with the primary aim of this work the place of
Spain in general European history is given relatively little space. The
recital of minor events and the introduction of the names of
inconsequential or slightly important persons have been avoided, except
in some cases where an enumeration has been made for purposes of
illustration or emphasis. For these reasons, together with the fact that
the whole account is compressed into a single volume, it is hoped that
the book may serve as a class-room text as well as a useful compendium
for the general reader.
The writer has been fortunate in that there exists a monumental work in
Spanish containing the type of materials which he has wished to present.
This is the _Historia de España y de la civilización española_, which
has won a world-wide reputation for its author, Rafael Altamira y
Crevea.[1] Indeed, the present writer makes little claim to originality,
since for the period down to 1808 he has relied almost wholly on
Altamira. Nevertheless, he has made, not a summary, but rather a
selection from the _Historia_ (which is some five times the length of
this volume) of such materials as were appropriate to his point of view.
The chapter on the reign of Charles III has been based largely on the
writer’s own account of the diplomacy of that monarch, which lays
special emphasis on the relation of Spain to the American Revolution.[2]
For the chapter dealing with Spain in the nineteenth century the volumes
of the _Cambridge modern history_ have been used, together with those on
modern Spain by Hume and Butler Clarke. The last chapter, dealing with
present-day Spain, is mainly the result of the writer’s observations
during a two years’ residence in that country, 1912 to 1914. In the
course of his stay he visited every part of the peninsula, but spent
most of his time in Seville, wherefore it is quite possible that his
views may have an Andalusian tinge.
In the spelling of proper names the English form has been adopted if it
is of well-established usage. The founder of the Carlists and Carlism,
however, is retained as “Don Carlos” for obvious reasons of euphony. In
all other cases the Spanish has been preferred. The phrase “the
Americas” is often used as a general term for Spain’s overseas colonies.
It may therefore include the Philippines sometimes. The term “Moslems”
has been employed for the Mohammedan invaders of Spain. The word “Moors”
has been avoided, because it is historically inaccurate as a general
term for all the invaders; the Almohades, or Moors, were a branch of the
Berber family, and other Moslem peoples had preceded them in Spain by
upwards of four hundred years. Their influence both as regards culture
and racial traits was far less than that of the Arabs, who were the most
important of the conquering races, and this fact, together with their
late arrival, should militate against the application of their name to
the whole era of Moslem Spain. All of these alien peoples were
Mohammedans, which would seem to justify the use of the word “Moslems.”
The word “lords” in some cases indicates ecclesiastics as well as
nobles. “Town” has been employed generally for “_villa_,” “_concejo_,”
“_pueblo_,” “_aldea_,” and “_ciudad_,” except when special attention has
been drawn to the different types of municipalities. Spanish
institutional terms have been translated or explained at their first
use. They also appear in the index.
As on previous occasions, so now, the writer finds himself under
obligations to his colleagues in the Department of History of the
University of California. Professor Stephens has read much of this
manuscript and has made helpful suggestions as to content and style.
Professors Bolton and Priestley and Doctor Hackett, of the “Bancroft
Library group,” have displayed a spirit of coöperation which the writer
greatly appreciates. Professor Jaén of the Department of Romance
Languages gave an invaluable criticism of the chapter on contemporary
Spain. Señor Jesús Yanguas, the Sevillian architect, furnished the lists
of men of letters and artists appearing in that chapter. Professor
Shepherd of Columbia University kindly consented to allow certain of the
maps appearing in his _Historical atlas_ to be copied here. Doctors R.
G. Cleland, C. L. Goodwin, F. S. Philbrick, and J. A. Robertson have
aided me with much valued criticisms. The writer is also grateful to his
pupils, the Misses Bepler and Juda, for assistance rendered.
CHARLES E. CHAPMAN.
BERKELEY, January 5, 1918.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
PREFACE vii
INTRODUCTION BY RAFAEL ALTAMIRA xiii
I. THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY ON THE HISTORY OF SPAIN 1
II. THE EARLY PEOPLES, TO 206 B.C. 6
III. ROMAN SPAIN, 206 B.C.-409 A.D. 15
IV. VISIGOTHIC SPAIN, 409-713 26
V. MOSLEM SPAIN, 711-1031 38
VI. CHRISTIAN SPAIN IN THE MOSLEM PERIOD, 711-1035 53
VII. ERA OF THE SPANISH CRUSADES, 1031-1276 67
VIII. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION IN SPAIN, 1031-1276 84
IX. MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN SPAIN, 1031-1276 102
X. DEVELOPMENT TOWARD NATIONAL UNITY: CASTILE, 1252-1479 111
XI. DEVELOPMENT TOWARD NATIONAL UNITY: ARAGON, 1276-1479 125
XII. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION IN SPAIN, 1252-1479 137
XIII. THE CASTILIAN STATE, 1252-1479 151
XIV. THE ARAGONESE STATE, 1276-1479 166
XV. ECONOMIC ORGANIZATION IN SPAIN, 1252-1479 174
XVI. INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN SPAIN, 1252-1479 180
XVII. INSTITUTIONS OF OUTLYING HISPANIC STATES, 1252-1479 192
XVIII. ERA OF THE CATHOLIC KINGS, 1479-1517 202
XIX. SOCIAL REFORMS, 1479-1517 210
XX. POLITICAL REFORMS, 1479-1517 219
XXI. MATERIAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS, 1479-1517 228
XXII. CHARLES I OF SPAIN, 1516-1556 234
XXIII. THE REIGN OF PHILIP II, 1556-1598 246
XXIV. A CENTURY OF DECLINE, 1598-1700 258
XXV. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENTS, 1516-1700 272
XXVI. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, 1516-1700 287
XXVII. RELIGION AND THE CHURCH, 1516-1700 303
XXVIII. ECONOMIC FACTORS, 1516-1700 324
XXIX. THE GOLDEN AGE: EDUCATION, PHILOSOPHY,
HISTORY, AND SCIENCE, 1516-1700. 338
XXX. THE GOLDEN AGE: LITERATURE AND ART, 1516-1700 351
XXXI. THE EARLY BOURBONS, 1700-1759 368
XXXII. CHARLES III AND ENGLAND, 1759-1788 383
XXXIII. CHARLES IV AND FRANCE, 1788-1808 399
XXXIV. SPANISH SOCIETY, 1700-1808 411
XXXV. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS, 1700-1808 425
XXXVI. STATE AND CHURCH, 1700-1808 443
XXXVII. ECONOMIC REFORMS, 1700-1808 458
XXXVIII. INTELLECTUAL ACTIVITIES, 1700-1808 471
XXXIX. THE GROWTH OF LIBERALISM, 1808-1898 488
XL. THE DAWN OF A NEW DAY, 1898-1917 508
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 527
INDEX 541
MAPS
GENERAL REFERENCE MAP _Frontispiece_
DEVELOPMENT TOWARD NATIONAL UNITY, 910-1492 67
INTRODUCTION
The fact that this book is in great part a summary, or selection, from
one of mine, as is stated in the Preface, makes it almost a duty for me
to do what would in any event be a great pleasure in the case of a work
by Professor Chapman. I refer to the duty of writing a few paragraphs by
way of introduction. But, at the same time, this circumstance causes a
certain conflict of feelings in me, since no one, unless it be a pedant,
can act so freely in self-criticism as he would if he were dealing with
the work of another. Fortunately, Professor Chapman has incorporated
much of his own harvest in this volume, and to that I may refer with
entire lack of embarrassment.
Obviously, the plan and the labor of condensing all of the material for
a history of Spain constitute in themselves a commendable achievement.
In fact, there does not exist in any language of the world today a
compendium of the history of Spain reduced to one volume which is able
to satisfy all of the exigencies of the public at large and the needs of
teaching, without an excess of reading and of labor. None of the
histories of my country written in English, German, French, or Italian
in the nineteenth century can be unqualifiedly recommended. Some, such
as that by Hume, entitled _The Spanish people_, display excellent
attributes, but these are accompanied by omissions to which modern
historiography can no longer consent. As a general rule these histories
are altogether too political in character. At other times they offend
from an excess of bookish erudition and from a lack of a personal
impression of what our people are, as well as from a failure to narrate
their story in an interesting way, or indeed, they perpetuate errors and
legends, long since discredited, with respect to our past and present
life. We have some one-volume histories of Spain in Castilian which are
to be recommended for the needs of our own secondary schools, but not
for those of a foreign country, whose students require another manner of
presentation of our history, for they have to apply an interrogatory
ideal which is different from ours in their investigation of the deeds
of another people,--all the more so if that people, like the Spanish,
has mingled in the life of nearly the whole world and been the victim of
the calumnies and fanciful whims of historians, politicians, and
travellers.
For all of these reasons the work of condensation by Professor Chapman
constitutes an important service in itself for the English-speaking
public, for it gives in one volume the most substantial features of our
history from primitive times to the present moment. Furthermore, there
are chapters in his work which belong entirely to him: XXXII, XXXIX, and
XL. The reason for departing from my text in Chapter XXXII is given by
Professor Chapman in the Preface. As for the other two he was under the
unavoidable necessity of constructing them himself. His, for me, very
flattering method of procedure, possible down to the year 1808, if
indeed it might find a basis for continuation in a chapter of mine in
the _Cambridge modern history_ (v. X), in my lectures on the history of
Spain in the nineteenth century (given at the Ateneo of Madrid, some
years ago), in the little manual of the _Historia de la civilización
española_ (History of Spanish civilization) which goes to the year 1898,
and even in the second part of a recent work, _España y el programa
americanista_ (Spain and the Americanist program), published at Madrid
in 1917, nevertheless could not avail itself of a single text, a
continuous, systematized account, comprehensive of all the aspects of
our national life as in the case of the periods prior to 1808. Moreover,
it is better that the chapters referring to the nineteenth century and
the present time should be written by a foreign pen, whose master in
this instance, as a result of his having lived in Spain, is able to
contribute that personal impression of which I have spoken before, an
element which if it is at times deceiving in part, through the influence
of a too local or regional point of view, is always worth more than
that understanding which proceeds only from erudite sources.
I would not be able to say, without failing in sincerity (and therefore
in the first duty of historiography), that I share in and subscribe to
all the conclusions and generalizations of Professor Chapman about the
contemporary history and present condition of Spain. At times my dissent
would not be more than one of the mere shade of meaning, perhaps from
the form of expression, given to an act which, according as it is
presented, is, or is not, exact. But in general I believe that Professor
Chapman sees modern Spain correctly, and does us justice in many things
in which it is not frequent that we are accorded that consideration.
This alone would indeed be a great merit in our eyes and would deserve
our applause. The English-speaking public will have a guarantee, through
this work, of being able to contemplate a quite faithful portrait of
Spain, instead of a caricature drawn in ignorance of the facts or in bad
faith. With this noble example of historiographical calm, Professor
Chapman amply sustains one of the most sympathetic notes which, with
relation to the work of Spain in America, has for some years been
characteristic, that which we should indeed call the school of North
American historians.
RAFAEL ALTAMIRA.
February, 1918.
A HISTORY OF SPAIN
CHAPTER I
THE INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHY ON THE HISTORY OF SPAIN
[Sidenote: Isolation of the Iberian Peninsula.]
The Iberian Peninsula, embracing the modern states of Spain and
Portugal, is entirely surrounded by the waters of the Mediterranean Sea
and the Atlantic Ocean, except for a strip in the north a little less
than three hundred miles in length, which touches the southern border of
France. Even at that point Spain is almost completely shut off from the
rest of Europe, because of the high range of the Pyrenees Mountains.
Portugal, although an independent state and set apart to a certain
extent by a mountainous boundary, cannot be said to be geographically
distinct from Spain. Indeed, many regions in Spain are quite as separate
from each other as is Portugal from the Spanish lands she borders upon.
Until the late medieval period, too, the history of Portugal was in the
same current as that of the peninsula as a whole.
[Sidenote: Mountains and plateaus.]
The greatest average elevation in Spain is found in the centre, in
Castile and Extremadura, whence there is a descent, by great steps as it
were, to the east and to the west. On the eastern side the descent is
short and rapid to the Mediterranean Sea. On the west, the land falls by
longer and more gradual slopes to the Atlantic Ocean, so that central
Spain may be said to look geographically toward the west. There is an
even more gentle decline from the base of the Pyrenees to the valley of
the Guadalquivir, although it is interrupted by plateaus which rise
above the general level. All of these gradients are modified greatly by
the mountain ranges within the peninsula. The Pyrenean range not only
separates France from Spain, but also continues westward under the name
Cantabrian Mountains for an even greater distance along the northern
coast of the latter country, leaving but little lowland space along the
sea, until it reaches Galicia in the extreme northwest. Here it expands
until it covers an area embracing northern Portugal as well. At about
the point where the Pyrenees proper and the Cantabrian Mountains come
together the Iberian, or Celtiberian, range, a series of isolated
mountains for the most part, breaks off to the southeast until near the
Mediterranean, when it curves to the west, merging with the Penibética
range (better known as the Sierra Nevada Mountains, the name of that
part of the range lying south of the city of Granada), which moves
westward near the southern coast to end in the cape of Tarifa.
[Sidenote: Geographical divisions of the peninsula.]
These mountains divide the peninsula into four regions: the narrow
littoral on the northern coast; Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, and
most of La Mancha, looking toward the Mediterranean; Almería, Málaga,
and part of Granada and Cádiz in the south of Spain; and the vast region
comprising the rest of the peninsula. The last-named is subdivided into
four principal regions of importance historically. The Carpetana, or
Carpeto-Vetónica, range in the north (more often called the Guadarrama
Mountains) separates Old Castile from New Castile and Extremadura to the
south, and continues into Portugal. The Oretana range crosses the
provinces of Cuenca, Toledo, Ciudad Real, Cáceres, and Badajoz, also
terminating in Portugal. Finally, the Mariánica range (more popularly
known as the Sierra Morena) forms the boundary of Castile and
Extremadura with Andalusia. Each of the four sub-divisions has a great
river valley, these being respectively, from north to south, the Douro,
Tagus, Guadiana, and Guadalquivir. Various other sub-sections might be
named, but only one is of prime importance,--the valley of the Ebro in
Aragon and Catalonia, lying between the Pyrenees and an eastward branch
of the Iberian range. Within these regions, embracing parts of several
of them, there is another that is especially noteworthy,--that of the
vast table-land of central Spain between the Ebro and the Guadalquivir.
This is an elevated region, difficult of access from all of the
surrounding lands. Geologists have considered it the “permanent nucleus”
of the peninsula. It is in turn divided into two table-lands of unequal
height by the great Carpeto-Vetónica range. The long coast line of the
peninsula, about 2500 miles in length, has also been a factor of no
small importance historically. Despite the length of her border along
the sea, Spain has, next to Switzerland, the greatest average elevation
of any country in Europe, so high are her mountains and table-lands.
[Sidenote: Disadvantageous effects of geography.]
These geographical conditions have had important consequences
climatically and economically and especially historically. The altitude
and irregularity of the land have produced widely separated extremes of
temperature, although as a general rule a happy medium is maintained. To
geographical causes, also, are due the alternating seasons of rain and
drought in most of Spain, especially in Castile, Valencia, and
Andalusia, which have to contend, too, with the disadvantages of a
smaller annual rainfall than is the lot of most other parts of Europe
and with the torrential rains which break the season of drought. When it
rains, the water descends in such quantity and with such rapidity from
the mountains to the sea that the river beds are often unable to contain
it, and dangerous floods result. Furthermore, the sharpness of the slope
makes it difficult to utilize these rivers for irrigation or navigation,
so swift is the current, and so rapidly do the rivers spend themselves.
Finally, the rain is not evenly distributed, and some regions,
especially the high plateau country of Castile and La Mancha, are
particularly dry and are difficult of cultivation.
[Sidenote: Beneficial effects.]
On the other hand the geographical conditions of the peninsula have
produced distinct benefits to counterbalance the disadvantages. The
coastal plains are often very fertile. Especially is this true of the
east and south, where the vine and the olive, oranges, rice, and other
fruits and vegetables are among the best in the world. The northern
coast is of slight value agriculturally, but, thanks to a rainfall
which is constant and greater than necessary, is rich pastorally. Here,
too, there is a very agreeable climate, due in large measure to a
favoring ocean current, which has also been influential in producing the
forests in a part of Galicia. These factors have made the northern coast
a favorite summer resort for Spaniards and, indeed, for many other
Europeans. The mountains in all parts of the peninsula have proved to
contain a mineral wealth which many centuries of mining have been unable
to exhaust. Some gold and more silver have been found, but metals of use
industrially--such, for example, as copper--have been the most abundant.
The very difficulties which Spaniards have had to overcome helped to
develop virile traits which have made their civilization of more force
in the world than might have been expected from a country of such scant
wealth and population.[3]
[Sidenote: Geographical isolation the cause of Spanish individuality.]
The most marked result of these natural conditions has been the
isolation, not only of Spain from the rest of the world, but also of the
different regions of Spain from one another. Spaniards have therefore
developed the conservative clinging to their own institutions and the
individuality of an island people. While this has retarded their
development into a nation, it has held secure the advances made and has
vitalized Spanish civilization. For centuries the most isolated parts
were also the most backward, this being especially true of Castile,
whereas the more inviting and more easily invaded south and east coasts
were the most susceptible to foreign influence and the most advanced
intellectually as well as economically. When at length the centre
accepted the civilization of the east and south, and by reason of its
virility was able to dominate them, it imposed its law, its customs,
and its conservatism upon them, and reached across the seas to the
Americas, where a handful of men were able to leave an imperishable
legacy of Spanish civilization to a great part of two continents.
[Sidenote: Events traceable to geographic conditions.]
Specific facts in Spanish history can also be traced very largely to the
effects of geography. The mineral wealth of the peninsula has attracted
foreign peoples throughout recorded history, and the fertility of the
south and east has also been a potent inducement to an invasion, whether
of armies or of capital. The physical features of the peninsula helped
these peoples to preserve their racial characteristics, with the result
that Spain presents an unusual variety in traits and customs. The fact
that the valley of the Guadalquivir descends to the sea before reaching
the eastern line of the Portuguese boundary had an influence in bringing
about the independence of Portugal,--for while Castile still had to
combat the Moslem states Portugal could turn her energies inward.
Nevertheless, one must not think that geography has been the only or
even the controlling factor in the life and events of the Iberian
Peninsula. Others have been equally or more important,--such as those of
race and, especially, the vast group of circumstances involving the
relations of men and of states which may be given the collective name of
history.