Rhætia, and Pannonia by the rivers Rhine and Danube; from Sarmatia and
Dacia by mutual fear, or by high mountains; the rest is encompassed by
the ocean, which forms vast bays and contains many large islands. The
Rhine, rising from a rocky summit in the Rhætian Alps, winds westward,
and is lost in the northern ocean. The Danube, issuing from Mount
Abnoba, traverses several countries and finally falls into the Euxine.
I believe that the population is indigenous to Germany, and that the
nation is free from foreign admixture. They affirm Germany to be a
recent word, lately bestowed on those who first passed the Rhine and
repulsed the Gauls. From one tribe the whole nation has thus been
named. They cherish a tradition that Hercules had been in their
country, and him they extol in their battle songs. Some are of opinion
that Ulysses also, during his long wanderings, was carried into this
ocean and entered Germany, and that he founded the city Asciburgium,
which stands at this day upon the bank of the Rhine. Such traditions I
purpose myself neither to confirm nor to refute; but I agree with those
who maintain that the Germans have never intermingled by marriages with
other nations, but have remained a pure, independent people, resembling
none but themselves.
With whatever differences in various districts, their territory mainly
consists of gloomy forests or insalubrious marshes, lower and more
humid towards Gaul, more hilly and bleak towards Noricum and Pannonia.
The soil is suited to the production of grain, but less so for the
cultivation of fruits. Flocks and herds abound, but the cattle are
somewhat small. Their herds are their most valued possessions. Silver
and gold the gods have denied them, whether in mercy or in wrath I
cannot determine. Nor is iron plentiful with them, as may be judged
from their weapons. Swords or long spears they rarely use, for they
fight chiefly with javelins and shields. Their strength lies mainly in
their foot, and such is the swiftness of the infantry that it can suit
and match the motions and engagements of the cavalry.
Generals are chosen for their courage, kings are elected through
distinction of race. The power of the rulers is not unlimited or
arbitrary, and the generals secure obedience mainly by force of the
example of their own enterprise and bravery.
Therefore, when going on a campaign, they carry with them sacred images
taken from the sacred groves. It is their custom also to flock to the
field of war not merely in battalions, but with whole families and
tribes of relations. Thus, close to the scene of conflict are lodged
the most cherished pledges of nature, and the cries of wives and
infants are heard mingling with the echoes of battle. Their wounds
and injuries they carry to their mothers and wives, and the women
administer food and encouragement to their husbands and sons even while
these are engaged in fighting.
_II.--Customs of Government and War_
Mercury is the god most generally worshipped. To him at certain times
it is lawful to offer even human sacrifices. Hercules, Mars, and Isis
are also recognised as deities. From the majesty of celestial beings,
the Germans judge it to be unsuitable to hold their shrines within
walls, or to represent them under any human likeness. They therefore
consecrate whole woods and groves, and on these sylvan retreats they
bestow the names of the deities, thus beholding the divinities only in
contemplation and mental reverence.
Although the chiefs regulate affairs of minor import, the whole nation
deliberates concerning matters of higher consequence, the chiefs
afterwards discussing the public decision. The assemblies gather
leisurely, for sometimes many do not arrive for two or three days. The
priests enjoin silence, and on them is devolved the prerogative of
correction. The chiefs are heard according to precedence, or age, or
nobility, or warlike celebrity, or eloquence. Ability to persuade has
more influence than authority to command. Inarticulate murmurs express
displeasure at a proposition, pleasure is indicated by the brandishing
of javelins and the clashing of arms.
Punishments vary with the character of crime. Traitors and deserters
are hanged on trees; cowards, sluggards, and vicious women are
smothered in bogs. Fines, to be paid in horses or cattle, are exacted
for lighter offences, part of the mulct being awarded to the party
wronged, part to the chief.
The Germans transact no business without carrying arms, but no man
thus bears weapons till the community has tested his capacity to
wield them. When the public approval has been signified, the youth is
invested in the midst of the assembly by his father or other relative
with a shield and javelin.
Their chief distinction is to be constantly surrounded by a great
band of select young men, for their honour in peace and their help in
warfare.
In battle it is disgraceful to a chief to be surpassed in feats of
bravery, and it is an indelible reproach to his followers to return
alive from a conflict in which their prince has been slain. The chief
fights for victory, his followers fight for him. The Germans are so
restless that they cannot endure repose, and thus many of the young
men of rank, if their own tribe is tranquil, quit it for a community
which happens to be engaged in war. In place of pay the retainers are
supplied with daily repasts, grossly prepared, but always profuse.
_III.--Domestic Customs of the Germans_
Intervals of peace are not much devoted to the chase by the Germans,
but rather to indolence, to sleep, and to feasting. Many surrender
themselves entirely to sloth and gluttony, the cares of house, lands,
and possessions being left to the wives. It is an astonishing paradox
that in the same men should co-exist so much delight in idleness and so
great a repugnance to tranquil life.
The Germans do not dwell in cities, and endure no contiguity in their
abodes, inhabiting spots distinct and apart, just as they fancy,
a fountain, a grove, or a field. Their villages consist of houses
arranged in opposite rows, not joined together as are ours. Each is
detached, with space around, and mortar and tiles are unknown. Many, in
winter, retreat to holes dug in the ground, to which they convey their
grain.
The laws of matrimony are strictly observed, and polygamy is rarely
practised among the Germans. The dowry is not brought by the wife,
but by the husband. Conjugal infidelity is exceedingly rare, and is
instantly punished. In all families the children are reared without
clothing, and thus grow into those physical proportions which are so
wonderful to look upon. They are invariably suckled by their mothers,
never being entrusted to nursemaids. The young people do not hasten to
marry, and thus the robust vigour of the parents is inherited by their
offspring.
No nation was ever more noted for hospitality. It is esteemed inhuman
to refuse to admit to the home any stranger whatever. Every comer is
willingly received and generously feasted. Hosts and guests delight in
exchanging gifts. To continue drinking night and day is no reproach
to any man. Quarrels through inebriety are very frequent, and these
often result in injuries and in fatalities. But likewise, in these
convivial feasts they usually deliberate about effecting reconciliation
between those who are at enmity, and also about forming affinities, the
election of chiefs, and peace and war.
Slaves gained in gambling with dice are exchanged in commerce to
remove the shame of such victories. Of their other slaves each has a
dwelling of his own, his lord treating him like a tenant, exacting
from him an amount of grain, or cattle, or cloth. Thus their slaves
are not subservient as are ours. For they do not perform services in
the households of their masters, these duties falling to the wives and
children of the family. Slaves are rarely seen in chains or punished
with stripes, though in the heat of passion they may sometimes be
killed.
Usury and borrowing at interest are unknown. The families every year
shift on the spacious plains, cultivating fresh allotments of the
soil. Only corn is grown, for there is no inclination to expend toil
proportionate to the capacity of the lands by planting orchards, or
enclosing meadows, or watering gardens.
Their funerals are not ostentatious, neither apparel nor perfumes being
accumulated on the pile, though the arms of the deceased are thrown
into the fire. Little demonstration is made in weeping or wailing, but
the grief endures long. So much concerning the customs of the whole
German nation.
_IV.--Tribes of the West and North_
I shall now describe the institutions of the several tribes, as they
differ from one another, giving also an account of those who from
thence removed, migrating to Gaul. That the Gauls were more powerful
in former times is shown by that prince of authors, the deified Julius
Cæsar. Hence it is probable that they have passed into Germany.
The region between the Hercynian forest and the rivers Maine and Rhine
was occupied by the Helvetians, as was that beyond it by the Boians,
both Gallic tribes. The Treveri and Nervii fervently aspire to the
reputation of descent from the Germans, and the Vangiones, Triboci, and
Nemetes, all dwelling by the Rhine, are certainly all Germans. The Ubii
are ashamed of their origin and delight to be called Agrippinenses,
after the name of the founder of the Roman colony which they were
judged worthy of being constituted.
The Batavi are the bravest of all these nations. They inhabit a little
territory by the Rhine, but possess an island on it. Becoming willingly
part of the Roman empire, they are free from all impositions and pay no
tribute, but are reserved wholly for wars, precisely like a magazine of
weapons and armour. In the same position are the Mattiaci, living on
the opposite banks and enjoying a settlement and limits of their own,
while they are in spirit and inclination attached to us.
Beginning at the Hercynian forest are the Catti, a robust and vigorous
people, possessed also of much sense and ability. They are not only
singularly brave, but are more skilled in the true art of war than
other Germans.
Near the Catti were formerly dwelling the Bructeri, in whose stead are
now settled the Chamani and the Angrivarii, by whom the Bructeri were
expelled and almost exterminated, to the benefit of us Romans. May the
gods perpetuate among these nations their mutual hatred, since fortune
befriends our empire by sowing strife amongst our foes!
The country of the Frisii, facing that of the Angrivarii and the
Chamani, is divided into two sections, called the greater and the
lesser, which both extend along the Rhine to the ocean.
Hitherto I have been describing Germany towards the west. Northward it
stretches with an immense compass. The great tribe of the Chauci occupy
the whole region between the districts of the Frisii and of the Catti.
These Chauci are the noblest people of all the Germans. They prefer to
maintain their greatness by justice rather than by violence, seeking to
live in tranquillity, and to avoid quarrels with others.
By the side of the Chauci and the Catti dwell the Cherusci, a people
who have degenerated in both influence and character. Finding no
enemy to stimulate them, they were enfeebled by too lasting a peace,
and whereas they were formerly styled good and upright, they are now
called cowards and fools, having been subdued by the Catti. In the same
winding tract live the Cimbri, close to the sea, a tribe now small in
numbers but great in fame for many monuments of their old renown. It
was in the 610th year of Rome, Cæcilius Metellus and Papirius Carbo
being consuls, that the first mention was made of the arms of the
Cimbri. From that date to the second consulship of the Emperor Trajan
comprehends an interval of nearly 210 years; so long a period has our
conquest of Germany occupied. In so great an interval many have been
the disasters on both sides.
Indeed, not from the Samnites, or from the Carthaginians, or from the
people of Spain, or from all the tribes of Gaul, or even from the
Parthians, have we received more checks or encountered more alarms. For
the passion of the Germans for liberty is more indomitable than that of
the Arsacidæ. What has the power of the East to lay to our dishonour?
But the overthrow and abasement of Crassus, and the loss by the Romans
of five great armies, all commanded by consuls, have to be laid to the
account of the Germans. By the Germans, also, even the Emperor Augustus
was deprived of Varus and three legions.
Only with great difficulty and the loss of many men were the Germans
defeated by Caius Marius in Italy, or by the deified Julius Cæsar
in Gaul, or by Drusus, or Tiberius, or Germanicus in their native
territories. And next, the strenuous menaces of Caligula against these
foes ended in mockery and ridicule. Afterwards, for a season they were
quiet, till, tempted to take advantage of our domestic schisms and
civil wars, they stormed and seized the winter entrenchments of our
legions, and attempted the conquest of Gaul. Though they were once more
repulsed, our success was rather a triumph than an overwhelming victory.
_V.--The Great Nation of the Suevi_
Next I must refer to the Suevi, who are not, like the Catti, a
homogeneous people, but are divided into several tribes, all bearing
distinct names, although they likewise are called by the generic title
of Suevi. They occupy the larger part of Germany. From other Germans
they are distinguished by their peculiar fashion of twisting their
hair into a knot, this also marking the difference between the freemen
and their slaves. Of all the tribes of the Suevi, the Semnones esteem
themselves to be the most ancient and the noblest, their faith in
their antiquity being confirmed by the mysteries of their religion.
Annually in a sacred grove the deputies of each family clan assemble to
repeat the rites practised by their ancestors. The horrible ceremonies
commence with the sacrifice of a man. Their tradition is that at this
spot the nation originated, and that here the supreme deity resides.
The Semnones inhabit a hundred towns, and by their superior numbers and
authority dominate the rest of the Suevi.
On the contrary, the Langobardi are ennobled by the paucity of their
number, for, though surrounded by powerful tribes, they assert
their superiority by their valour and skill instead of displaying
obsequiousness. Next come the Reudigni, the Aviones, the Angli, the
Varini, the Eudoses, the Suardones and the Nuithones, all defended by
rivers or forests.
These are marked by no special characteristics, excepting the common
worship of the goddess Nerthum, or Mother Earth, of whom they believe
that she not only intervenes in human affairs, but also visits the
nations. In a certain island of the sea is a wood called Castum. Here
is kept a chariot sacred to the goddess, covered with a curtain, and
permitted to be touched only by her priest, who perceives her whenever
she enters the holy vehicle, and with deepest veneration attends the
motion of the chariot, which is always drawn by yoked cows. Till the
same priests re-conducts the goddess to her shrine, after she has grown
weary of intercourse with mortals, feasts and games are held with great
rejoicings, no arms are touched, and none go to war. Slaves wash the
chariot and curtains in a sacred lake, and, if you will believe it, the
goddess herself; and forthwith these unfortunate beings are doomed to
be swallowed up in the same lake.
This portion of the Suevian territory stretches to the centre of
Germany. Next adjoining is the district of the Hermunduri (I am now
following the course of the Danube as I previously did that of the
Rhine), a tribe faithful to the Romans. To them, accordingly, alone
of all the Germans, is commerce permitted. They travel everywhere at
their own discretion. When to others we show nothing more than our arms
and our encampments, to this people we open our houses, as to men who
are not longing to possess them. The Elbe rises in the territory of the
Hermunduri.
_VI.--The Tribes of the Frontier_
Near the Hermunduri reside the Narisci, and next the Marcomanni and
the Quadi, the former being the more famed for strength and bravery,
for it was by force that they acquired their location, expelling from
it the Boii. Now, here is, as it were, the frontier of Germany, as far
as it is washed by the Danube. Not less powerful are several tribes
whose territories enclose the lands of those just named--the Marsigni,
the Gothini, the Osi, and the Burii. The Marsigni in speech and dress
resemble the Suevi; but as the Gothini speak Gallic, and the Osi the
Pannonian language, and as they endure the imposition of tribute, it is
manifest that neither of these peoples are Germans.
Upon them, as aliens, tribute is imposed, partly by the Sarmatæ, partly
by the Quadi, and, to deepen their disgrace, the Gothini are forced
to labour in the iron mines. Little level country is possessed by all
these several tribes, for they are located among mountainous forest
regions, Suevia being parted by a continuous range of mountains, beyond
which live many nations. Of these, the most numerous and widely spread
are the Lygii. Among others, the most powerful are the Arii, the
Helveconæ, the Manimi, the Elysii, and the Naharvali.
The Arii are the most numerous, and also the fiercest of the tribes
just enumerated. They carry black shields, paint their bodies black,
and choose dark nights for engaging in battle. The ghastly aspect of
their army strikes terror into their foes, for in all battles the
eyes are vanquished first. Beyond the Lygii dwell the Gothones, ruled
by a king, and thus held in stricter subjection than the other German
tribes, yet not so that their liberties are extinguished. Immediately
adjacent are the Rugii and the Lemovii, dwelling by the coast. The
characteristic of both is the use of a round shield and a short sword.
Next are the Suiones, a seafaring community with very powerful fleets.
The ships differ in form from ours in possessing prows at each end,
so as to be always ready to row to shore without turning. They are
not propelled by sails, and have no benches of oars at the sides. The
rowers ply in all parts of the ship alike, and change their oars from
place to place according as the course is shifted hither and thither.
Great homage is paid among them to wealth; they are governed by a
single chief, who exacts implicit obedience. Arms are not used by these
people indiscriminately, as by other German tribes. Weapons are shut up
under the care of a slave. The reason is that the ocean always protects
the Suiones from their foes, and also that armed bands, when not
employed, grow easily demoralised.
Beyond the Suiones is another sea, dense and calm. It is thought that
by this the whole globe is bounded, for the reflection of the sun,
after his setting, continues till he rises, and that so radiantly as to
obscure the stars. Popular opinion even adds that the tumult is heard
of his emerging from the ocean, and that at sunrise forms divine are
seen, and also the rays about his head. Only thus far extend the limits
of Nature, if what fame reports be true.
The Æstii reside on the right of the Suevian Sea. Their dress and
customs resemble those of the Suevi, but the language is akin to that
of Britain. They worship the Mother of gods, and wear images of boars,
without any weapons, superstitiously trusting the goddess and the
images to safeguard them. But they cultivate the soil with much greater
zeal than is usual with Germans, and they even search the ocean, and
are the only people who gather amber, which they find in the shallows
and along the shore. It lay long neglected till it gained value from
our luxury.
Bordering on the Suiones are the Sitones, agreeing with them in all
things excepting that they are governed by a woman. So emphatically
have they degenerated, not merely from liberty, but even below a
condition of bondage. Here end the territories of the Suevi. Whether
I ought to include the Peucini, the Venedi, and the Fenni among the
Sarmatæ or the Germani I cannot determine, although the Peucini speak
the same language with the Germani, dress, build, and live like them,
and resemble them in dirt and sloth.
What further accounts we have are fabulous, and these I leave
untouched.
HIPPOLYTE ADOLPHE TAINE
History of English Literature
Two years before the appearance of his "Histoire de la
Littérature Anglaise" Taine had aroused a lively interest in
England by his "Notes sur l'Angleterre," a work showing much
wayward sympathy for the English character, and an irregular
understanding of English institutions. The same mixed impression
was produced by the laboriously conceived and brilliantly
written "History of English Literature." Taine (see Vol. XXIV,
p. 177) wrote to a theory that often worked out into curious
contradictions. His method was to show how men have been shaped
by the environments and tendencies of their age. Unfortunately,
having formed an idea of the kind of literature our age should
produce according to his theory, he had eyes for nothing
except what he expected to find. He went to literature for his
confirmations of his reading of history. Taine's criticism,
in consequence, is often incomplete, and more piquant than
trustworthy. The failure to appreciate some of the great English
writers--notably Shakespeare and Milton--is patent. Still, the
critic always had the will to be just, and no foreigner has
devoted such complimentary labour to the formation of a complete
estimate of English literature. The book was published in 1863-4.
_Saxon and Norman_
History has been revolutionised by the study of literatures. A work
of literature is now perceived, not to be a solitary caprice, but a
transcript of contemporary manners, from which we may read the style
of man's feelings for centuries back. By the study of a literature,
one may construct a moral history, the psychology of a people. To find
a complete literature is rare. Only ancient Greece, and modern France
and England offer a complete series of great literary monuments. I
have chosen England because it is alive, and one can see it with more
detachment than one can see France.
Huge white bodies, cool-blooded, with fierce blue eyes, reddish flaxen
hair; ravenous stomachs filled with meat and cheese and heated by
strong drinks; a cold temperament, slow to love, home-staying, prone
to drunkenness--these are to this day the features which descent
and climate preserve to the English race. The heavy human brute
gluts himself with sensations and noise, and this appetite finds a
grazing-ground in blows and battle. Strife for strife's sake such is
their pleasure. A race so constituted was predisposed to Christianity
by its gloom, and beyond Christianity foreign culture could not graft
any fruitful branch on this barbarous stock. The Norman conquerors of
France had by intermarriage become a Latin race, and nimbly educated
themselves from the Gauls, who boasted of "talking with ease." When
they crossed to England, they introduced new manners and a new spirit.
They taught the Saxon how ideas fall in order, and which ideas are
agreeable; they taught him how to be clear, amusing, and pungent. At
length, after long impotence of Norman literature, which was content to
copy, and of Saxon literature, which bore no fruit, a definite language
was attained, and there was room for a great writer.
_Chaucer_
Then Geoffrey Chaucer appeared, inventive though a disciple, original
though a translator, and by his genius, education, and life was
enabled to know and depict a whole world, but above all to satisfy the
chivalric world and the splendid courts which shone upon the heights.
He belonged to it, and took such part in it that his life from end to
end was that of a man of the world and a man of action.
Two motives raised the middle age above the chaos of barbarism, one
religious, which fashioned the gigantic cathedrals, the other secular,
which built the feudal fortresses. The one produced the adventurous
hero, the other the mystical monk. These master-passions gave way at
last to monotony of habit and taste for worldliness. Something was then
needed to make the evening hours flow sweetly. The lords at table have
finished dinner; the poet arrives; they ask him for his subject, and he
answers "Love."