Saxony, was the second son of Louis II. the Hard, landgrave of
Thuringia, and Judith of Hohenstaufen, sister of the emperor Frederick
I. Little is known of his early years, but in 1180 he joined a coalition
against Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony, and with his brother, the
landgrave Louis III., suffered a short imprisonment after his defeat at
Weissensee by Henry. About this time he received from his brother Louis
the Saxon palatinate, over which he strengthened his authority by
marrying Sophia, sister of Adalbert, count of Sommerschenburg, a former
count palatine. In 1190 Louis died and Hermann by his energetic measures
frustrated the attempt of the emperor Henry VI. to seize Thuringia as a
vacant fief of the Empire, and established himself as landgrave. Having
joined a league against the emperor he was accused, probably wrongly, of
an attempt to murder him. Henry was not only successful in detaching
Hermann from the hostile combination, but gained his support for the
scheme to unite Sicily with the Empire. In 1197 Hermann went on crusade.
When Henry VI. died in 1198 Hermann's support was purchased by the late
emperor's brother Philip, duke of Swabia, but as soon as Philip's cause
appeared to be weakening he transferred his allegiance to Otto of
Brunswick, afterwards the emperor Otto IV. Philip accordingly invaded
Thuringia in 1204 and compelled Hermann to come to terms by which he
surrendered the lands he had obtained in 1198. After the death of Philip
and the recognition of Otto he was among the princes who invited
Frederick of Hohenstaufen, afterwards the emperor Frederick II., to come
to Germany and assume the crown. In consequence of this step the Saxons
attacked Thuringia, but the landgrave was saved by Frederick's arrival
in Germany in 1212. After the death of his first wife in 1195 Hermann
married Sophia, daughter of Otto I., duke of Bavaria. By her he had four
sons, two of whom, Louis and Henry Raspe, succeeded their father in turn
as landgrave. Hermann died at Gotha on the 25th of April 1217, and was
buried at Reinhardsbrunn. He was fond of the society of men of letters,
and Walther von der Vogelweide and other Minnesingers were welcomed to
his castle of the Wartburg. In this connexion he figures in Wagner's
_Tannhauser_.
See E. Winkelmann, _Philipp von Schwaben und Otto IV. von
Braunschweig_ (Leipzig, 1873-1878); T. Knochenhauer, _Geschichte
Thuringens_ (Gotha, 1871); and F. Wachter, _Thuringische und
obersachsische Geschichte_ (Leipzig, 1826).
HERMANN OF REICHENAU (HERIMANNUS AUGIENSIS), commonly distinguished as
Hermannus Contractus, i.e. the Lame (1013-1054), German scholar and
chronicler, was the son of Count Wolferad of Alshausen in Swabia.
Hermann, who became a monk of the famous abbey of Reichenau, is at once
one of the most attractive and one of the most pathetic figures of
medieval monasticism. Crippled and distorted by gout from his childhood,
he was deprived of the use of his legs; but, in spite of this, he became
one of the most learned men of his time, and exercised a great personal
and intellectual influence on the numerous band of scholars he gathered
round him. He died on the 24th of September 1054, at the family castle
of Alshausen near Biberach. Besides the ordinary studies of the monastic
scholar, he devoted himself to mathematics, astronomy and music, and
constructed watches and instruments of various kinds.
His chief work is a _Chronicon ad annum_ 1054, which furnishes
important and original material for the history of the emperor Henry
III. The first edition, from a MS. no longer extant, was printed by J.
Sichard at Basel in 1529, and reissued by Heinrich Peter in 1549;
another edition appeared at St Blaise in 1790 under the supervision of
Ussermann; and a third, as a result of the collation of numerous MSS.,
forms part of vol. v. of Pertz's _Monumenta Germaniae historica_. A
German translation of the last is contributed by K. F. A. Nobbe to
_Die Geschichtsschreiber der deutschen Vorzeit_ (1st ed., Berlin,
1851; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1893). The separate lives of Conrad II. and
Henry III., often ascribed to Hermann, appear to have perished. His
treatises _De mensura astrolabii_ and _De utilitatibus astrolabii_ (to
be found, on the authority of Salzburg MSS., in Pez, _Thesaurus
anecdotorum novissimus_, iii.) being the first contributions of moment
furnished by a European to this subject, Hermann was for a time
considered the inventor of the astrolabe. A didactic poem from his
pen, _De octo vitiis principalibus_, is printed in Haupt's
_Zeitschrift fur deutsches Alterthum_ (vol. xiii.); and he is
sometimes credited with the composition of the Latin hymns _Veni
Sancte Spiritus, Salve Regina_, and _Alma Redemptoris_. A
_martyrologium_ by Hermann was discovered by E. Dummler in a MS. at
Stuttgart, and was published by him in "Das Martyrologium Notkers und
seine Verwandten" in _Forschungen zur deutschen Geschichte_, xxv.
(Gottingen, 1885).
See H. Hansjakob, _Herimann der Lahme_ (Mainz, 1875); Potthast,
_Bibliotheca med. aev._ s. "Herimannus Augiensis."
HERMANN OF WIED (1477-1552), elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the
fourth son of Frederick, count of Wied (d. 1487), and was born on the
14th of January 1477. Educated for the Church, he became elector and
archbishop in 1515, and ruled his electorate with vigour and
intelligence, taking up at first an attitude of hostility towards the
reformers and their teaching. A quarrel with the papacy turned, or
helped to turn, his thoughts in the direction of Church reform, but he
hoped this would come from within rather than from without, and with the
aid of his friend John Gropper (1503-1559), began, about 1536, to
institute certain reforms in his own diocese. One step led to another,
and as all efforts at union failed the elector invited Martin Bucer to
Cologne in 1542. Supported by the estates of the electorate, and relying
upon the recess of the diet of Regensburg in 1541, he encouraged Bucer
to press on with the work of reform, and in 1543 invited Melanchthon to
his assistance. His conversion was hailed with great joy by the
Protestants, and the league of Schmalkalden declared they were resolved
to defend him; but the Reformation in the electorate received checks
from the victory of Charles V. over William, duke of Cleves, and the
hostility of the citizens of Cologne. Summoned both before the emperor
and the pope, the elector was deposed and excommunicated by Paul III. in
1546. He resigned his office in February 1547, and retired to Wied.
Hermann, who was also a bishop of Paderborn from 1532 to 1547, died on
the 15th of August 1552.
See C. Varrentrapp, _Hermann von Wied_ (Leipzig, 1878).
HERMANN, FRIEDRICH BENEDICT WILHELM VON (1795-1868), German economist,
was born on the 5th of December 1795, at Dinkelsbuhl in Bavaria. After
finishing his primary education he was for some time employed in a
draughtsman's office. He then resumed his studies, partly at the
gymnasium in his native town, partly at the universities of Erlangen and
Wurzburg. In 1817 he took up a private school at Nuremberg, where he
remained for four years. After filling an appointment as teacher of
mathematics at the gymnasium of Erlangen, he became in 1823
_Privatdozent_ at the university in that town. His inaugural
dissertation was on the notions of political economy among the Romans
(_Dissertatio exhibens sententias Romanorum ad oeconomiam politicam
pertinentes_, Erlangen, 1823). He afterwards acted as professor of
mathematics at the gymnasium and polytechnic school in Nuremberg, where
he continued till 1827. During his stay there he published an elementary
treatise on arithmetic and algebra (_Lehrbuch der Arith. u. Algeb._,
1826), and made a journey to France to inspect the organization and
conduct of technical schools in that country. The results of his
investigation were published in 1826 and 1828 (_Uber technische
Unterrichts-Anstalten_). Soon after his return from France he was made
_professor extraordinarius_ of political science of the university of
Munich, and in 1833 he was advanced to the rank of ordinary professor.
In 1832 appeared the first edition of his great work on political
economy, _Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_. In 1835 he was made
member of the Royal Bavarian Academy of Sciences. From the year 1836 he
acted as inspector of technical instruction in Bavaria, and made
frequent journeys to Berlin and Paris in order to study the methods
there pursued. In the state service of Bavaria, to which he devoted
himself, he rose rapidly. In 1837 he was placed on the council for
superintendence of church and school work; in 1839 he was entrusted with
the direction of the bureau of statistics; in 1845 he was one of the
councillors for the interior; in 1848 he sat as member for Munich in the
national assembly at Frankfort. In this assembly Hermann, with Johann
Heckscher and others, was mainly instrumental in organizing the
so-called "Great German" party, and was selected as one of the
representatives of their views at Vienna. Warmly supporting the customs
union (Zollverein), he acted in 1851 as one of its commissioners at the
great industrial exhibition at London, and published an elaborate report
on the woollen goods. Three years later he was president of the
committee of judges at the similar exhibition at Munich, and the report
of its proceedings was drawn up by him. In 1855 he became councillor of
state, the highest honour in the service. From 1835 to 1847 he
contributed a long series of reviews, mainly of works on economical
subjects, to the _Munchener gelehrte Anzeigen_ and also wrote for Rau's
_Archiv der politischen Okonomie_ and the _Augsburger allgemeine
Zeitung_. As head of the bureau of statistics he published a series of
valuable annual reports (_Beitrage zur Statistik des Konigreichs
Bayern_, Hefte 1-17, 1850-1867). He was engaged at the time of his
death, on the 23rd of November 1868, upon a second edition of his
_Staatswirthschaftliche Untersuchungen_, which was published in 1870.
Hermann's rare technological knowledge gave him a great advantage in
dealing with some economic questions. He reviewed the principal
fundamental ideas of the science with great thoroughness and acuteness.
"His strength," says Roscher, "lies in his clear, sharp, exhaustive
distinction between the several elements of a complex conception, or the
several steps comprehended in a complex act." For keen analytical power
his German brethren compare him with Ricardo. But he avoids several
one-sided views of the English economist. Thus he places public spirit
beside egoism as an economic motor, regards price as not measured by
labour only but as a product of several factors, and habitually
contemplates the consumption of the labourer, not as a part of the cost
of production to the capitalist, but as the main practical end of
economics.
See Kautz, _Gesch. Entwicklung d. National-Okonomik_, pp. 633-638;
Roscher, _Gesch. d. Nat.-Okon. in Deutschland_, pp. 860-879.
HERMANN, JOHANN GOTTFRIED JAKOB (1772-1848), German classical scholar
and philologist, was born at Leipzig on the 28th of November 1772.
Entering the university of his native city at the age of fourteen,
Hermann at first studied law, which he soon abandoned for the classics.
After a session at Jena in 1793-1794, he became a lecturer on classical
literature in Leipzig, in 1798 _professor extraordinarius_ of philosophy
in the university, and in 1803 professor of eloquence (and poetry,
1809). He died on the 31st of December 1848. Hermann maintained that an
accurate knowledge of the Greek and Latin languages was the only road to
a clear understanding of the intellectual life of the ancient world, and
the chief, if not the only, aim of philology. As the leader of this
grammatico-critical school, he came into collision with A. Bockh and
Otfried Muller, the representatives of the historico-antiquarian school,
which regarded Hermann's view of philology as inadequate and one-sided.
Hermann devoted his early attention to the classical poetical metres,
and published several works on that subject, the most important being
_Elementa doctrinae metricae_ (1816), in which he set forth a scientific
theory based on the Kantian categories. His writings on Greek grammar
are also valuable, especially _De emendanda ratione Graecae grammaticae_
(1801), and notes and excursus on Viger's treatise on Greek idioms. His
editions of the classics include several of the plays of Euripides; the
_Clouds_ of Aristophanes (1799); _Trinummus_ of Plautus (1800);
_Poetica_ of Aristotle (1802); _Orphica_ (1805); the Homeric _Hymns_
(1806); and the _Lexicon_ of Photius (1808). In 1825 Hermann finished
the edition of Sophocles begun by Erfurdt. His edition of Aeschylus was
published after his death in 1852. The _Opuscula_, a collection of his
smaller writings in Latin, appeared in seven volumes between 1827 and
1839.
See monographs by O. Jahn (1849) and H. Kochly (1874); C. Bursian,
_Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in Deutschland_ (1883); art. in
_Allgem. deutsche Biog._; Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii.
HERMANN, KARL FRIEDRICH (1804-1855), German classical scholar and
antiquary, was born on the 4th of August 1804, at Frankfort-on-Main.
Having studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig, he went
for a tour in Italy, on his return from which he lectured as
_Privatdozent_ in Heidelberg. In 1832 he was called to Marburg as
_professor ordinarius_ of classical literature; and in 1842 he was
transferred to Gottingen to the chair of philology and archaeology,
vacant by the death of Otfried Muller. He died at Gottingen on the 31st
of December 1855. His knowledge of all branches of classical learning
was profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek
antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be mentioned the
_Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitaten_ (new ed., 1889) dealing with
political, religious and domestic antiquities; the _Geschichte und
System der Platonischen Philosophie_ (1839), unfinished; an edition of
the Platonic Dialogues (6 vols., 1851-1853); and _Culturgeschickte der
Griechen und Romer_ (1857-1858), published after his death by C. G.
Schmidt. He also edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and
Lucian's _De conscribenda historia_ (1828). A collection of
_Abhandlungen und Beitrage_ appeared in 1849.
See M. Lechner, _Zur Erinnerung an K. F. Hermann_ (1864), and article
by C. Halm in _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, xii. (1880).
HERMAPHRODITUS, in Greek mythology, a being, partly male, partly female,
originally worshipped as a divinity. The conception undoubtedly had its
origin in the East, where deities of a similar dual nature frequently
occur. The oldest traces of the cult in Greek countries are found in
Cyprus. Here, according to Macrobius (_Saturnalia_, iii. 8) there was a
bearded statue of a male aphrodite, called Aphroditos by Aristophanes
(probably in his [Greek: Niobos], a similar variant). Philochorus in his
_Atthis_ (_ap._ Macrobius _loc. cit._) further identified this divinity,
at whose sacrifices men and women exchanged garments, with the moon.
This double sex also attributed to Dionysus and Priapus--the union in
one being of the two principles of generation and conception--denotes
extensive fertilizing and productive powers. This Cyprian Aphrodite is
the same as the later Hermaphroditos, which simply means Aphroditos in
the form of a herm (see HERMAE), and first occurs in the _Characteres_
(16) of Theophrastus. After its introduction at Athens (probably in the
5th century B.C.), the importance of this being seems to have declined.
It appears no longer as the object of a special cult, but limited to the
homage of certain sects, expressed by superstitious rites of obscure
significance. The still later form of the legend, a product of the
Hellenistic period, is due to a mistaken etymology of the name. In
accordance with this, Hermaphroditus is the son of Hermes and Aphrodite,
of whom the nymph of the fountain of Salmacis in Caria became enamoured
while he was bathing. When her overtures were rejected, she embraced him
and entreated the gods that she might be for ever united with him. The
result was the formation of a being, half man, half woman. This story is
told by Ovid (_Metam._ iv. 285) to explain the peculiarly enervating
qualities of the water of the fountain. Strabo (xiv. p. 656) attributes
its bad reputation to the attempt of the inhabitants of the country to
find some excuse for the demoralization caused by their own luxurious
and effeminate habits of life. There was a famous statue of
Hermaphroditus by Polycles of Athens, probably the younger of the two
statuaries of that name. In later Greek art he was a favourite subject.
See articles in Daremberg and Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites_,
and Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_; and for art, A. Baumeister,
_Denkmaler des klassischen Altertums_ (1884-1888).
HERMAS, SHEPHERD OF, one of the works representing the Apostolic Fathers
(q.v.), a hortatory writing which "holds the mirror up" to the Church in
Rome during the 3rd Christian generation. This is the period indicated
by the evidence of the Muratorian Canon, which assigns it to the brother
of Pius, Roman bishop c. 139-154. Probably it was not the fruit of a
single effort of its author. Rather its contents came to him piecemeal
and at various stages in his ministry as a Christian "prophet,"
extending over a period of years; and, like certain Old Testament
prophets, he shows us how by his own experiences he became the medium of
a divine message to his church and to God's "elect" people at large.
In its present form it falls under three heads: _Visions_, _Mandates_,
_Similitudes_. But these divisions are misleading. The personal and
preliminary revelation embodied in _Vision_ i. brings the prophet a new
sense of sin as essentially a matter of the heart, and an awakened
conscience as before the "glory of God," the Creator and Upholder of all
things. His responsibility also for the sad state of religion at home is
emphasized, and he is given a mission of repentance to his erring
children. How far in all this and in the next vision the author is
describing facts, and how far transforming his personal history into a
type (after the manner of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_), the better to
impress his moral upon his readers, is uncertain. But the whole style of
the work, with its use of conventional apocalyptic forms, favours the
more symbolic view. _Vision_ ii. records his call proper, through
revelation of his essential message, to be delivered both to his wife
and children and to "all the saints who have sinned unto this day" (2.
4). It contains the assurances of forgiveness even for the gravest sins
after baptism (save blasphemy of the Name and betrayal of the brethren,
_Sim._ ix. 19), "if they repent with their whole heart and remove doubts
from their minds. For the Master hath sworn by His glory ('His Son,'
below) touching His elect, that if there be more sinning after this day
which He hath limited, they shall not obtain salvation. For the
repentance of the righteous hath an end; the days of repentance for all
saints are fulfilled.... Stand fast, then, ye that work righteousness
and be not of doubtful mind.... Happy are all ye that endure the great
tribulation which is to come.... _The Lord is nigh unto them that turn
to Him_, as it is written in the book of Eldad and Modad, who prophesied
to the people in the wilderness."
Here, in the gist of the "booklet" received from the hand of a female
figure representing the Church, we have in germ the message of _The
Shepherd_. But before Hermas announces it to the Roman Church, and
through "Clement"[1] to the churches abroad, there are added two
_Visions_ (iii. iv.) tending to heighten its impressiveness. He is shown
the "holy church" under the similitude of a tower in building, and the
great and final tribulation (already alluded to as near at hand) under
that of a devouring beast, which yet is innocuous to undoubting faith.
Hermas begins to deliver the message of _Vis._ i.-iv., as bidden. But as
he does so, it is added to, in the way of detail and illustration, by a
fresh series of revelations through an angel in the guise of a Shepherd,
who in a preliminary interview announces himself as the Angel of
Repentance, sent to administer the special "repentance" which it was
Hermas's mission to declare. This interview appears in our MSS. as
_Vis._ v.,[2] but is really a prelude to the _Mandates_ and
_Similitudes_ which form the bulk of the whole work, hence known as "The
Shepherd." The relation of this second part to _Vis._ i.-iv. is set
forth by the Shepherd himself. "I was sent, quoth he, to show thee
_again_ all that thou sawest before, to wit the sum of the things
profitable for thee. First of all write thou my mandates and
similitudes; and _the rest_, as I will show thee, so shalt thou write."
This programme is fulfilled in the xii. _Mandates_--perhaps suggested by
the _Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (see DIDACHE), which Hermas
knows--and _Similitudes_ i.-viii., while _Simil._ ix. is "the rest" and
constitutes a distinct "book" (_Sim._ ix. 1. 1, x. 1. 1). In this latter
the building of the Tower, already shown in outline in _Vis._ iii., is
shown "more carefully" in an elaborate section dealing with the same
themes. One may infer that _Sim._ ix. represents a distinctly later
stage in Hermas's ministry--during the whole of which he seems to have
committed to writing what he received on each occasion,[3] possibly for
recital to the church (cf. _Vis._ ii. _fin._). Finally came _Sim._ x.,
really an epilogue in which Hermas is "delivered" afresh to the
Shepherd, for the rest of his days. He is "to continue in this ministry"
of proclaiming the Shepherd's teaching, "so that they who have repented
or are about to repent may have the same mind with thee," and so receive
a good report before God (_Sim._ x. 2 2-4). Only they must "make haste
to do aright," lest while they delay the tower be finished (4. 4), and
the new aeon dawn (after the final tribulation: cf. _Vis._ iv. 3. 5).
The relation here indicated between the Shepherd's instruction and the
initial message of one definitive repentance, open to those believers
who have already "broken" their "seal" of baptism by deadly sins, as
announced in _Visions_ i.-iv. is made yet plainer by _Sim._ vi. 1. 3 f.
"These mandates are profitable to such as are about to repent; for
except they walk in them their repentance is in vain." Hermas sees that
mere repentance is not enough to meet the backsliding condition in which
so many Christians then were, owing to the recoil of inveterate habits
of worldliness[4] entrenched in society around and within. It is, after
all, too negative a thing to stand by itself or to satisfy God. "Cease,
Hermas," says the Church, "to pray all about thy sins. Ask for
righteousness also" (_Vis._ iii. 1. 6). The positive Christian ideal
which "the saints" should attain, "the Lord enabling," it is the
business of the Shepherd to set forth.