Transcriber’s Note: Italic text is denoted by _underscores_ and
bold text by ~tildes~.
FUR DYEING AND FUR DRESSING
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
OF
FUR DRESSING AND FUR DYEING
BY
WILLIAM E. AUSTIN, B.S.
CONSULTING CHEMIST TO THE FUR INDUSTRY
_ILLUSTRATED_
[Illustration]
NEW YORK
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
EIGHT WARREN STREET
1922
Copyright, 1922, by
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
All rights reserved, including that of translation into
foreign languages, including the Scandinavian
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
PREFACE
The great increase in the use of furs during the past few decades has
caused the fur dressing and dyeing industry to rise from relative
insignificance to considerable importance as a branch of applied
chemistry. The past eight years, moreover, have witnessed the virtual
transference of the leadership in the dressing and dyeing of furs from
Europe to America, and in the quality and variety of products, the
domestic industry is now in every way the equal of, and in many respects
superior to the foreign. The great bulk of American furs which formerly
were sent to Leipzig, Paris or London to be dressed and dyed, are now
being dressed and dyed in this country.
In spite of these facts, very little is generally known about the nature
and manner of the work constituting the dressing and dyeing of furs.
Even among members of other branches of the fur trade, there is very
little accurate information on the subject. Real knowledge concerning fur
dressing and dyeing is possessed only by those actually engaged in the
industry. The interest and efforts of scientists and technologists have
been enlisted to only a small extent in the technical development of the
industry. The reason for this may be attributed to two related causes:
first, the almost monastic seclusion in which fur dressers and dyers,
particularly the latter, conducted their operations, and even to-day the
heavy cloud of mystery is being dispelled but very slowly; and second,
as a consequence of the first, the lack of any reliable literature on
the subject. Of the few books which have been written on the industry
of fur dressing and fur dyeing (all of them either German or French),
most are hopelessly out of date, or contain no trustworthy data; or,
if they do have real merit, they cannot be obtained. Numerous articles
in the technical journals are of interest, but they contain very little
information of value.
This work is intended for a two-fold purpose: first, that it may serve as
a text-book for those who expect to make fur dressing and dyeing their
vocation. The fundamental principles upon which the industry is based
are discussed in the light of the most recent chemical and technical
developments, and the most important operations are treated fully and
systematically, and are illustrated with practical examples.
Secondly, as a practical handbook for the worker in the fur dressing and
dyeing plant. The latest factory processes and methods are described, and
numerous working formulas given. The formulas are all such as have been
successfully used on a large scale, and give satisfactory results when
applied under the proper conditions.
In addition, it is believed that the book will prove of interest to
chemists and other students of industrial chemistry, since it will be an
introduction into a field of applied chemistry, about which very little
is known to those outside of the industry.
Thanks are due to Dr. L. A. Hausman, of Cornell University, for material
used in Chapter II; to Dr. E. Lesser of the American Dyewood Company,
for information and assistance on the subject of Vegetable Dyes; to the
Gaskill Chemical Corp., American Aniline Products, Inc., the Cassella
Company, and the Franklin Import & Export Co., for information about
their products in connection with the chapter on Oxidation Colors; to F.
Blattner, Fletcher Works, Inc., S. M. Jacoby Co., Proctor & Schwartz,
Inc., Reliable Machine Works, Seneca Machine & Tool Co., Inc., and the
Turner Tanning Machinery Co., for the use of the cuts of the various
machines.
WILLIAM E. AUSTIN.
NEW YORK, May, 1922.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
PREFACE
I. FURS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 1
Introductory. Knowledge of furs essential. Definitions.
Differences in furs of various animals. Effect of climate
on furs. Effect of age and season on furs. Durability and
relative weights of furs. Description of important furs.
II. STRUCTURE OF FUR 21
The skin. The hair. Under-hair and top-hair. Chemical
composition of furs. Action of chemicals on the skin.
Action of chemicals on the hair.
III. FUR DRESSING: INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL 29
Objects of fur dressing. Origin of fur dressing. Use
of fats. Use of salt and alum. Use of the tannins. Early
organizations of the fur workers. Modern organizations
of the fur dressing industry.
IV. FUR DRESSING: PRELIMINARY OPERATIONS 36
Flat skins and cased skins. Herbivorous and carnivorous
fur animals. Beaming or scraping. Softening the skins.
Cleaning; hydro-extracting. Fleshing.
V. FUR DRESSING: TANNING METHODS 45
Nature of the tanning process. Chief tanning methods.
Comparison of the tanning methods. Effect of dyeing
operations on the dressing.
VI. FUR DRESSING: DRYING AND FINISHING 71
Importance of the drying process. Methods of drying.
A modern type of drying device. Oiling. Staking or
stretching. Beating and combing. Drum-cleaning. Unhairing
and shearing.
VII. WATER IN FUR DRESSING AND DYEING 85
Importance of water in dressing and dyeing. Water
suitable for dressing and dyeing. Soft water and hard
water. Effects of hardness in water.
VIII. FUR DYEING: INTRODUCTORY AND HISTORICAL 90
Purposes of fur dyeing. Improvement of furs faulty in
color. Production of a uniform shade on furs. Dyeing furs
to obtain novel effects. Imitation of valuable furs on
cheaper skins. Difficulties due to the hair. Difficulties
due to the leather.
IX. FUR DYEING: GENERAL METHODS 98
Two methods of dyeing furs. Development of the dyeing
methods. The brush process. The dip process. Blending.
Drying and finishing the dyed furs.
X. FUR DYEING: KILLING THE FURS 106
Nature of the killing process. Old killing formulas.
Modern killing agents. Procedure of killing. Killing with
soda. Killing with lime. Killing with caustic soda.
XI. FUR DYEING: MORDANTS 114
Nature of mordanting. Purposes of mordanting. Theory
of mordants. Procedure of mordanting. Aluminum mordants.
Iron mordants. Copper mordants. Chromium mordants. Tin
mordants. Alkaline mordants.
XII. FUR DYEING: MINERAL COLORS USED ON FURS 125
Mineral chemicals as fur dyes. Lead dyes. Potassium
permanganate as a dye. Other mineral dyes.
XIII. FUR DYEING: VEGETABLE DYES 128
Wood dyes. Old dye formulas. The vegetable dye
materials. The tannin substances. Logwood. Fustic.
Brazilwood. Other vegetable dyes. Characteristics of the
wood dyes. Application of the vegetable dyes. Application
by the brush process. Application by the dip process.
Production of shades other than black.
XIV. FUR DYEING: ANILINE BLACK 144
Dyeing of seal. Nature and history of Aniline Black.
Chemistry of the Aniline Black process. Three stages
in the formation of Aniline Black. Methods of applying
Aniline Black. One-bath Aniline Black. Oxidation Aniline
Black. Diphenyl Black. Aniline Black by Green’s process.
Aniline Black by the dip method.
XV. FUR DYEING: OXIDATION COLORS 155
The original patents. The first Oxidation fur dyes.
Early difficulties. Solution of the difficulties.
Progress with the Oxidation dyes. Para-phenylene-diamine:
a typical Oxidation color. Range of shades obtainable.
Mordants. Procedure in dyeing. Typical formulas.
Combination of Oxidation colors with other dyes.
XVI. FUR DYEING: COAL TAR DYES 171
Use of coal tar dyes. Basic colors. Acid colors; dyeing
at higher temperatures. Chrome colors. Vat dyes.
XVII. BLEACHING OF FURS 179
Purpose of bleaching. Steps in the bleaching process.
Methods of bleaching. Bleaching materials with reducing
action. Bleaching materials with oxidizing action.
Blueing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 185
FUR DRESSING AND FUR DYEING
CHAPTER I
FURS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Furs have in general two uses: as the goods which constitute the basis of
the furrier’s art, and as the source of material for the hat manufacturer.
In the latter case, only the hair part of the fur is utilized in the hat
trade for the production of felt, the skin being either made into leather,
or used as the raw material for making high-grade glue and gelatine. It
is the furrier, therefore, who uses the great bulk of furs, and requires
them to be dressed and dyed.
In discussing the dressing and the dyeing of furs, there are, broadly
speaking, two fundamental subjects to be considered: first, the raw
materials employed, which are, of course, the skins or pelts as they
come from the trapper. (Other substances used in fur dressing and dyeing
are accessories, and will be studied in connection with the processes.)
Second, all those operations, physical and chemical, manual and
mechanical, to which the raw skins have to be subjected in order to obtain
the finished fur, ready for use by the furrier.
Next to the inherent qualities of the fur skin, the future value of a
fur in a manufactured garment depends largely on the dressing and dyeing
it receives. It is in these operations that the beauty of the fur can
be brought out to its fullest degree, and if possible, enhanced, or the
attractive features can be marred or destroyed, and the fur rendered
quite worthless. Therefore, it is quite essential for the fur dresser
and the fur dyer in addition to the technical knowledge and experience
which are the fundamental requisites of the industry, also to have more
than a superficial familiarity with the various kinds of furs. In fact,
an accurate knowledge of the nature and chief characteristics of furs
in general, and of the individual classes, in particular, is almost
indispensable to obtain the best results. The habits and habitats of
the various fur-bearing animals are factors which largely determine the
constitution of the fur, and the nature of the skin. There are as many
different kinds of fur hair, with as many different kinds of skin bearing
the hair, as there are classes of furs. The methods of dressing, and
often, if the furs are to be dyed, the manner of dyeing, are determined
by the nature of these component parts of furs. Various chemicals affect
furs in widely different ways. The divergence with regard to the physical
and chemical properties of the classes of furs is such as to make almost
imperative a detailed knowledge of the typical members of the many groups
of commercial furs.
To be sure, there are many engaged in the dressing and dyeing of furs,
who never made a formal study of this phase of the industry, but acquired
their knowledge empirically, and are apparently quite successful. It
must not be denied, that practise and experience, as in every field of
enterprise, are essential to obtaining the best results. But the time and
cost of acquiring this precious experience can be considerably reduced by
systematically studying the important characteristics and properties of
furs. These will be treated briefly, but in sufficient detail to form a
basis for discussing the operations of dressing and dyeing.
Fur-bearing animals are mammals whose skins are used in the manufacture of
fur garments and other fur wearing apparel. The skin, when it is removed
from the animal is called a pelt, or sometimes, in the case of large
animals, a hide. The pelt, after having been dressed and dyed, is called
a fur, the skin part being referred to as the leather, and the hair as the
pelage. However, this terminology is not strictly adhered to in practise,
and the various terms are often employed interchangeably.
The various fur-bearing animals differ considerably in the characteristics
of the furs they yield. With few exceptions, notably beaver and Alaska red
fox, the depth of shade increases as the habitat of the animal species is
nearer the equatorial regions. There seems to be a direct relationship
between the intensity of color of the pelt, and the distance from, or
proximity to the polar, or the torrid regions. Thus, white mammals, such
as polar bear, ermine, white or Siberian hare, are found only in the
northern lands. An exception is the sheep, which, due to its domestic
nature, can be found in almost all parts of the civilized world. Tropical
animals on transportation to colder climates, have been known to become
lighter-haired when adapted to their new environment. The skins of animals
living in dense woods or forests, are generally of a deeper color than
in animals living in more open territory. As a general rule, fur-bearing
animals have darker hair on the back than on the sides and belly. The
badger, hamster, ratel and panda are exceptions having the darker hair on
the belly and sides, and the lighter hair on the back. With regard to the
intensity of color, the skunk has the blackest fur, although some domestic
cats are also quite black. Other animals whose fur is nearly black, are
the black bear, and the black fox, which is a variety of the silver fox,
but the color is often of a brownish shade. The colors which predominate
among animals of the fur-bearing variety, are white, black, brown, and
grey. Less common are yellow shades, and those known as blue.
The quality of the fur on all mammals improves with cold, and animals
living at greater altitudes, with correspondingly lower temperatures,
have thicker and finer hair than those living nearer sea-level. A cold
winter generally produces fur of high quality and fine color, a mild
winter may cause the hair to be inferior. In all climates, animals found
in dense woods, have fur which is deeper, silkier, thicker, and glossier
than that of animals living in the open. Animals inhabiting inland lakes
and rivers, have finer and softer hair than those living near the coast
or land exposed to sea winds. In general, the hair of animals of the cold
regions is short, fine, soft, and downy, while the hair of animals of
warmer lands, is longer, stiffer, and harder.
Both the quality and color of the fur vary with the age of the animal.
The young usually have a thicker coat of fur than adults, but the hair is
too soft, and the skin generally too tender to be fit for use. In certain
cases, particularly the baby lambs, very young skins are especially
prized, and eagerly sought, but extraordinary care has to be exercised in
working with them. Fur is at its best when the animal is between one and
two years old. After this age, the fur becomes coarse and scraggy. The
animal attains its fullest growth of hair usually in the height of winter,
and the fur is best between then and very early spring. Before mid-winter
the hair is short and thin, and in the spring it begins to shed, and will
continue to fall out even in the dressed fur. The color of the hair also
becomes lighter with age, and the new growth which generally comes in the
fall is darker than the old coat.
Different members of the same species, will, other factors such as age
and season being equal, vary as to color and quality. There may even be
several different color phases of the same species of animal, such as the
cross fox and the silver fox, both of which are of the same genus as the
red fox; black muskrats are of the same class as the brown variety, etc.
The individual pelt likewise presents many variations in color and nature
of the hair. In some parts, the hair is thicker and softer than others,
and the color varies in intensity and shade throughout the different
sections of the skin.
Furs do not have differences confined to the hair part only; the leather
also presents considerable variation among the different fur-bearing
animals, especially in regard to the weight and thickness. The durability
of furs, relatively considered under similar conditions of wear, also
varies widely. In the following table the relative durability of dressed
furs, and in certain instances also dyed furs, otter being taken as
standard, is given, as well as the weight in ounces per square foot of
skin of these furs.
_Name of Fur_ _Durability_ _Wt. in oz.
_Otter = 100_ per sq. ft._
Astrachan 10 3
Bear, brown or black 94 7
Beaver, natural 90 4
Beaver, plucked 85 3-7/8
Chinchilla 15 1-1/2
Civet cat 40 2-3/4
Coney 20 3
Ermine 25 1-1/4
Fox, natural 40 3
Fox, dyed black 25 3
Genet 35 2-3/4
Goat 15 4-1/8
Hare 05 2-1/4
Krimmer 60 3
Kolinsky 25 3
Leopard 75 4
Lynx 25 2-3/4
Marten, Baum natural 65 2-3/4
Marten, Baum blended 45 2-3/4
Marten, Stone natural 45 2-7/8
Marten, Stone dyed 35 2-7/8
Mink, natural 70 3-1/4
Mink, dyed 35 3-1/4
Mink, Jap 20 3
Mole 07 1-3/4
Muskrat 45 3-1/4
Nutria, plucked 25 3-1/4
Opossum, natural 37 3
Opossum, dyed 20 3
Opossum, Australian 40 3-1/2
Otter, land 100 4-1/2
Otter, sea 100 4-1/2
Persian lamb 65 3-1/4
Pony, Russian 35 3-1/2
Rabbit 05 2-1/4
Raccoon, natural 65 2-1/4
Raccoon, dyed 50 2-1/2
Sable 60 2-1/2
Sable, blended 45 2-1/2
Seal, fur 80 3-1/2
Seal, fur dyed 70 3-1/8
Skunk, tipped 50 2-7/8
Squirrel, grey 20–25 1-3/4
Wolf, natural 50 6-1/2
Wolverine 100 7
In estimating the value of a fur, many factors have to be considered.
There is no one standard by which the skins are judged, each kind of
fur having its own criterion. However, the general points by which raw
furs are graded are, color, size, origin, quality and quantity of hair,
condition of leather, date or season of trapping, methods of handling,
etc. Beaver, for example, is graded as large, medium, small and cubs.
Red foxes, first, into Alaska, Labrador, and Nova Scotia, and then these
divisions are classed as large, medium and small. Skunks are graded
according to the amount of white on the skin, the less white, the more
valuable the fur.
The qualities which make a fur desired depend first of all on the nature
of the fur itself. Pretty color, luster, thickness, softness, length,
uniformity and regular fall of the hair are the chief points to be
considered. While the leather part of the fur is of secondary importance
in the evaluation of a fur, it must possess strength, lightness of weight,
and when properly dressed, should be supple and have a certain firmness or
‘feel.’ The abundance or scarcity of a fur-bearing animal also determines
the value of the fur. Furs which are always comparatively rare, such as
silver fox, Russian sable, chinchilla, etc., are always highly prized.
In this connection, circumstances which tend to decrease the number of
available pelts of any particular animal, such as pestilences, gradual
extermination due to excessive trapping, prevention of trapping, by
protective laws, also affect the value of a fur. A third factor which has
an influence on the value of furs, is the prevailing style or fashion.
Many kinds of furs which are both beautiful and rare, such as Russian
sable or chinchilla, are practically unaffected by the whims of fashion.
But a fur of ordinary value may at times become so popular, that the
demand for it will cause its price to be greatly increased. Similarly, a
fur which has enjoyed a considerable vogue, may pass out of demand for a
time and consequently depreciate in value.
A detailed description of the various furs used in commerce is not within
the scope of this work, because such an account rightly belongs in a book
on zoölogy. However, it is desirable that the reader who is interested
in the dressing and dyeing of furs should have at least a passing
acquaintance with the chief furs used in commerce, together with such of
their individual characteristics as are of importance. The figures given
are for the average dressed skin.[1]
[1] Descriptions after W. S. Parker, Deputy Chairman, Fur Section of
London Chamber of Commerce, in Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th Ed.
~Astrachan~, see Lambs.
~Badger.~--2 × 1 ft. This is one of the few animals whose fur is darker
on the belly than on the back. The American sorts have coarse, thick
under-hair of a pale fawn or stone color, with a growth of longer black
and white hairs 3–4 inches long. The Japanese varieties are usually dyed
for imitation skunk. The American kind is also dyed occasionally but is
mostly used natural. Badger hair is very extensively used for ‘pointing.’
~Bear, Black.~--6 × 3 ft. Has fine, dark brown under-hair, with bright,
flowing black top-hair 4 inches long. The fur of cubs is nearly as long,
although the skins are much smaller, and the hair is finer, softer, and
lighter-pelted. The best skins are from Canada.
~Bear, Brown.~--6 × 3 ft. Similar to the Black Bear, but more limited in
number. The color ranges from a light yellow to a rich dark brown. The
best and most valuable sorts come from the Hudson Bay territory, inferior
skins coming from Europe and Asia.
~Bear, White.~--10 × 5 ft. This is the largest of the bears. The hair is
short and close except on the flanks, while the color ranges from white
to yellow. The best skins come from Greenland, the whitest being the most
valuable.
~Beaver.~--3 × 2 ft. This is the largest of the rodents, and is very
widely used; formerly to a great extent in the hat trade. The under-hair
is close and of a bluish-brown hue, and nearly an inch deep. The over-hair
is coarse, bright black or reddish-brown in color, and is usually plucked
out, as the under-hair is the attractive part of the fur. The darkest
skins are the most valuable. Formerly beaver was used to dye in imitation
of seal, but more suitable furs are now used.
~Broadtail~, see Lambs.
~Caracul~, see Lambs.
~Cat, Civet.~--9 × 4-1/2 inches, with short, thick and dark under-hair,
and silky, black top-hair with irregular white markings. It is similar
to the skunk, but is lighter, softer, less full, and has no disagreeable
odor.
~Cat, House.~--18 × 9 inches. Is mostly black and dark brown, the best
skins coming from Holland. The hair is weak, coming out with the friction
of wear. In the trade, the black variety is known as genet.
~Chinchilla.~--12 × 7 inches. This is one of the rarest and most beautiful
furs. It comes from Bolivia and Peru, where, due to the uncontrolled
trapping of the animal, it is becoming scarce, and this compelled the
governments to enact laws prohibiting the taking of chinchilla for a
certain period. The fur is of a delicate blue-grey, with black shadings,
the fur being 1–1-1/4 inches deep. Unfortunately, the skin is quite
perishable.
~Chinchilla, La Plata.~--9 × 4 inches. Incorrectly called “bastard
chinchilla” in the trade. It is a similar species to the Bolivian
chinchilla, but due to the lower altitude and warmer climate of its
habitat, is smaller, with shorter and less pretty hair, the color of the
under-hair being darker, and of the top-hair less pure. It is quite as
undurable as true chinchilla.
~Chinchillone.~--13 × 8 inches. Is also from South America. The fur is
longer, weaker, poorer and yellower than real chinchilla, but the skins
are often dyed in shades closely resembling the natural chinchilla.
~Ermine.~--12 × 2-1/2 inches. The under-hair is short and even, with the
top-hair slightly longer. The leather is light, close in texture, and
quite durable. In mid-winter the color is pure white, except the tip of
the tail, which is usually quite black. The best skins are from Siberia.
~Fisher.~--30 × 12 inches, with tail 12–18 inches long. It is the largest
of the marten family. The under-hair is deep, and of a dark shade, with
a fine dark, glossy and strong top-hair, 2 or more inches long. The best
skins are from Canada. The fur is something like a dark silky raccoon,
while the tail, which is very highly prized, is almost black.
~Fitch.~--12 × 3 inches. It is of the marten species, and its common name
is polecat. The under-hair is yellow and 1/3 of an inch deep. The top-hair
is black, 1-1/2–1-3/4 inches long, very fine and open in growth, and not
so close as the martens. The largest and best skins are from Denmark,
Holland and Germany. The Russian skins are smaller, silkier, and are
usually dyed as a substitute for sable.
~Fox, Blue.~--24 × 8 inches. The under-hair is thick and long, while the
top-hair is fine and not so plentiful as in other foxes. It is found in
Alaska, Hudson Bay Territory, Greenland and Archangel. Although called
blue, the color is really of a slaty or drab shade. The skins from
Archangel are more silky and of a smoky bluish color, and being scarce are
most valuable. The white foxes which are dyed a smoky blue are brilliant
and quite unlike the browner shades of the blue-fox.
~Fox, Cross.~--20 × 7 inches. The skins generally have a pale yellow or
orange tone, with some silver points, and a darkish cross marking on the
shoulders, on account of which the animal got its name. Some are very
similar to the pale red foxes of Northwest America. The darkest and best
skins are from Labrador and Hudson Bay, those from lower latitudes being
inferior.
~Fox, Grey.~--27 × 10 inches. Has a close dark drab under-hair, with
coarse regular, yellowish, grizzly-grey top-hair. The majority of the
skins come from Virginia and southwestern U. S. A. Those from the west
are larger and brighter-toned.
~Fox, Kit.~--20 × 6 inches. The under-hair is short and soft, as is also
the top-hair, which is a very pale grey mixed with some yellowish-white
hairs. It is the smallest of the foxes, and is found in Canada and
northern United States.
~Fox, Red.~--24 × 8 inches, although some kinds are larger. The under-hair
is long and soft, and the top-hair is plentiful and strong. The colors
range from pale yellow to a dark red, some being very brilliant. It
is widely found in northern America, China, Japan, and Australia. The
Kamchatka foxes are exceptionally fine and rich in quality. Farther north,
near the open sea, the fur is coarse. The skins have an extensive use,
both natural and dyed. They are dyed black in imitation of the black
fox, or these when pointed with badger or other white hair to imitate the
silver fox.
~Fox, Silver.~--30 × 10 inches. The under-hair is close and fine, and the
top-hair, which is black to silvery, is 3 inches long. The fur on the neck
usually runs almost black, and in some cases the black extends over half
the length of the skin. When all black, it is a natural black fox, and
is exceedingly rare and high-priced. The silver fox is very valuable, the
finest wild skins coming from Labrador. The tail is always tipped white.
The majority of the silver fox pelts that reach the market today are bred
on ranches in Canada and the United States.
~Fox, White.~--20 × 7 inches. It is usually small and inhabits the extreme
northern sections of Hudson Bay, Labrador, Greenland, and Siberia. The
Canadian are silky-haired and inclined to a creamy color, while the
Siberian are whiter and more woolly. The under-hair is generally of a
bluish-grey tone, but the top-hair in winter is usually full enough
to hide such a variation. Those skins which have under-hair that is
quite white are rare and much more expensive than the others. In summer
specimens of these species have slightly discolored coats, the shades
resembling those of the blue fox. The skins which are not perfectly white
are bleached, or if they cannot be bleached sufficiently white they are
dyed various shades of smoke color, blue-greys and also imitation blue
fox.
~Goat.~--The size varies greatly. The European, Arabian and East Indian
varieties are used mainly for leather and wool. Many from Russia are dyed
black for rugs. The hair is brittle, with poor under-hair, and is not
durable. The Chinese export many skins in grey, black and white, made into
rugs of two skins each. Frequently the skins are dyed black or brown in
imitation of bear.
~Hamster.~--8 × 3-1/2 inches. A destructive rodent found largely in Russia
and Germany. The fur is very flat and poor, of a yellowish-brown color,
with a little marking of black. On account of its lightness it is used
for linings; occasionally it is dyed.
~Hare.~--24 × 9 inches. The common hare of Europe is used mostly for the
hatters’ trade. The white hares of Russia, Siberia, and other northern
regions are the ones mainly used for furs. It is whitest in mid-winter,
and the fur on the flanks is longer than that on the back. The hair is
brittle and not durable, and the leather is quite as bad. Yet the skins
are used to dye imitations of more than a dozen different furs. The North
American hares are also dyed black and brown.
~Kangaroo.~--The sizes vary greatly, the larger kinds being generally
used for making leather. The sorts used for fur are, blue kangaroo, bush
kangaroo, wallaroo, rock wallaby, swamp wallaby, and short-tailed wallaby.
Many of the swamp wallabies are dyed imitation skunk, and look quite
attractive. The colors are generally yellowish or brown, some in the swamp
variety being dark brown. The skins are quite strong. The rock wallabies
are soft and woolly, and often have a bluish tone. They are used for rugs.
~Kolinsky.~--12 × 2-1/2 inches. It is of the marten family. The under-hair
is short and rather weak, but regular, as is also the top-hair. The color
is usually a uniform yellow. They are generally dyed in imitation of other
members of the marten family. It is very light in weight, and the best
skins are obtained from Siberia. The tails are used for artists’ “sable”
brushes.
~Lambs.~--Those of commercial interest are from South Russia, Persia,
and Afghanistan, and include Persian Lamb, Broadtail, Astrachan, Shiraz,
Bokhara, Caracul, and Krimmers.
The _Persians_ are 18 × 9 inches, and are the finest and best. When
properly dressed and dyed they should have regular, close, bright curls,
varying from small to very large and if of equal size, regularity,
tightness and brightness, their value is inestimable.
All the above lambs, except krimmer, are naturally a rusty black or brown,
and are in most cases dyed a jet black. Luster cannot be imparted where
naturally lacking.
_Broadtails_, 10 × 5 inches, are the young of the Persians, killed
before the wool has had time to develop beyond the flat wavy state. They
are naturally of exceedingly light weight, and when of an even pattern
possessing a lustrous sheen are costly. The pelt, however, is too delicate
to resist hard wear.
_Astrachan_, _Shiraz_, and _Bokhara_ lambs, 22 × 9 inches, are of
a coarser and looser curl. Caracul lambs are the very young of the
astrachan, and the finest skins are almost as effective as the broadtails,
although not so fine in texture.
_Krimmers_, 24 × 10 inches are grey lambs obtained from Crimea. They are
of a similar nature to the caraculs, but looser in curl, and ranging in
color from a very light to a dark grey, the best being pale bluish-greys.
_Slink lambs_ come from South America and China. The South American are
very small, and generally those are still-born. They have a particularly
thin pelt, with very close wool of minute curls. The Chinese sorts are
much larger.
~Leopard.~--3 × 6 feet long. There are several kinds, the chief being the
snow leopard or ounce, Chinese, Bengal, Persian, East Indian, and African.
The first variety inhabits the Himalayas, and has a deep, soft fur, quite
long as compared with the Bengal sort. The colors are pale orange and
white with dark markings. The Chinese are of a medium orange-brown color
and full in fur. The East Indian are less full and not so dark; the Bengal
are dark and medium in color with short, hard hair. The African are small,
with pale lemon-colored ground, and very closely marked with black spots.
~Lynx.~--45 × 20 inches. The under-hair is thinner than in the fox, but
the top-hair is fine, silky and flowing, 4 inches long, of a pale grey,
slightly mottled with fine streaks and dark spots. The fur on the flank
is longer, and white, with very pronounced markings of dark spots, and
this part of the skin is generally worked separately. Skins with a bluish
tone are more valuable than those with a sandy or reddish hue. The lynx
inhabits North America as far south as California. The best skins come
from Hudson Bay, and also Sweden. They are generally dyed black or brown,
similar to dyed fox.
~Marmot.~--18 × 12 inches. A rodent found largely in the south of
Germany. The fur is yellowish-brown, rather harsh and brittle, and without
under-hair. Also found in North America, China, and the best skins come
from Russia. It is dyed brown in imitation of mink or sable, the stripes
usually being put on in the completed garment.
~Marten, Baum.~--16 × 5 inches. Also called Pine Marten, and is found in
the woods and mountains of Russia, Norway, Germany and Switzerland. It
has a thick under-hair with strong top-hair, and ranges from a pale to a
dark bluish-brown. The best are from Norway, are very durable and of good
appearance, and a good substitute for the American sable.
~Marten, Japanese.~--16 × 5 inches. It is of a woolly nature with rather
coarse top-hair, and quite yellow in color. It is dyed, but it is not an
attractive fur, lacking a silky, bright and fresh appearance.
~Marten, Stone.~--Size and quality similar to the baum marten. The color
of the under-hair is stony white, and the top-hair is a very dark brown,
almost black. Skins of a pale bluish tone are used natural, while less
clear colored ones are dyed, usually in Russian sable shades. They are
found in Russia, Bosnia, Turkey, Greece, Germany, and France, the best
coming from Bosnia and France.
~Mink.~--16 × 5 inches. Is of the amphibious class, and is found
throughout North America, as well as in Russia, China and Japan. The
under-hair is short, close and even, as is also the top-hair, which is
very strong. The best skins are very dark, and come from Nova Scotia. In
the central states the color is a good brown, but in the northwest and
southwest, the fur is coarse and pale. It is very durable and an economic
substitute for sable. The Russian species is dark, but poor and flat in
quality, and the Chinese and Japanese sorts are so pale that they are
always dyed.
~Mole.~--3-1/2 × 2-1/2 inches. Is plentiful in the British Isles and
Europe, and is much in demand on account of its velvety fur of a pretty
bluish shade. Although the skins are comparatively cheap, the cost of
dressing is high on account of the considerable amount of labor involved.
The pelt is very light in weight, but does not resist well the friction
of wear.
~Monkey, Black.~--18 × 10 inches. The species usually found on the west
coast of Africa, is the one of interest to the fur trade. The hair is very
long, very black and bright, with no under-hair, and the white pelt is
very noticeable by contrast.
~Muskrat, Brown, Black, Russian.~--12 × 8 inches. A very prolific rodent
of the amphibious class, obtained in Canada and the United States. It has
a fairly thick and even brownish under-hair, and a rather strong, dark
top-hair of medium density. It is a durable and not too heavy fur. It
is used natural, but recently the plucked, sheared and dyed skins have
found a very extensive use as Hudson seal, an imitation of real seal. The
so-called black variety of muskrat is found in New Jersey and Delaware,
but only in comparatively small numbers. The Russian is also very small
and limited in numbers. It is of a pretty silvery-blue shade with even
under-hair, with very little silky top-hair, and silvery-white sides,
presenting altogether a marked effect.
~Nutria.~--20 × 12 inches. Is a rodent about half the size of the beaver,
and when plucked, has only about half the depth of fur, which is not so
close. It is often dyed a seal color, but its woolly nature renders it
less effective than the dyed muskrat. The skins are obtained from northern
South America.
~Opossum, American.~--18 × 10 inches. Is a marsupial, the only one of
its class found outside of Australia. The under-hair is of a very close
frizzy nature, and nearly white, with long bluish-grey top-hair mixed with
some black. It is found in central sections of the United States, and is
frequently dyed imitation skunk.
~Opossum, Australian.~--16 × 8 inches. Is of a totally different nature
from the American. Although it has fur-hair and top-hair, the latter is
sparse and fine, so that the fur coat may be considered one of close even
under-hair. The color varies according to the district of origin, from
blue-grey to yellow with reddish tones.
Those from near Sidney are a light clear blue, while those from Victoria
are a dark iron-grey, and stronger in the fur-hair. The most pleasing
shade of grey comes from Adelaide. The reddest are the cheapest. The
ring-tailed opossum, 7 × 4 inches, has a very short, close and dark grey
under-fur, some almost black, but the skins are not used extensively.
The Tasmanian opossum, grey and black, 20 × 10 inches, is of a similar
description, but larger, darker, and stronger in the under-hair.
~Otter, River.~--The size varies considerably, as does also the length of
the fur, according to the origin. It is found in greatest numbers in the
coldest northern regions, and with the best under-hair, the top-hair being
unimportant, as it is plucked out. Most of the best river otters come
from Canada and the United States, and average 36 × 18 inches. The skins
from Germany and China are smaller and shorter furred. The colors of the
under-hair vary from very dark brown to almost yellow. Both the fur and
the leather are extremely strong, and many skins are dyed imitation seal
after plucking.
~Otter, Sea.~--50 × 25 inches. Is one of the most beautiful of furs.
The under-hair is of a rich, dense, silky nature, with short and soft
top-hair, which is not plucked. The colors range from a pale grey-brown
to a rich black, and many skins have a sprinkling of white or silver-white
hairs. The blacker the under-hair, and the more regular the silver points,
the more valuable is the skin.
~Pony, Russian.~--This is a comparatively cheap, but very serviceable
fur, and possesses some very desirable qualities. It has a thin leather,
but is also scantily haired. Young pelts have a design on them somewhat
similar to broadtail lambs, or moire astrachans, but this design is lost
to a considerable degree by dyeing the furs. The hair, which is very
glossy, is generally dyed black, although the natural pelts are also worn
extensively.
~Rabbit.~--10 × 16 inches. The fur is thick and fine, but the pelt is very
weak. It is a native of central Europe, Asia, North and South America,
New Zealand and Australia. The color ranges from white to black. France,
Belgium and Australia are the greatest producers of rabbits suitable for
dyeing black, the so-called French seal, for which they are mostly used.
At the present time the dyeing of rabbits constitutes a considerable
percentage of the total fur-dyeing operations in this country. The most
varied shades are produced on rabbit, and it probably is the basis of
the greatest number of dyed imitations of better furs. In addition to the
French seal, or sealine, rabbit is dyed in imitation of beaver, mole, etc.
~Raccoon.~--20 × 12 inches. Varies considerably in size, quality and color
of the fur, according to the part of North America in which it is found.
The under-hair is 1–1-1/2 inches deep, pale brown, with long top-hair
of a dark and silvery-grey mixture of a grizzly type, the best having a
bluish tone, and the cheapest a yellowish or reddish-brown. The best skins
come from the northern part of the United States. The skins have a wide
use natural, but are also dyed dark blue, or imitation skunk, the latter
being a very effective and attractive substitute, and extensively used.
Sometimes the skins are plucked, and if the under-hair is good, the effect
is similar to a beaver.
~Sable, American and Canadian.~--17 × 5 inches. The skins are sold in the
trade as martens, but since many of the skins are of a very dark color,
and almost as silky as Russian sable, they have come to be known as sable.
The prevailing color is a medium brown, while many are quite yellow. These
pale skins have been dyed so well that they can cheaply substitute Russian
sable. The finest skins are from the Eskimo Bay and Hudson Bay districts,
the poorest from Alaska.
~Sable, Russian.~--15 × 5 inches. Belongs to a species of marten similar
to the European and American, but much more silky in the texture of the
fur. The under-hair is close, fine and very soft, the top-hair is regular,
fine and flowing, and silky, ranging from 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 inches in depth.
In color they vary from a pale stony or yellowish shade to a rich, almost
black, dark brown, with a bluish tone. The leather is exceedingly close
and fine in texture, very light in weight, and very durable. The Yakutsk,
Okhotsk, and Kamchatka sorts are good, the last being the largest and
fullest-furred, but of less color density than the others. The most
valuable, are the darkest from Yakutsk in Siberia, particularly those
having silvery hairs evenly distributed over the skin, but these furs are
very rare.
The Amur skins are paler, but often of a pretty, bluish tone, with many
interspersed silvery hairs. The fur is not so close or deep, but is very
effective nevertheless. The paler skins from all districts are now tipped,
the tips of the hair being stained dark, the fastest dyes being used, and
only an expert can detect them as differing from the natural shades.
~Seal, Fur.~--The sizes range from 24 × 15 inches to 15 × 25 inches,
the width being the widest part of the skin after dressing. The most
useful skins are the pups 42 inches long, the quality being very good and
uniform. The largest skins, known as wigs, and ranging up to 8 feet in
length, are uneven and weak in the fur. The supply of the best sort is
chiefly from the northern Pacific, Pribilof Islands, Alaska, northwest
coast of America, Aleutian Islands, and Japan. Other kinds are taken from
the south Pacific regions. The dressing and dyeing of seal takes longer
than for any other fur, but when finished, it has a fine, rich effect,
and is very durable.
~Seal, Hair.~--This is chiefly used for its oil and leather, and not for
its fur. It has coarse, rigid hair, and no under-hair.
~Skunk, or “Black Marten.”~--15 × 8 inches. The under-hair is full, and
fairly close, with glossy, flowing top-hair about 2-1/2 inches long. The
majority of the skins have two stripes of white hair extending the whole
length of the skin. These were formerly cut out, but more recently are
dyed the same color as the rest of the skin. They are widely found in
North and South America. The best are from Ohio and New York. The skunk
is naturally the blackest fur, is silky and very durable.
~Squirrel.~--10 × 5 inches. This size refers to the Russian and Siberian
types, which are practically the only kind imported for fur, other species
having too poor a fur to be of great commercial interest. The back of the
Russian squirrel has an even, close fur, varying from a clear bluish-grey
to a reddish-brown, the bellies in the former being of a flat quality and
white, in the latter, yellowish. The backs are worked up separately from
the bellies. The pelts, though light in weight, are tough and durable.
The tails are dark and very small, and considerably used.
~Tiger.~--The size varies, the largest measuring about 10 feet from the
nose to the root of the tail. It is found throughout India, Turkestan,
China, Mongolia, and the East Indies. Coats of the Bengal variety are
short and of a dark orange-brown with black stripes. Those from other
parts of India are similar-colored, but longer in hair, while those
from the north and China are not only large in size, but have very long
soft hair of a delicate orange-brown, with very white flanks, and marked
generally, with the blackest of stripes.
~Wolf.~--50 × 25 inches. Is closely allied to the dog family, and very
widely distributed over the world. The best are the full-furred skins
of a very pale bluish-grey with fine, flowing black top-hair, from the
Hudson Bay district. Those from the United States and Asia are harsher and
browner. The Siberian is smaller than the North American, and the Russian
still smaller. A large number of prairie-dogs, or dog-wolves, is also used
for cheaper furs.
~Wolverine.~--16 × 18 inches. Is a native of America, Siberia, Russia, and
Scandinavia, and is of the general nature of the bear. The under-hair is
full and thick, with strong, bright top-hair about 2-1/2 inches long. The
color is of two or three different shades of brown on one skin, the center
being dark, and presenting the general appearance of an oval saddle,
bordered with a rather pale shade of brown, and merging to a darker shade
towards the flanks. This peculiar character stamps it as a distinguished
fur. It is expensive, and quite valuable on account of its excellent
qualities.
~Wombat, Koala or Australian Bear.~--20 × 12 inches. It has a light grey
or brown, close, thick under-hair 1/2 inch deep, and no top-hair, with a
rather thick, spongy pelt. It is cheap, and well suited for rough wear.