America, a mass of valuable information has been furnished in the Report
of the Second General Council of the Presbyterian Alliance, convened at
Philadelphia, September, 1880. At the previous meeting of the Council,
held at Edinburgh, July, 1877, a Committee was appointed to Report on
the Creeds and Subscriptions in use among the various bodies forming the
Alliance. It is unnecessary to refer to the answers given in to the
Committee's Queries, from Great Britain and Ireland, except to complete
the history of the Presbyterian Church of England, so long distinguished
for the abeyance of clerical subscription.
It was in 1755, that the Presbytery of Newcastle made a movement towards
disclaiming the Arian, Socinian and other heresies, but without
proposing a Confession. In 1784, the same Presbytery adopted a Formula
accepting the Westminster Confession; in 1802, however, subscription to
the Formula was rescinded. Through Scottish influence, the return to the
Westminster Confession was gradually brought about in the early part of
the century. That Confession was formally adopted by the Presbytery of
Newcastle in 1824; and since 1836, all the ministers of the body have
been required to accept it in the most unqualified manner.
The Calvinistic Methodists of Wales drew up, in 1823, a Confession
consisting of forty-four articles, agreeing substantially with the
Westminster Confession. Subscription is not required: but the clergy,
prior to ordination, make a statement of their doctrinal views, which
amounts to nearly the same thing. Like the Roman Catholic Church, the
Methodists depend upon discipline rather than upon Subscription.
The Congregational Churches take up almost the same attitude towards
their clergy. There is no subscription; but any great deviation from the
prevailing views of the body leads to forfeiture of the position of
brotherhood, and possibly also to severance from the charge of a
congregation. Still, the absence of a binding and penal test is
favourable to freedom, from the present tendency of men's minds in that
direction.
As regards the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, we
find that the first Presbytery was constituted in 1705. No formal
statement of doctrine was considered necessary till the lapse of about
a quarter of a century, when the spread of Arianism in England urged the
Synod of Philadelphia to pass what was called the "Adopting Act" in
1729, by which they hoped to exclude from American churches British
ministers tainted with Arian views. They agreed that all the ministers
of this Synod, or that shall hereafter be admitted into this Synod,
shall declare their agreement in and approbation of the Confession of
Faith, with the Larger and Shorter Catechisms of the Assembly of Divines
at Westminster, as being, in all the essential and necessary articles,
good forms of sound words and systems of Christian doctrine, "and we do
also adopt the said confession and the catechisms as the Confession of
our faith ".
The formula subscribed by ministers at their ordination is, however,
less stringent than that in use in the Churches of Scotland.
* * * * *
[French Protestant Churches.]
Turning next to the Continent we may refer, first, to the French
Protestant Church, now consisting of two divisions--(1) The Reformed
Church united to the State, and (2) The Union of the Evangelical
Churches.
The Gallic Confession, styled "La Rochelle," the joint work of Calvin
and Chaudien, was adopted as the doctrinal standard of the Reformed
French Churches in their first national synod, which met at Paris in
May, 1559, and was revised and confirmed by the seventh synod, which
assembled at La Rochelle under the presidency of Theodore Beza in 1571.
It is composed of forty articles, which reproduce faithfully the
Calvinistic doctrine. But it is not accepted as infallible; the final
authority, in the light of which successive synods may reform it, is the
Bible.
"The reformed doctrine, as sanctioned by the Confession of La Rochelle,
was, in its essential features, recognised and professed by all
Protestant France; and, notwithstanding its sufferings and internal
dissensions, the Church during the first quarter of the 17th century
held its own course and remained faithful to itself. A consistory, that
of Caen, had, even as late as 1840, restored in the churches of its
jurisdiction the Confession of La Rochelle in its full vigour. Little by
little, however, under the influence of the naturalistic philosophy of
the 18th century, the negative criticism of Germany, and above all the
religious indifference which followed the repose which the Church was
enjoying after two centuries of persecution, the Confession of Faith as
well as the discipline fell into disuse. It was never really
abrogated.... However, it is a practical fact that the partisans of one
of the two sections which to-day divide the Reformed Church of France,
not only do not consider themselves bound by the Confession of La
Rochelle, but, tending more and more towards Rationalism, and seeing in
Protestantism only the religion of free thought, have come to reject the
great miracles of the gospel, and to demand for their pastors, in the
bosom of the Church, unlimited freedom in teaching. While on the one
hand the sovereignty of the Holy Scriptures is claimed, on the other is
held the rule of individual conscience."
The majority of the official synod which met at Paris in September,
1848, refused to put an end to the doctrinal disorder in the Church by
establishing in the Church a clear and positive law of faith. The
minority, regarding the adverse vote as an official sufferance of
indifference on doctrinal matters, separated themselves from their
brethren, and founded the "Union of the Evangelical Churches of France".
[General Synod of Paris in 1872.]
In 1872, "in the face of attacks directly aimed, in the bosom of the
Church, at the unity of her doctrine," the thirtieth general synod,
assembled at Paris, drew up, not a complete Confession of Faith, but
a declaration determining the doctrinal limits of the Church, and
proclaiming "the sovereign authority of the Holy Scriptures with regard
to belief, and salvation through faith in Jesus Christ, the only
begotten Son of God, who died for our sins and rose again for our
justification".[20]
Down to 1824, new pastors indicated their adherence to the Confession of
Faith by signature. In 1824, however, signature was replaced by a solemn
promise. "Since that time different formulas have been used at the will
of the pastors performing the ordination, without any one of them having
the sanction of a synod, and without the manner of adherence having been
expressly stipulated."
"Since the Synod of 1872, in ordinations over which pastors attached to
the Synodal Church have presided, candidates are required to conform
formally, in the presence of the congregation, to the declaration of
faith adopted by the Synod. Article 2, of the complete law, declares:
'Every candidate for holy orders must, before receiving ordination,
affirm that he adheres to the faith of the Church as stated by the
general synod'."
Theological professors were sometimes appointed without conditions.
Still they were not permitted to teach doctrines in glaring
contradiction to the general belief of the Churches. For example, in
1812, M. Gasc, professor of theology at Montauban, attacked in his
lectures the doctrine of the Trinity, whereupon several consistories
required him either to retract his opinions or to resign his post.
M. Gasc retracted his opinions.
"The Evangelical Churches of France, composed of members who have made
an explicit and individual profession of faith, and who recognise in
religious matters no other authority than that of Jesus Christ, the only
and sovereign head of the Church," accept the Old and New Testaments as
directly inspired by God and so constituting the only and infallible
rule of faith and life.
[Churches of Switzerland.]
The Churches of Switzerland have the pre-eminence in the relaxation or
disuse of Tests. The following is a summary of their practice:--
_The Reformed Church of the Canton of Vaud_.
According to the ecclesiastical law of May 19, 1863 (slightly modified
by a decree of December 2, 1874), the _National Church_ of the Canton of
Vaud "desires chiefly that its members should lead a Christian life,"
and "admits no other rule of instruction than the Word of God contained
in the Holy Scriptures". Every candidate for the ministry is required by
the ecclesiastical law of December 14, 1839, to "swear that he will
discharge conscientiously the duties which the National Reformed
Evangelical Church imposes upon its ministers, and that he will preach
the Word of God in its purity and integrity as it is contained in the
Holy Scriptures". "When accusation is brought against any minister on
the ground of doctrine, the proceedings are distinctly marked; but in
reality it is simply required that 'the jurymen give a conscientious
verdict'."
The _Free Evangelical Church_ of the Canton of Vaud requires that
candidates for the ministry be examined as to their religious life,
their calling to the ministry, their doctrine and their ecclesiastical
principles by a committee of the synodical commission, with pastors and
elders. After examination the candidate must "declare his cordial
adhesion to the doctrines and institutions of the Free Church". This
pledge is verbal.
_Independent Evangelical Church of Neuchatel._
The ancient Reformed Church of Neuchatel never put forth any special
Confession of Faith. The assembly of Pastors, the governing body of the
Church, down to 1848, accepted the Holy Scriptures, the forms used in
baptism and the communion, and the Apostles' Creed as fully adequate to
express the faith of the Church. The Synod, who took over the government
of the Church in 1848, maintained the same position, refusing in 1857 to
sanction an abridged Confession.
On May 20, 1873, the Grand Council of the Republic and Canton of
Neuchatel passed a new law regulating the relation of Church and State.
Article 12 says: "Liberty of conscience in matters of religion is
inviolable; it may neither be fettered by regulations, vows, or
promises, by disciplinary penalties, by formulas or a creed, nor by any
measures whatsoever".
Hence resulted the separation of those that formed the Independent
Evangelical Church of Neuchatel, which, in 1874, adopted a Confession
"acknowledging as the only source and rule of its faith the Old and New
Testaments, and proclaiming the great truths of salvation contained in
the Apostles' Creed". The ministers, on ordination, take an oath to
advance the honour and glory of God above all things; to maintain his
word at the risk of life, body, and property; to be in unity with the
brethren in the doctrines of religion and in the holy ministry; and to
avoid all sectarianism and schism in the Church.
_National Protestant Church of Geneva_.
[Historical Changes in the Church of Geneva.]
During the 16th century, from 1536 onwards, the National Protestant
Church of Geneva was in constant turmoil through the insistence on, and
the opposition to, the doctrines laid down by Calvin in his Confession
of Faith and System of Ecclesiastical Ordinances. The 17th century is
marked by the conflicts of Calvinism and Arminianism. After numerous
variations, the oath of consecration was, in June 1725, changed hack to
the form provided by the Ecclesiastical Ordinance of 1576: "You swear to
hold the doctrine of the holy prophets and apostles, as it is contained
in the books of the Old and New Testaments, of which doctrine our
Catechism is a summary ". This oath remained in force for nearly a
century, till 1806. "It was asserted in the discussion (in the Assembly)
that no one should be forced to follow entirely Calvin's Catechism. It
is further expected that the candidates for the ministry should be
requested not to discuss in the pulpit any striking or useless matter
which might tend to disturb the peace. At this time, the Confession of
Faith of the 17th century was abolished to return to that of the 16th
century, interpreting the latter with much freedom. The Lower Council
ratified this decision, but ordered the Assembly to keep the most
absolute silence upon this subject, especially in the presence of
strangers." In 1788, the Assembly adopted a new Catechism, containing
numerous points of divergence from the orthodox Catechism of Calvin,
which it superseded with the sanction of the Lower Council. In 1806, the
new formula of consecration threw out the Catechism; it ran thus--"You
promise to teach divine truth as it is contained in the books of the Old
and New Testaments, of which we have an abridgment in the Apostles'
Creed". In 1810, after long deliberation, there was published a revision
in the latitudinarian and utilitarian sense of the Larger Catechism. In
the same year, the Apostles' Creed was thrown out of the pledge of the
ministers, which now read thus: "You promise ... to preach, in its
purity, the gospel of our Lord Jesus Christ, to recognise as the only
infallible rule of faith and conduct the word of God, as it is contained
in the sacred books of the Old and New Testaments". Presently, however,
in 1813, a religious revival led to dangerous discussions, and the
ministers were bound "to abstain from all sectarian spirit, to avoid all
that would create any schism and break the union of the Church"--an
addition suppressed towards 1850; and in 1817, they were required to
pledge themselves to abstain from discussing four points in
particular--the manner of the union of the divine and human nature in
the person of Jesus Christ; original sin; the manner in which grace
operates, or saving grace; and predestination; and, if led to utter
their thoughts on any one of these subjects, they were "to do so without
too much positiveness, to avoid expressions foreign to the Holy
Scriptures, and to use, as much as possible, the terms which they
employ". In 1847, the organisation of the Protestant worship was set
forth in a special law, and in 1849, the Consistory called in accordance
with this, adopted an organic rule for the Church. According to Article
74, the functionaries of the Church may be subjected to discipline "in
case of teaching, preaching, or publicly professing any doctrine that
may bring scandal upon the Church". Various modifications followed. In
1874 (April 26), Article 123 was made to declare that "each pastor
teaches and preaches freely on his own responsibility, and no restraint
can be put upon this liberty either by the Confession of Faith or by the
liturgic formulas". In the end of the same year, however (Oct. 3), the
State Council promulgated a new organic law, "in virtue of which a
pastor can either be suspended or dismissed by the Consistory or by the
Council of State for dogmatic motives". In 1875, the pastor obtained the
right to use in his religious teaching any catechetical manual he
preferred, provided he informed the Consistory of his choice. The use of
the _liturgical prayers_, published by the Consistory, became optional.
The pastors were now required merely to declare before God that "they
will teach and preach conscientiously, according to their lights and
faith the Christian truth contained in our holy hooks". The _liturgical
collection_, published by the Consistory in 1875, contains two series of
formulas, expressed in a dogmatic sense on the one hand, and in a
liberal sense on the other. The Apostles' Creed is optional.
_Free Evangelical Church of Geneva_.
The Free Evangelical Church of Geneva demands only a formal adherence to
its Profession of Faith from the elders (including the ministers) and
the deacons. "Some of these officers have even been permitted to hold
certain reserves on such or such article."
_Germanic Switzerland_.
Pastor Bernard of Berne, having enumerated the symbolical writings of
Germanic Switzerland, says: "For centuries the pastors were obliged to
sign them, although it is true that the Second Confession of Helvetic
Faith was alone recognised as the general rule imposed upon pastors.
The signing of the Formula Consensus was exacted only temporarily (being
discarded about 1720). It has been only from the beginning of this
century that, under the influence of rationalism, pastors have been
required to preach the Gospel merely according to the _principles_ of
the Helvetic Confession. To-day we find all confession of faith
abolished in our Germanic Swiss Churches. Pastors preach what pleases
them. Chosen by the parishes, they owe to them solely an avowal of their
doctrines."
* * * * *
The Hungarian Reformed Church has a singular history, in respect of
Creeds. The Report of the Council goes very minutely into the detail of
eleven confessions held successively by that church. Of these, there
survive two--the Helvetic Confession and the Catechism of Heidelberg, by
which ministers and office--bearers are still bound.
* * * * *
[German Churches.]
Next as to Germany. As the several states have their separate
ecclesiastical usages, the same rule does not apply everywhere. For an
extreme case of absence of toleration, we may refer to the Grand Duchy
of Mecklenburg. Lutheranism is the established religion; and the Duchy
is the stronghold of mediaeval conservatism both in politics and in
religion. The, removal of Baumgarten from the University of Rostock is
an example in point; and the decree is so characteristic, and
illustrative that it deserves to be given at length.
"We have to our sincere regret been given to understand that, in your
writings published in and since the year 1854, you have advanced
doctrines and principles that are in the most important points at
variance with the doctrines and principles of the symbolic books of our
Evangelical-Lutheran Church and of our rules of Church Discipline, to
such an extent as to amount to an attempt to shake to the very
foundation the basis whereon these doctrines and principles and our
church rest. In order to reach more exact certainty on these things, we
have assembled our Consistory to consider this matter, and from them we
have received the annexed opinion, by which the above-mentioned view has
been fully confirmed.
"Whereas, then, it is required by our Church Ordinances of 1552 and 1602
(1650) that the Christian doctrine shall be taught 'pure and unchanged,'
as it is contained in Holy Writ, the general symbols of the Christian
Church, in Dr. Luther's Catechism and Confession, and in the Augsburg
Confession of 1530, and that, if an academical teacher fall away from
these, he shall be proceeded against; whereas, further, in Articles II.
to IV. of the Reversals of 1621, the sovereigns gave the States the
assurance that in the University of Rostock there should be neither
appointed nor tolerated any other teachers but such as should be
attached to the Augsburg Confession and the Lutheran religion: the
establishment of the University of Rostock on the pure doctrine of the
Christian symbols and of the Augsburg Confession has been repeated in
§ 4 of the Regulations upon the relations of the town of Rostock to the
State University of 1827, and once again in § 1 of the Statutes of the
University of 1837; no less do the statutes of the Theological Faculty
of Rostock of 1564, and the later Regulation as to this Faculty of 1791,
bind the members of the Faculty to expound the writings of the Prophets
and the Apostles in the sense laid down in the general Christian
symbols, in the Augsburg Confession, the Smalkald Articles, and the
writings of Dr. Luther; your appointment of 31st August, 1850, referred
you to the Statutes of the University and of the Theological Faculty,
and also directed you to comport yourself in accordance with the rule
and line of the revealed word of God, the unchanged Augsburg Confession,
the _formula concordia_, and all the other symbolic books received in
our (lands) country, as well as with the Mecklenburg Church Ordinances
relating to these, without any innovation; you also on your induction on
the 19th of Oct., 1850, bound yourself by oath to the duties contained
in your appointment and to the Statutes of the University and of the
Theological Faculty."
[Removal of Baumgarten from Rostock.]
"We can the shorter time entrust you with the vocation of an academic
teacher of the Evangelical-Lutheran Theology as you have united with
your backslidings in theological doctrine at the same time political
doctrines of the most delicate kind, deduced relatively from those; and
we will, therefore--after hearing of our High Consistory, and after the
foregoing resolution of our ministry according to § 10, Lit. H. of the
Ordinance of 4th April, 1853, relating to the organisation of the
Ministers--hereby remove you from the office, hitherto filled by you, of
an ordinary Professor of Theology in our State University of Rostock."
* * * * *
In Prussia, the Clergy, and especially the University Professors of
Theology, enjoy more liberty than in Mecklenburg; but they are not
wholly secure from the attempts of the Church Courts to enforce
discipline against heretical teaching. The following are recent cases.
1. The St. Jacobi Gemeinde (parish) in Berlin, belonging, as is the rule
in Prussia, to the "Unirte Kirche"--a fusion of the Lutheran and the
Reformed Churches--in 1877, chose, as its pastor, Lic. Horzbach. The
Consistory of Brandenburg, within whose jurisdiction Berlin lies,
refused to admit him on account of his heterodox views. By the
ecclesiastical law, a pastor translated from one consistory to another,
has to be approved of by the one he enters; which gives an opportunity
of exercising a disciplinary power, not beyond what is possessed by the
consistory where he has once been admitted, but more opportunely and
conveniently brought into play. St. Jacobi parish, having apparently a
taste for advanced views, next chose a Dr. Schramm; but he too was
rejected on the same grounds. The third selection fell on Pastor Werner
(Guben); this was confirmed by the Consistory, but was quashed by the
"Oberkirchenrath," or supreme ecclesiastical authority of the country,
located in Berlin. The parish was now considered to have forfeited its
right of election; and a pastor was chosen for it by the Oberkirchenrath.
Happily his views were not too strict for the congregation, and peace
was restored. In all the three instances, the rejection took place on
the complaint of a small orthodox minority in the parish.
2. Rev. Lühr, pastor at Eckenforda, in the Prussian Province of
Schleswig-Holstein, was accused of heresy, and deprived by the
Provincial Consistory of Kiel in December, 1881. Pastor Lühr appealed to
the Berlin Oberkirchenrath, who reversed the sentence, and let him off
with a reproof for the use of incautious language.
There have been two still more notorious heresy hunts: one, the case of
Dr. Sydow in Berlin; the other, Pastor Kalzhoff, who was ultimately
deposed, and is now minister of an independent congregation in Berlin.
Both the central ecclesiastical authority and the provincial
consistories, being nominated by the Government, reflect the religious
tendencies of the Emperor and his Ministers for the time being. At
present, these are probably behind the country at large in point of
liberality.
* * * * *
Next to Switzerland, Holland is most distinguished for advanced views as
to the remission of Tests, and the liberty of the clergy. A very
complete account of the history and present position of the Dutch sects
is given in a pamphlet, entitled "The Ecclesiastical Institutions of
Holland, by Philip H. Wicksteed, M.A. (Williams & Norgate)".
[Subscription in the Dutch Church.]