=Wagner’s Influence=.—The genius of Wagner produced and applied to
Opera a far richer and more complicated orchestration than had existed
before his day. Since then, in many periods and in many countries,
composers have tried to adopt his style, and apply it to the symphonic
as well as to the operatic stage. In the field of purely orchestral
music, Liszt and Berlioz had already formulated a free style, and their
symphonic poems, departing from the set form of the symphony, have also
served as models for later composers. Almost the only recent exponent
of the strict form was Johannes Brahms, for Anton Bruckner, working on
similar lines, did not achieve great success with the public.
=Richard Strauss=.—For many years it was thought that Wagner’s
orchestration would remain unrivalled in the field of music. But
Richard Strauss (born at Munich, Germany, 1864) has made a further
advance in this respect, and handles the full modern orchestra with
the utmost skill. Son of a court horn-player, his musical genius
showed itself in his earliest years, and his studies with the court
capellmeister, F. W. Meyer, resulted in the publication of several
works. At first he followed Brahms and the stricter school, and his
F-minor symphony is a worthy production in that form. A meeting with
von Bülow led to his appointment as assistant-conductor at Meiningen.
To show his ability, Strauss had to conduct, without rehearsal, his
Serenade, Op. 7, for thirteen wind instruments; and the excellence of
this work brought him the desired position. It was at this time that
he met Alexander Ritter, a man of broad intellect and radical ideas.
Under the new influence, Strauss renounced his classical style, and
began to compose the tone-pictures and symphonic poems that have made
his name so important. As he is the chief modern representative of the
new school, his works merit detailed examination.
=His Early Symphonic Poems=.—After an Italian trip in 1886, Strauss
gave his impressions of that country in the form of the symphonic
fantasie “Aus Italien,” his first work in the free style of
subjective emotion-painting. It is in four movements, each a complete
tone-picture. The first, “On the Campagna,” gives a vivid impression
of spacious solitude, with a hint of the pageants and battles once
witnessed by this great Roman field. The second movement, “Amid Rome’s
Ruins,” aims also to give “fantastic pictures of vanished splendor,
feelings of sadness in the midst of the sunlit present.” The third
movement, “On the Shores of Sorrento,” resembles the symphonic scherzo,
while the finale gives an animated picture of “Neapolitan Folk-Life,”
introducing the air of “Funiculi” and other popular Italian tunes.
After four years of conducting at the Munich court theatre, Strauss
settled in Weimar, where he produced three more important works. The
first of these, “Macbeth,” showed that he had abandoned the old form in
favor of the symphonic poem, in which the different movements are fused
into one large whole, free in form. The picture of Macbeth, ambitious
and cruel in spite of his timidity, is ably developed, but the
portrayal of Lady Macbeth brings a still stronger climax of magnificent
orchestral power.
“Don Juan,” the second of the three, is founded on Lenau’s poem. The
hero is not a ruffian adventurer, as in Da Ponte’s libretto, but is
depicted as an arch pessimist, hunting through the world for perfection
in pleasure, but never finding it. There are restless and uncertain
melodies at the opening, to illustrate the hero’s unsatisfied longing.
A knightly theme follows, typical of Don Juan himself. Then come
various episodes, full of attractive enthusiasm, but always ending with
the same vague unrest. A wild carnival, followed by sudden silence and
the cutting theme of a trumpet, announce the hero’s end.
“Tod und Verklärung” (Death and Transfiguration) is a work of great
power and beauty. It depicts an exhausted sufferer, asleep in the quiet
sick-room, dreaming of the beauty of his lost youth. Then follows a
more discordant episode, which may well picture a fierce contest with
the powers of disease, ending in defeated exhaustion. A third portion
brings renewed memories of the morning of life; passages of joyous
enthusiasm and noble aspiration suggest the high hope of youth and the
glorious achievement of manhood; but again comes the struggle with
the powers of Fate, ending in despair and death. The fourth part is
an apotheosis, representing the triumph of man’s upward striving over
death. This section contains some of the most impressive orchestral
beauties in the range of Strauss’ works.
=Program Music=.—In the older symphonic form, it was not necessary
for the composer to suggest a title for his work. Many have done
so—Beethoven in his “Pastoral Symphony,” Mendelssohn in the “Scotch,”
for example; but the exquisite beauty of Schubert, or the romantic
charm of Schumann will impress the hearer without the use of extraneous
suggestions. In the modern school of program music, founded by Liszt,
the composer gives the audience a more or less detailed account of the
subject that inspired him, and tries to paint in tones the events or
moods suggested by the title. Much, therefore, depends on the choice
of the subject. If it is well-known, and gives definite suggestions of
certain moods which can find expression in the orchestra, then it may
receive legitimate treatment by being set to music. But if the subject
is not one that lends itself to broad emotional treatment, or if the
composer aims to picture definite events or objects, he is departing
from the true function of his art. Music deals with expression of
emotion, and should not attempt something that belongs rather to other
arts, such as Literature or Painting. Many persons think that Strauss
has gone too far in this direction, especially in his later works.
=His Later Symphonic Poems=.—In “Till Eulenspiegel,” the hero is a
mediæval rogue, whose adventures are found in an old German tale. He
is a wandering mechanic, who does anything but tend to business. He is
always indulging in madcap pranks, in which he manages to escape from
his well-merited punishment. In the composition, Strauss has given
free rein to his fancy, and portrayed, with rare orchestral skill,
the fantastic jokes, the sly humor, and the rollicking disposition of
the graceless rogue. The work is in rondo form, with definite themes
to typify the hero. These themes form the basis of the music, and are
varied and developed with infinite skill and remarkable orchestral
irony.
“Also Sprach Zarathustra” (Thus Spake Zarathustra) is based on
Nietzsche’s mystic philosophy. Zarathustra, or Zoroaster, alms to teach
the doctrine of the “Over-Man,” by which man is to become a sort of
demigod who rises above good and evil into realms of joy. A picture
of the “Hinterweltlern,” or dwellers in the Rear-World of common
humanity, portrays their yearnings, their joys, and passions, while
their sorrows find voice in a tender “Grave-Song.” Science and its
futility are represented by a fugue replete with chromatics. A passage
entitled, “The Convalescent,” shows the defeat of the spirit of sorrow
and evil, and the triumph of joy. Then follows the wild, chaotic, but
strangely-effective “Dance-Song,” the exultation of the “Over-Man.”
Yet his triumph is not lasting, for at the close, after a sudden
stroke of the bell, comes the weird “Song of the Night-Wanderer,” and
the piece ends mystically in two different keys, as if representing
eternal doubt. Strange as this work may seem, its effect is one of
vast sublimity, and Nietzsche’s wild philosophy is translated into
orchestral effects of remarkable grandeur.
With “Don Quixote” Strauss enters the more definite field of program
music, and aims to picture events. It is cast in the variation form,
but is much more free in style than that title would imply. There is a
theme for the Don, clear at first, but becoming obscure and illogical,
to show that he loses his sanity. He is represented by a solo ’cello,
while his faithful squire Sancho, strange to say, appears mostly in
viola passages. Each variation treats of one adventure. The windmills
are attacked, with disastrous results. The flock of sheep are heard,
bleating in full chorus until put to flight. The bands of pilgrims are
dispersed as robbers. The blindfold ride through the air on the wooden
horse is made realistic by the use of the theatrical wind-machine.
Other adventures follow, and at the end the knightly theme recurs in
a clarified form, to show Don Quixote’s return to reason and death.
It will readily be seen that this work is more experimental than the
earlier ones.
“Ein Heldenleben” represents the fight of Strauss with his adverse
critics. There are six well-marked sections. First comes the hero
himself, portrayed by definite themes that are woven into a strong
climax. Then his enemies are depicted, with remarkable irony, by a
medley of crackling, snarling figures for woodwind. The hero’s helpmate
is represented by a solo violin, and in this section an instrumental
love-duet is introduced. Then follows a picture of the hero’s
battlefield, ending in a song of victory. The hero’s works of peace are
then described, and the meaning of the composition is made clear by the
introduction of themes from the earlier works of Strauss. The final
section shows the hero’s departure from an ungrateful world. This piece
is grandly planned, but like other orchestral works of Strauss, its
themes are not melodic and lack musical charm.
The “Sinfonia Domestica” pictures a day in the composer’s family life.
Here, again, the subject is one that the hearer cannot understand
without an arbitrary explanation. Strauss has given no complete
analysis, but has deigned to explain that the three themes in the early
part represent father, mother and child, that the picture begins in the
afternoon and lasts until the next morning, and that the final fugue
represents the education of the child. The unmelodic style of Strauss
is little suited to such a subject, and the effect is such as to make
the work seem puzzling, at first, if not actually ridiculous.
=His Other Works=.—Of the two early operas by Strauss, “Guntram”
and “Feuersnoth,” neither has had real success; nor does his third
production, “Salome,” seem important. Guntram is a fighter for love,
a member of a mystic fraternity. He rescues Freihild from the tyranny
of Duke Robert, who loves her, and in the struggle he kills Robert.
Freihild falls in love with him, but he must renounce her, as he knows
that he killed Robert out of rivalry in love, an unworthy motive.
“Feuersnoth,” lighter in style, is based on the old legend of a
scornful maiden, whose pride meets punishment. All fire in the town
goes out, and no light can be rekindled, save by a touch of her body;
so that she finds herself exposed to the multitude. In this work, as in
“Heldenleben,” Strauss has introduced veiled attacks on his critics.
The music to both operas shows the usual richness of coloring and
orchestral intricacy, but their themes lack the direct power of the
guiding motives in Wagner’s works.
=The Songs of Strauss= are many in number, and include some with
orchestral accompaniment. They show a modulatory style, combined with
a rare melodic beauty that seems strange in a composer who indulges in
so much orchestral ugliness. Some of these songs, such as “Traum durch
die Dämmerung” or “Allerseelen,” are gems of purest water. The songs
are often involved in style, but always possess unity and directness
of effect. Their beauty shows that the discords in the composer’s
orchestral works are intentional, and not due to lack of melodic
invention. Yet it would seem as if his great mastery of instrumental
coloring could have been employed as effectively in scoring beautiful
themes, instead of the commonplace passages so often found in his
larger works.
=Hausegger=.—Siegmund von Hausegger (Graz, Austria, 1872) is another
master of the modern orchestra. His father was a musician of broad
experience and sound learning, so that it is not strange that his
son’s gifts developed quickly. After his regular studies at the
gymnasium and the university, Siegmund took up music in earnest, under
his father and Degener. His youthful works were now augmented by a
piano quartet, a fantasia, the orchestral ballad “Odinsmeeresritt,”
the one-act drama “Helfried,” and the opera “Zinnober,” based on
a tale of Hofmann. These were followed by a number of songs and
choruses, but Hausegger’s real greatness was first revealed by the
“Dyonisiac Fantasie,” a symphonic poem for full orchestra. This was
followed by a still greater work, “Barbarossa,” while in 1904, at the
Frankfort festival, came “Wieland der Schmied.” “Barbarossa” is in
three movements. The first shows the happiness of the people gradually
fading into sorrow and pain, until the Barbarossa theme at last is
heard; for tradition says that the great emperor is not dead, but
sleeps in the mountain Kyffhäuser, waiting to arise when the need of
his people is too great to be borne. The second movement is a weird,
ghostly picture of the enchanted mountain and the sleeping emperor;
while the last depicts his awakening, his coming forth at the head of
his knights, their victory, and the rejoicing of the people. Wieland
is the wonderful smith whose swords cut off a head so cleanly that it
remains in place. The first movement shows his vision of the beautiful
maid Schwanhilde, appearing from celestial regions; but when he would
claim her, she retreats, terrified. A second part shows his sorrow and
despair. In the third movement hope again triumphs, and he forges for
himself a pair of wings. In the last movement the united lovers leave
the dull world behind, and take their flight to regions of eternal
sunlight.
=Other Orchestral Composers=.—=Gustav Mahler= (Kalisht, Bohemia, 1860)
gained his musical experience as a director in some of the lesser
theatres, and is largely self-taught. Besides two operas and a number
of beautiful songs, he has composed five symphonies. He has tried to
enlarge the symphonic form without departing from it. His symphonies
all aim to express some definite thought, such as pessimism finding
its cure in simple faith, love of nature leading to a high idea of
Pantheism, or doubt clearing in the joys of immortality. The movements
are arranged in contrasting groups, and voices are introduced, at first
solo, and then often in a final chorus of triumph. Mahler’s works are
planned on a grand scale, but his music is often unclear and restless
in effect. =Paul Felix Weingartner= (Zara, Dalmatia, 1863) is another
musician who served his apprenticeship in the smaller theatres, and
became one of the world’s great conductors. He is known by his two
symphonic poems, “King Lear” and “The Elysian Fields,” as well as by
two symphonies in strict form, and by several chamber works. His opera
“Genesius” and his classical trilogy “Orestes” are other successful
works. =Jean Louis Nicodé= (Jerczik, Posen, 1853) is somewhat older
than the modern tone-poets, and if less important is still noteworthy
as an exponent of the program tendency. His two greatest works are
the “Symphonic Variations,” Op. 27, and “Das Meer,” for male chorus,
soloists, orchestra, and organ. The latter is not a cantata, but rather
a great suite, in which vocal movements are balanced against orchestral
numbers. Among younger men, =Hugo Kaun= is familiar to Americans
because of his long sojourn in Milwaukee. His symphonic poems based on
Longfellow’s “Hiawatha” show much fluency and taste. Switzerland now
has its set of young composers, with =Hans Huber= as their leader in
the orchestral field.
=The Present Situation=.—The rich harmonies and free modulations of
Wagner, combined with the setting aside of symphonic form by Liszt,
have caused the more recent composers of Germany to give up almost
wholly the writing of symphonies. The free style of tone-picturing has
been widely adopted, in consequence of the example of Strauss. He has
gone so far that some of his works seem merely colossal experiments in
this direction, and it is not improbable that a revulsion from such
extreme musical impressionism will take place some time in the future.