=Bach and Beethoven Contrasted=.—We now consider the exact nature
of the work which Beethoven did, in distinction from that of Haydn
and Mozart. It has been said that Bach gave the Old Testament in
music, while Beethoven gave the New; that is, that Bach consummated
the old polyphonic school, while Beethoven did an equal work for
the new harmonic school. Yet this is only a half truth; for Bach,
besides perfecting former styles, gave glimpses of modern chromatic
modulation and free expression; while Beethoven, a student of the old
masters, employed polyphonic forms as well as harmonic, making all
work together to translate his thought, and so moulding them into a
means of portraying every emotion as to open the door forever to the
untrammelled presentment of thought, through the medium of music.
=Beethoven’s Gradual Development=.—But Beethoven did not arrive at
this result in an instant. It is true that, even in his early works, a
distinction of style is shown which removes them from a mere imitation,
but, as has been shown, he _began_ practically at the point _where
Haydn and Mozart left off_, with compositions which can hardly be
placed on a higher level than theirs; and, in the course of a life full
of strenuous experiences, he gradually _unfolded the resources_ which
he had received from his predecessors, until he made them adequate to
give vent to the mighty ideas which welled from his soul. Thus we find
in his works a period in which _form is rigidly observed_; and we pass
thence through an era of expansion, during which _form becomes more
elastic_, through the added requirements placed upon it, until the
thought and emotion become so paramount that the _formal lines_ have
entirely _disappeared_, and are only to be traced by careful analysis.
=Beethoven and the Orchestra=.—As the great exponent of instrumental
music, Beethoven found the orchestra his best and fullest vehicle of
expression. So his massive mind, grasping with ease the effects of
manifold combinations of instruments, was able to mould his thoughts
into terms of tone color in which each instrument should be employed to
bring out the exact shade of feeling required. So the orchestra becomes
with him a great individual instrument, responding to the slightest
change of mood.
=Use of the Piano=.—But as a preparation for such orchestral work,
Beethoven realized the value of the pianoforte. Attaining a marvelous
degree of virtuosity in the use of the keyboard at an early age, he
later found this of the greatest advantage in working out his ideas,
and, further, in actually trying their effects upon auditors. Thus
we find in his first pianoforte sonatas effects which appeared much
later in the greater elaboration of his symphonies; thus also is shown
the necessary imperfection of any division of his works into distinct
periods, since his pianoforte style was so greatly in advance of his
orchestral.
=Improvement in the Piano=.—In this connection, it is important to note
that Beethoven’s resources were greatly increased by the improvements
which had been made in piano manufacture. The demand for instruments,
created by the growing popularity of the pianoforte, stimulated
manufacturers to redoubled energy in perfecting them; and, conversely,
the added resources thus developed were an instigation to composers to
test their abilities in the invention of new effects. Thus Beethoven
was placed in command of a piano of much greater power than Mozart’s;
and the work of technicians, like Clementi, for whom he had great
respect, was already hinting at new and marvelous possibilities.
=Added Sonority and Sustaining Power=.—This strength of construction
resulted in greater sonority. Hence we find full chord progressions
and rich floods of tone in Beethoven’s works, in place of the dainty
harmonic accompaniment of former writers. Moreover, the increase in
sustaining force, enhanced by the use of the pedal, made possible a
sustained legato tone for singing passages, which had formerly to be
merely hinted at through shakes and other embellishments. A consequent
tone variety made it possible to emphasize a single voice in this way,
while the accompanying harmonies could be kept well in the background.
Again, this range of tone proved an incentive for long crescendos, from
the softest suspicion of sound to an overwhelming tonal climax.
=Increased Compass=.—The added range which the keyboard developed also
enhanced such effects, by the chance for brilliancy in the treble,
and for profundity in the bass; moreover, Beethoven was quick to make
use of the variety of effects caused by _playing in the different
registers_; sometimes suggesting in this way the contrast in the
orchestra between different groups of instruments, such as the strings
and woodwind.
=Structure of Beethoven’s Sonatas=.—With such resources at his command,
Beethoven was able to give a fuller scope to the Sonata than was
formerly possible, filling out each movement, and perfecting it for the
expression of an integral part of the general idea, and finally placing
it in its proper relationship to the whole. The Sonata Form, as settled
by Haydn, was made the point of departure, serving almost invariably
as the basis of the first movement, and frequently, in shortened form,
for the second, generally slow, movement. For the third movement,
Beethoven at first employed the Minuet, following the custom in the
symphonies of Haydn and Mozart; but later this was generally omitted in
the pianoforte sonatas, while in the symphonies its time was quickened
into that of the dainty, sparkling Scherzo. For the finale, the Rondo
form was most frequent; though, in order to give a fuller compass to
the thought, a combination of the Rondo and Sonata forms was invented
by Beethoven, and used even in his first sonatas. The Rondo form also
appeared occasionally in the slow movement. Add that other forms,
notably that of the Variation, sometimes supplanted one or the other of
these, and we have the structure generally followed by Beethoven.
=Unity of Conception=.—All these movements were associated in an
organic unity of conception which made one grow out of another with
perfect naturalness. Sometimes, indeed, as in opus 27, a continuity of
performance was indicated; always, however, the feeling of dependence
of one movement upon another is present; so that the criticism made
upon Haydn’s symphonies, that a movement of one could be interchanged
with a similar movement of any other without perceptible difference,
could never be made with regard to Beethoven’s works.
=Key Relationship=.—In key relationship, Beethoven struck out from
stereotyped paths, frequently using _contrasting keys related to the
third of the initial chord_; thus a movement or passage in C major
might be followed by any key related to E, the third of the chord of
C, such as E or A major or minor. The original key was most widely
departed from in the slow movement, where the beauty of contrast was
exceptionally noticeable.
=Number of Movements=.—The number of movements which he adopted was
at first four, but this afterwards varied considerably, two or three
movements prevailing; while in the fantasie-sonatas, and especially in
the last five sonatas, an indefinite number of movements, some of them
very short, appeared. He explained this discrepancy on the ground that
he adapted the number of movements to his thought; and when he felt
that he had given complete expression to this, the sonata was brought
to a close.
=Development of First Movement Form=.—Of Beethoven’s first movements,
it may be said that no one has ever spoken with the perfect freedom
and naturalness which he displays. Each part of the movement he
strengthened and developed; the first section announced two themes,
contrasting, but still closely identified; sometimes with a slow
introduction to usher them in; the Development was given a contrapuntal
treatment, solidified by rich harmonies; the third section was varied
by rhythmic or tonal devices, tending to broaden its effect; and,
finally, the Coda was sometimes developed to the length of a fourth
section, in which reminiscences of material used previously were worked
up to a fitting climax.
=Devices for Giving Unity=.—But the most evident characteristic which
Beethoven put into this form was that of _Unity_, or _Continuity of
idea_. This he accomplished by several means. Of these, the first was
by separating the most striking parts of his subjects into short,
definite phrases or motives, and by introducing these in every variety
of manner throughout the movement, sometimes in a sequence on different
degrees of the scale, sometimes by imitation in different voices, again
by varying the length of the component notes, and finally by dropping
off portions, while the portions remaining keep the idea still before
the auditor. Or, some casual phrase, in an unimportant section, will
strike his fancy and he will develop it with a wealth of imagery
astonishing in its inventiveness.[10]
=Continuity of Various Parts=.—This constant presentment of a thematic
idea also serves to bind passages closely together which, in the
sonatas of Haydn and Mozart, were separated by definite pauses. Indeed,
Beethoven sedulously _avoids a complete cadence_, seeking, by leading
the listener eagerly on from one connecting phrase to another, to
retain the interest and make it mount up higher and higher, as the
effects grow in intensity. So phrases are made to overlap one another,
with their boundaries practically eliminated. It has been said that
Beethoven tore down the fences which Haydn and Mozart had erected
between the various parts of the Sonata Form; and this is proven by the
fact that, in the Beethoven sonatas, authorities frequently differ as
to where one part ends and another begins, so close and continuous is
the bond between them.
=Dramatic Effects in Climaxes=.—This close connection is made a
ready element toward the dramatic expression which finds vent in the
climaxes, made from culminating tonal effects, where the thematic
phrase mounts up step by step, higher and higher, growing breathless by
shortened rhythm, until the hearer is brought to the summit of dramatic
intensity; and here thunderous arpeggios, mingled together by the use
of the pedal, hold him spellbound with their sonorous waves of sound.
The supreme passion which Beethoven does not wholly conceal even in
his quieter moods appears frequently in strange, agitated rhythms and
startling accents thrown upon unexpected notes or in unexpected places.
He also used many more marks of expression than his predecessors.
=Freedom in Modulations=.—The boldness of his modulations has already
been mentioned; and these appear with the most freedom in the
development sections, where tonalities pile upon one another, until the
auditor is apparently inextricably involved in a maze of harmonies;
from which, naturally as the awakening from a dream, he finds himself
transported back to the original key, in which the first theme is
taking its course. Beethoven’s sense of proportion, however, sees to it
that this intricacy of keys is well prepared by the definite tonality
of his original subjects, and by the final complete restatement of the
original key. His harmonies frequently shocked his contemporaries by
their violations of conventional rules; but they have long since been
justified by succeeding musicians, who have departed from them to much
bolder flights.
=Program Music=.—It has been said that Beethoven furnishes examples
of the program style—that is, the depicting of definite ideas through
music. We have already found a tendency of this sort among the early
French clavier composers—Rameau, the Couperins and others of their
school; also in some of the German writers, like Pachelbel and Kuhnau.
Viewed in relation to these early composers, Beethoven’s work seems to
have little in common, since his nearest approach to program music was
in attaching to some of his works certain moods, inspired by events or
scenes. Thus he gives the name “Pathétique” to the sonata, opus 13,
“Appassionata” to opus 57, “Les Adieux” to opus 81; while we have the
“Pastoral” symphony, depicting the mood inspired by country scenes,
and the “Eroica,” showing the mood arising from the contemplation of a
hero’s career.
=Pianoforte Concertos=.—The same characteristics which are noted in his
pianoforte sonatas appeared, developed still further, in his larger
works, such as his symphonies and piano concertos. The latter, five in
number, display the resources of the virtuosity of Beethoven’s day, and
yet keep this always subordinated to the inspired musical sentiment,
with which the orchestra nobly accords. The last two of these,
belonging to the maturity of his genius, amply display the powers of
genuine expression.
=Variations=.—Of numerous other piano compositions, the sets of
Variations are prominent. He was fond of taking some short and simply
constructed musical thought, sometimes from some song or opera, and
treating it in every variety of manner that his fertile genius could
suggest. Such compositions, while generally playful in mood, have the
finish which Beethoven never failed to give to his work.
=Beethoven’s Accuracy in Writing=.—It is this seriousness toward his
art which most fully accentuates the real underlying drift of his
nature. In the midst of his untidy ménage, when confusion of material
goods reigned about him, Beethoven nevertheless treated each work
which flowed from his pen with the most careful and critical revision,
never allowing it to go out until he had absolutely fixed each note in
its proper place. Where his art was involved, his usually irritable
nature acquired a fund of patience; so that sometimes whole scores were
rewritten, until he arrived at accurate expression; and, when that
point was reached, his fiat was irrevocable. It is thus a satisfaction
to note that he has not left us the erratic wanderings of an eccentric
mind; but the completed and matured product of a genius, speaking with
authority and precision.