While the violin, on account of the simplicity of its construction,
arrived early at a stage of perfection, the complicated mechanism of
the pianoforte required many generations and many scores of more or
less successful experiments to attain anything like a corresponding
plane. Indeed, such experiments are still constantly in progress; so
that the pianoforte of the future may conceivably realize possibilities
as far ahead of the present piano as that is ahead of its predecessors.
The first attempts at piano manufacture, however, had little in common
with our modern pianos, save the principle of the combination of the
keyboard with strings; since in construction and resulting tone few
points of similarity exist.
=Clavier a Substitute for the Organ=.—We are probably indebted to the
extensive use of the organ for the earliest combinations of keys and
strings. As the demand arose for a more conveniently-keyed instrument
than the large church organs, for practice or private houses, small
portable organs were invented; yet even these did not satisfy the want
entirely, owing to the _difficulties in their wind supply_, which
required an assistant as blower. Thus the organ keyboard came to be
applied, as early as the 11th century, to already existing stringed
instruments which were adapted to the purpose.
=Two Classes=.—There were two classes of these, each made on the
principle of the zither: namely, by stretching strings over a flat
surface or box, generally across bridges, this box serving as a
resonator, to reinforce the weak tone of the strings. One such
instrument, in which the strings were _struck by_ little wooden
_hammers_, was called the Dulcimer; another, in which the strings were
sounded by _plucking_ with the fingers or by a quill, was called the
Psaltery; and from these two were developed the earliest instruments
of the piano class, called by the general name of “Claviers,” from
_Clavis_, a key. The dulcimer type resulted in the =Clavichord=; the
psaltery type in the =Harpsichord=, and, although many other names were
given to varieties of these instruments, all may be placed in one of
the two classes of which they are the chief representatives.
[Illustration: CYMBALUM OR DULCIMER.]
[Illustration: PSALTERY.
This instrument also came in square and other forms; strings varied
from 6 to 38.]
=Principle of the Clavichord=.—The first of the Clavichord instruments
had the name of Monochord, or one-stringed instrument—a name of great
antiquity, first given by the Grecian Pythagoras to an instrument of
one string used by him in determining the relations of tones. Similar
experiments were made in the Middle Ages, in which the various tones
resulting from the vibrations of parts of a string were studied by
means of movable bridges; facility was gained by increasing the number
of strings to four or five, tuned in unison. Next, _keys_ were applied
to these in place of the bridges, which keys _struck the strings at
various_ definite _points_ by means of upright pins or _tangents_, as
they were called, producing varying pitches, according to the length
of the part of the string allowed to sound, the remaining segment
being silenced by a piece of cloth. Thus several tangents struck the
same string at different points, producing different degrees of pitch.
At first, when only the scales corresponding to the white keys were
employed, four or five strings sufficed to sound the necessary tones,
not over twenty-two in number. Later, however, when chromatic notes
were adopted, the number of strings and keys was increased, so that,
by the beginning of the 16th century, the keyboard had a range of
three or four full octaves. From this time on, this instrument, now
generally known as the Clavichord, won a popularity which extended
to the beginning of the 19th century, when the Pianoforte gradually
displaced it. A familiar instrument in England and Germany, it was
especially cultivated by musicians of note in the latter country, even
the renowned Bach preferring it to all other forms of its class.
=The Clavichord=.—In shape, the Clavichord was an oblong box, the
strings of brass extending lengthwise. The fact that one string
served for several keys made it impossible to sound certain intervals
together; yet the device of giving a separate string to each key seems
not to have come in till about the year 1725, and even then not to have
been generally adopted. Without legs, the Clavichord was supported
on a table when in use. Its tone was exceedingly weak and tremulous,
audible only within the distance of a few feet; yet the fact that
this tone could be given different degrees of intensity, and could be
varied to some extent even while sounding, by a peculiar pressure on
the keys (_bebung_), imbued its tone with a sympathetic quality which
helps to account for the tenacity with which musicians clung to it,
notwithstanding all its imperfections.
[Illustration: THE CLAVICHORD.]
=Principle of the Harpsichord=.—Instruments of the Harpsichord class
were especially numerous in Italy, France and England. They differed
from the Clavichord chiefly in the method of setting the string in
vibration. This was done by _plucking_ the string with a quill set
in a jack at the end of the key, the action so arranged that, after
the key was released, the jack fell back to its place, while a damper
came against the string, preventing its further vibration. Since
these strings could not be used as bridges, like the tangents of the
Clavichord, it was necessary from the first that each key should
have a separate string. Moreover, as these strings were thus made of
varying lengths and thicknesses, the Harpsichords were more often made
in a triangular shape, or one like our modern grand pianos, than in
the rectangular Clavichord shape. The chief defect, and the one which
makers tried in vain to remedy, lay in the fact that the _plucking_
of the strings, while producing greater brilliancy, _admitted_ of _no
variation_ in its degrees of _loudness_ or _softness_.
=Virginal and Spinet=.—Several small instruments of this kind preceded
its full development, differing mainly in shape and choice of
materials. In England these received the name of Virginal; in France,
that of Spinet. Both of these were introduced into polite society,
chiefly as small house instruments of limited compass, varied sizes,
and frequently with elaborate decoration. The difference between them
was principally one of shape, the Virginal taking the oblong form
of the Clavichord, while the Spinet was more often triangular. They
appeared both with and without supports; and in some cases the strings
were placed in a vertical position, as in our upright pianofortes.
[Illustration: THE VIRGINAL OR SPINET.]
=The Harpsichord=.—The Harpsichord proper was simply a larger form
of the Spinet and Virginal, and was made in the form of the grand
pianoforte. On account of its added brilliancy of tone, it was
admirably adapted for use in the orchestra, in which it became the
conductor’s instrument in connection with the opera. In Italy, the
terms Clavicembalo and Gravicembalo were given to it, while in Germany
it was called Flügel, or wing, from its wing-shaped cover. As it
became popular as a concert instrument, many inventions were added to
increase the brilliancy and variety of its tone: an extra keyboard was
placed above the first, as in the organ, and three or four strings were
given each note, which could be used to reinforce the single-string
tone, by means of the second keyboard. Moreover, various kinds of
quills were invented, giving different tone qualities; and such
effects were controlled by stops or pedals. These experiments were
especially numerous in the 18th century, in which the rapid growth of
musical resources demanded constantly more tonal possibilities. Large
manufacturers, such as the Ruckers family of Antwerp, and Tabel in
England, vied with each other in producing novel devices, such as the
imitation of other instruments, the tuning of an extra string for each
note an octave above its normal pitch, and the addition of a keyboard
connected with an organ. Attempts to produce a sustained tone resulted
in the Piano-Violin, in which a revolving rosined wheel was pressed by
the key against the string, to continue the tone; but all such were
abandoned finally as unsuccessful.
[Illustration: TWO-MANUAL HARPSICHORD.]
=Invention of the Pianoforte=.—To this exceptional activity in keyed
instruments, and the final failure to produce a singing tone capable of
variation in the Harpsichord, we owe the invention of the Pianoforte.
In 1711, =Bartolomeo Cristofori=, a noted harpsichord maker of
Tuscany, exhibited several “forte-pianos” in which the action was so
constructed that the keys, when depressed, threw little _leather-headed
hammers_, affixed to a bar above them, _against the strings_, thus
making it possible to modulate the strength of tone by the degree of
force with which the keys were struck. When the key was released,
a _damper_ came against the string from beneath, _stopping further
vibration_.
=Early Makers=.—Although this invention did not at first attract
widespread attention, it undoubtedly formed the basis of the others
which quickly followed it, and really asserted the principle afterwards
adopted for the piano action. In 1716, =Marius=, a French manufacturer,
submitted four models for piano actions, which, however, were never
developed. Also, =Schroeter=, a German, constructed two models of
piano actions, in 1717, in one of which the hammers struck on top of
the strings; but neither of these was put to practical use. Finally,
=Gottfried Silbermann=, of Saxony, distinguished as an organ and
harpsichord maker, made two pianofortes, the action of which was
evidently based on that of Cristofori, and which he exhibited to J.
S. Bach. While praising them in many respects, Bach criticised them
as too weak in the upper notes, and too hard to play. Silbermann
was exceedingly painstaking as a workman, having the reputation of
breaking to pieces with an axe even a finished product which showed
any imperfection. He therefore set to work to remedy these defects,
and, in 1737, produced several pianofortes which won Bach’s unqualified
approval.
=Superiority of the Piano=.—The Pianoforte was now placed upon a firm
basis; and although many years elapsed before its resources were
developed sufficiently to cause its universal adoption by musicians,
the final victory over its predecessors was complete. And this victory
was natural, since the Pianoforte was found capable of combining the
best qualities of the Clavichord and the Harpsichord, with the addition
of a tone capacity infinitely superior to either.
=Improvements=.—The story of succeeding piano manufacture and the
manifold inventions and improvements relative to it is one of infinite
details. Among these we notice that while Silbermann pianos were in
“grand” form, =Frederici= of Gera (died 1779) constructed them in
oblong or “square” shape; that the pianos of Spaeth (died 1796) and
of =J. Andreas Stein= (died 1792), whose pianos were adopted for use
by Mozart, showed considerable advancement. The Stein family became
allied with =Andreas Streicher=, an inventive genius, and founded a
manufactory in Vienna which has maintained a high standard to the
present time. The action invented by them, known as the Viennese
action, differs from that of Cristofori in having the hammers annexed
to the keys themselves, instead of on a bar above them; thus giving
a light touch and tone. In England, the principle of the Cristofori
action was developed by the renowned house of =Broadwood=, their action
becoming known as the English action; while in France, =Sebastian
Erhard=, or =Erard=, a Strasburg inventor, founded the Erard action,
which has a double hammer movement, allowing the hammers to fall
either entirely, or only partially into place after the key is struck,
at the will of the performer. The “cottage” action, introduced by
=William Southwell=, about 1800, was the beginning of the “upright”
form, which has now entirely superseded that of the square piano.
Thus, by continued experiments, the piano has gained in compass,
brilliancy, sustaining power and strength of construction, to meet the
constantly-increasing demands placed upon it, until the modern piano
seems to possess unlimited resources, and until the unending supply of
instruments of all grades from hundreds of factories is sufficient to
place one of these “household orchestras” within the reach of rich and
poor alike.
=Equal Temperament=.—An early difficulty in the case of keyed
instruments was the matter of tuning, caused by the fact that it was
found scientifically impossible to tune all the intervals of the scale
at the same time to the true pitch; that is, the pitch demanded by
the natural overtones of the fundamental note of the scale. At the
outset, for instance, it was found that if the fifths were tuned true,
the octaves would be a trifle sharp; and, conversely, if the octaves
were true, the fifths would be a trifle flat. In the case of stringed
instruments, where the tone was made by the performer, it could be
so modified as not to conflict seriously; but with keyed instruments
this was impossible. Thus, many systems of tuning or “temperaments”
were tried, such as having two keys for two notes nearly in unison,
like F-sharp and G-flat, most of these resulting in the possibility of
playing in a few nearly related keys, to the exclusion of the others.
Finally, through the influence of =J. S. Bach= (1685-1750) and the
Frenchman =Rameau= (1683-1764), the simple expedient was definitely
adopted of tuning the octaves true, and dividing each octave into
twelve equal parts, thus uniting such notes as F-sharp and G-flat in
one tone slightly out of tune with either, but not enough seriously to
offend the ear. This, called “_equal temperament_,” was a great gain to
music, since it not only removed a radical defect in keyed instruments,
but also opened the door to that free interchange of keys which has
done so much toward enriching the coloring and scope of succeeding
compositions.