In the book of Genesis it is written: “Jubal, he was the father of all
such as handle the harp and organ.” It is not to be understood that the
word organ in this passage meant an instrument anything like that heard
in our churches at the present day. In fact, as St. Augustine tells us,
there was a time when all musical instruments were called organs.
=The Germ of the Organ=.—The invention of the organ is veiled in
deepest darkness. Its development from its earliest forms to its
present state has occupied a period of almost two thousand years.
Doubtless, the first idea of a wind instrument was suggested by the
breeze blowing across the open ends of broken reeds, the discovery
naturally following that reeds of different lengths gave forth sounds
of varying pitch. In course of time, reeds or pipes, differing in
length, began to be joined together, conveniently arranged so as to
produce a succession of musical sounds, the players blowing them with
the mouth. These instruments were called =Pan’s Pipes=, the =Syrinx= of
the ancient Greeks.
=The First Stage of Development=.—As the number of pipes was increased,
the moving of the head back and forth in order to blow them became
difficult. The pipes were then placed in a sort of box or wind chest,
a tube being added through which the player could blow, the pipes not
intended to sound being closed by the fingers. Furthermore, as the
pipes were increased in number and in size, it became necessary to
employ various mechanical accessories to furnish adequate wind supply,
and to open and close the pipes at will, the breath and fingers of the
player proving insufficient. A device was invented in the form of a
slide, rule or tongue of wood, which was placed beneath the aperture
of the pipe, and perforated so as to shut off or admit wind to the pipe
as it was drawn back or forth. The earliest form of bellows might be
suggested by the leathern bag of the bagpipe. In this the wind pressure
was unsteady and the tone necessarily disconnected.
[Illustration: PAN’S PIPES (SYRINX). EARLY FORM OF THE ORGAN.]
=The Hydraulic Organ=.—The first attempts to secure regular or steady
wind pressure were made by Ctesibus, who lived at Alexandria, about 180
B. C. To him is ascribed the invention of the so-called “=Hydraulic
Organ=.” This term seems somewhat of a misnomer, since the water was
used merely to give the necessary pressure to the bellows, and to
regulate the wind supply. This method was never developed, since the
device did not seem applicable to instruments of any considerable size.
The trend was rather toward a wind supply from a bellows operated on
the same principle as that of the blacksmith’s. In the Hydraulic Organ
the water was thus applied: An inverted air receiver, into which the
wind was forced by a bellows, was immersed in a tank of water, the
pressure of the water around and above the receiver forcing the air
through an aperture at the top into the pipes, the pressure being
regulated by the volume of water in the tank. The hydraulic organ
continued more or less in use up to the early part of the 14th century.
=The Earliest Organs=.—The organ developed little as to size or
mechanical improvements during the first ten centuries of the Christian
Era, and it is difficult to trace the progressive stages in point of
time, place or mechanical invention. The first organ known to the
people of Western Europe was a present from the Byzantine emperor,
Constantine, to Pepin the Short, Major-Domo of the Frankish Kingdom, in
742. It had brass pipes and the “keys” were struck by hands and feet.
Eastern organs also came into France in the time of Charlemagne, son
of Pepin. The first organ used in Germany was made in 812, modelled
after the one just mentioned. In 880, the Pope ordered an organ and
an organ builder from Germany, which seems to indicate that the art
had found support there at an early date. Although not considered
absolutely indispensable, the organ from that time on seems to have
been generally adopted for use in churches. Its many imperfections gave
ground for criticism, yet today it is considered, _par excellence_, the
ecclesiastical instrument.
=Increase in the Size of Organs=.—The organ builders of these early
days were mostly monks, Pope Sylvester II (1003) being eminent,
under the name of Gerbert, prior to his election to the papacy. They
built small organs called “=Portative=,” and large organs called
“=Positive=.” The old hydraulic organ, owing to its excessive weight,
was called “Positive” to distinguish it from the “Portative” or
portable organ, and these terms have been perpetuated to the present
time. An organ built for the Cathedral at Winchester, England, had ten
keys, four hundred pipes and twenty-six bellows, which were operated
by seventy men, “in the sweat of their brows.” Since forty pipes were
attached to a single key, it may be readily understood why its tone was
compared to thunder. The keys were very large, having a deep fall, and
required the whole force of the hand to press down a single one.
=Mechanical Improvements=.—The pipes in the early organs were made
of copper, lead, tin, silver, glass, ivory and various woods, but
experiments finally showed =tin= or =wood= to be best suited for the
purpose. The earliest organs had about twelve pipes, and the larger
instruments three octaves, but without the chromatic intervals. The
pipes were arranged according to the sequence of tones in the old
Church modes, the _octave containing_ but _three semitones_: between
E-F, A-B flat and B-C. The chromatic tones were added gradually, the
breadth of the keys being correspondingly reduced as the increased
number of keys occupied the same space as before. Heretofore, the
_wind_ had usually been _forced from_ the _bellows_ by the _weight_ of
men standing upon them, but in the 10th century use began to be made of
a =lever=, the bellows presumably being weighted.
=The Keyboard is Adopted=.—In the 11th century, the keyboard appeared,
supplanting the levers and slides, previously in use. The first organ
containing this marked improvement was made for the Cathedral at
Magdeburg, Germany. It had sixteen keys. In 1350, a monk at Thorn built
an organ with twenty-two keys, and in 1361 an organ was built for the
Cathedral at Halberstadt with fourteen diatonic and eight chromatic
tones in a compass extending from B, second line, bass staff, to A,
second space, treble. This organ had three keyboards, now termed
manuals.
=The Pedals=.—The invention of pedals is variously ascribed to Albert
Van Os (about 1120), to Van Valbeke, of Brabant, and to a German named
=Bernhard= (1470), an organist of Venice. The latter probably improved,
but did not invent the pedals. The pedals at first did not exceed the
compass of an octave, and were used only for sustaining prolonged
tones. They were _fastened_ to the broad _manual keys_ by stout cords,
thus enabling the performer to draw down the desired key with the foot.
About the year 1418 the pedals began to be attached to _independent
pedal-pipes_, thus imparting to the organ a certain dignity and
sonority, still a chief characteristic of the instrument. After 1475,
all important organs were built with pedal keyboard.
=The Introduction of Stops=.—Up to the 14th century, the different
registers (set of pipes with uniform tone quality) could not be sounded
separately, that is to say: _all_ the _pipes_ belonging to any one key
_sounded_ when that key was depressed. At the close of the 14th century
it was found possible to add =valves= to the pipes in such a manner
as to cause the wind to pass through or be cut off from any series of
pipes at will. The opening and closing was managed through a spring.
The next improvement was to introduce a =slide= to open or close the
passage of wind into the pipes. With these improvements it became
possible for builders to set themselves to the improvement of the
various “stops” or registers.
=Improvements in Stops=.—In the 15th century, pipes of sixteen and
thirty-two feet in length began to be used, necessitating a greatly
_enlarged bellows_. Pipes were _closed_ at the _top_, thereby lowering
the pitch an octave. They were given _smaller diameters_, producing a
softer tone quality. The _shapes_ of the pipes were _varied_, giving
additional variety in tone quality.
Thus began the broad classifications of “=Open=” and “=Stopped=” pipes
in all their varieties. The “=Reeds=” (pipes containing a vibrator
or tongue to set the column of air in motion) were familiar to the
earliest performers, but were not introduced into the organ until as
late as the 14th century. Further improvements were made in the bellows
at the beginning of the 16th century.
=St. Mary’s, Lübeck=.—In 1561, a three-manual organ was in use in St.
Mary’s, Lübeck, Germany. To this organ all the important improvements
were successively added at various intervals until it had, at the
beginning of the 18th century, in the three manuals, respectively,
thirteen, fourteen and fifteen stops, and in the pedal, fifteen stops.
It was to hear the famous Buxtehude play upon this organ that Sebastian
Bach walked fifty miles in 1705.
=Design of Improvements=.—Great improvements have been made in organ
building since the time of Bach, all designed to give the player
greater resources, and increased facility in the handling and control
of the resources, which in the present day are simply enormous.
=The Organ in the American Colonies=.—Although the first organs heard
in America were probably introduced by the Spaniards, of these there
are no authentic records. According to reliable historic data, the
famous old “Brattle” organ was “the first organ that ever pealed to the
glory of God in this country.” It was imported from London, in 1713,
by Mr. Thomas Brattle, who bequeathed it to the Brattle Street Church,
Boston, directing that the parish “procure a sober person that can play
skilfully thereon with a loud noise.” This organ became the property of
King’s Chapel, Boston, and was used until 1756.
=No Art in Early Organ Playing=.—The organs of the early Christian
period were of such a character that playing, in the sense in which we
now understand the word, was out of the question. For some time the
span of the hand possible to players did not exceed the distance of a
fifth. If an octave was to be struck, a second player was necessary.
Only with the narrowing of the keys did artistic playing become
possible. In fact, organ playing has invariably reflected the style and
development of contemporary musical art.
=Early Organists=.—The credit of being “father of organists” is given
to =Francesco Landino=, of Florence (1325-1390), and after him to
=Bernhard=, mentioned as the inventor of the organ pedals. The oldest
organ compositions are some works by =Konrad Paumann= (1410-1473),
who was born blind, yet, like many others since, became a thoroughly
trained musician in spite of his affliction. He also played other
instruments and was a fine contrapuntist. Another of the early
organists is =Benedictus Ducis= (or Hertoghs), born at Bruges, about
1480. He was a pupil of Josquin des Pres. From Ducis, representing the
second Flemish school, as founded by Okeghem, there is a chain almost
of master and pupil, between the early masters of organ playing and
polyphonic writing and Bach, who in these arts became the master of
all. Paumann’s pieces show the style of composing for the instrument
that was considered appropriate. They are essentially transcribed,
but elaborated, vocal works. The compositions of the next organists
of fame, Willaert, of Venice (1490-1562), and Cyprian di Rore
(1516-1565), pupil of the former, have distinct names. _Ricercari_,
_Intonationi_, _Contrapunti_, _Toccati_, _Praeambula_, and _Canzoni_,
but the character remains the same, vocal pieces, elaborated and
freely embellished with runs and other passage work. Later the term
_Ricercari_ came to mean a sort of fantasia in fugal form, often on
a popular air; _Toccata_ became a free fantasia with brilliantly
figurated passages, and a _Praeambulo_ a prelude to a larger piece.
Other famous organists of this period were =Bernhard Schmidt= (1520-?),
German; =Claudio Merulo= (1532-1604), organist at Venice, and his
successors, the two =Gabrieli’s=.
=Frescobaldi and His Successors=.—The greatest of all the organists
of the earlier days, to whom the title of “Father of true organ
playing” has been given, was =Girolamo Frescobaldi=, born in 1583 at
Ferrara, in Italy, educated in Flanders, and from 1608 to his death
in 1644 organist at St. Peter’s, Rome. His fame was so great that the
spacious cathedral was often filled when he gave an organ recital. His
compositions, many of which have been preserved, have a very decided
contrapuntal character, whence some have called him the inventor of the
organ fugue. Two prominent German organists, whose compositions were
studied by Bach, were =Caspar Kerl= (1627-1693), and =Jacob Froberger=
(———1667), both of whom lived in Vienna. The most eminent organist
of the 17th century was =Johann Peter Sweelinck= (1562-1621), pupil
of Zarlino, the famous Italian theorist, and of Andreas Gabrieli,
organist of Venice. Sweelinck occupied the position of organist at the
Cathedral in Amsterdam, and gave much attention to the development of
the fugal style of composition. His compositions are of the highest
importance historically, since they exhibit the first known examples
of the independent use of the pedals in a real fugal part. He was the
most eminent organist of his time (being called the organist maker),
and was the teacher of the following noted players: =Jacob Praetorius=
(died at Hamburg in 1651); =Heinrich Scheidemann= (1596-1663), also
located at Hamburg; =Jan Adams Reinken= (1623-1722), from 1663 organist
and successor to Scheidemann at the Catherine Church, Hamburg (Bach
came to Hamburg several times to hear Reinken play and to learn his
style); =Samuel Scheidt= (1587-1654), organist at Halle. Some of their
compositions are accessible.
[Illustration: JOHANN PETER SWEELINCK.]
Other famous organists of this period were =Johann Pachelbel=
(1653-1706), located at Nuremberg (Bach studied his works as a lad);
=Dietrich Buxtehude= (1637-1707), organist at Lübeck for thirty-nine
years. One of the most important names of this period of development is
that of =Johann Joseph Fux= (1660-1741). His “_Gradus ad Parnassum_,”
published in 1725, a treatise on counterpoint based on the practice of
the great masters, played an important part in the training of Haydn,
Mozart and Beethoven.
=English Organists=.—In the history of English organ playing, the
first great name to engage our attention is that of =Thomas Tallys=,
born about 1520. He is called the “Father of English church music.” He
served under Henry VIII, Edward VI, Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth,
as organist of the Chapel Royal. English organists of distinction
contemporary with and succeeding Tallys were =John Merbecke=, =Richard
Farrant=, =William Byrd=, =John Bull=, =Thomas Morley=, =Orlando
Gibbons= (a contemporary of Frescobaldi), =Matthew Lock=, =John Blow=
and =Henry Purcell=. The last mentioned, born in 1658, became organist
of Westminster Abbey in 1680. The name of Purcell is one of the
strongest in the history of English music. It was his ambition to found
a distinctive school of English composition. Although not successful in
this, he made a lasting impression on English church music and produced
many charming secular works. It is on record that he stood high in the
estimation of his European contemporaries.
=Culmination in Bach and Handel=.—The Polyphonic Period culminated in
Bach and Handel, both born in 1685. These two, who never met, and who
worked upon dissimilar lines, were the most famous organists of their
day, in addition to their greatness in composition.
=The Organ and Polyphonic Music=.—Bach must be regarded as the source
of modern organ composition and playing. In him polyphonic composition
attained its highest perfection and the organ stands as the centre of
the Polyphonic school. The development of the Opera and its influence
towards a freer style in vocal and instrumental composition and the
tendency of instrumental music to develop along harmonic lines had the
effect of relegating polyphonic music to the Church with the organ
as its chief vehicle. It is only of comparatively recent years that
the organ has become a concert instrument. Bach’s treatment of the
instrument serves as a model for the composers of all time and the
study of his works is indispensable to the development of technical
command of the organ and the cultivation of the true organ style.
Handel’s permanent contribution to organ literature consists of sets
of =Concertos=. These concertos, a number of which are still played
and admired, excited the enthusiasm of Sir John Hawkins, who gives a
glowing account of them in his history. =Bach= was appointed Cantor
at the _St. Thomas Schule_, Leipzig, in 1723, and it was here that
much of his greatest work was accomplished. In addition to his duties
at the school, he directed the music in the Churches of St. Thomas
and St. Nicholas. As to the relative superiority of Bach and Handel
as organists, contemporary opinion seems to have differed widely.
Each undoubtedly had a style of his own as shown in his published
compositions. Each excelled in improvisation.
=The Chorale in Protestant Organ Music=.—In addition to his
incomparable preludes and fugues, toccatas, fantasias and pieces in
the larger forms, Bach made the polyphonic treatment of the =chorale=
an art peculiarly his own. In fact, the German style of organ playing
may be said to have developed from the chorale and from the music of
the Reformation. This furnished a fresher and very different source
of inspiration from the Gregorian chant which had been handled so
effectively by Frescobaldi and his Italian successors.
=Marchand=.—One of the most renowned of early French organists was
=Louis Marchand= (1671-1732). In 1717, while living under banishment
in Dresden, he was to have entered into a trial of skill with Bach,
but lost courage and departed on the morning of the appointed day. A
certain triviality has at times characterized the French school of
organ music, undoubtedly a reflection of the prevailing style and taste
in other branches of musical composition. Of later years, however, a
more serious and exalted style has developed.
=The German School=.—To return to the German organists. A name familiar
to all students of the organ is that of Rinck. =Johann C. H. Rinck=
(1770-1846) was a pupil of Kittel, who in turn was a pupil of J. S.
Bach. Rinck’s reputation is based largely on his “Practical Organ
School,” a work still in use. Another name of importance is that of
=Johann Gottlob Schneider= (1789-1864). He has had the reputation of
being one of the greatest German organists since the time of Bach. Of
the great composers since Bach, =Mendelssohn= stands conspicuous as
an organist and composer of organ music. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven,
although occasionally using the organ in their scores, did not compose
for the instrument. Mendelssohn developed a decided fondness for the
organ, which he played admirably. His six sonatas and three preludes
and fugues are masterpieces. Among the representative German organists
and composers should be mentioned: =Adolph Hesse= (1809-1863), author
of the “Practical Organist” and a prolific composer; =Karl August
Haupt= (1810-1891), a celebrated teacher, numbering among his many
pupils from all countries such prominent American organists as Eugene
Thayer, Clarence Eddy and J. K. Paine; =Carl Ludwig Thiele= (1816-1848)
composer of some of the most difficult known works for the organ;
=Gustav Merkel= (1827-1885), a prolific composer, whose sonatas
are numbered among the standard works for the instrument; =J. G.
Rheinberger= (1837-1901), one of the finest organists and best teachers
of his time and a composer of great ability, whose twenty sonatas form
a permanent addition to the best organ literature. A number of American
organists were among his pupils.
=The French School=.—Prominent among organists of the French school in
the 19th century may be mentioned: =L. J. A. Lefébure-Wély= (1817-1869)
and =Antoine Eduard Batiste= (1820-1876). The works of both these
organists are still widely played and have won much popularity. Wely
has been called the “Auber of the organ.” His works display fertility
of melodic invention and a piquancy of harmonic treatment, but are
entirely lacking in the polyphonic element. Much the same may be said
of Batiste, who was a fine player and teacher, and who equalled Wely
in tunefulness but not in musicianship. =Nicholas Jacques Lemmens=
(1823-81), a great player (especially of Bach) and author of the
celebrated “Ecole d’Orgue” may be said to have laid the foundation of
the modern French school. Conspicuous among his successors have been:
=Camille Saint-Saëns= (1835-——), a most versatile musician and a noted
organist; =Théodore Dubois= (1837-——), =Théodore Salome= (1834-——)
and =Felix Alexandre Guilmant= (1837-——). Guilmant, one of the most
noted organists and composers of the present day, was a favorite pupil
of Lemmens. He has been one of the most prolific composers since the
time of Bach, is a master of all the resources of the modern organ,
and has a fertility of invention and a fluent command of contrapuntal
resources. Another eminent French organist is =C. M. Widor= (1845-——),
also a composer of distinction. A powerful influence was exerted on
modern organ music, as well as general composition, by the eminent
organist and composer, =César Franck=, who was, for a number of years,
in charge of the organ class at the Paris _Conservatoire_.
=The Italian School=.—Among recent Italian organists =Filippo Capocci=
(1840-——) and =Enrico Bossi= (1861-——) are worthy of mention. Both are
splendid organists and prolific composers. They are leaders in the
revival of good organ playing in Italy, where a determined effort is
being made to restore the art to its former supremacy.
=The English School=.—England has furnished a long line of 19th century
organists of ability, prominent among whom are: =Sir John Goss=
(1800-1880), =Henry Smart= (1813-1879), =E. J. Hopkins= (1818-1901),
=S. S. Wesley= (1810-1876), =Dr. Wm. Spark= (1825-1897). Foremost among
English organists stands the name of =Wm. T. Best= (1826-1897). He was
one of the most famous concert organists of his time, but is best known
to organ students by his “Arrangements from the Scores of the Great
Masters,” in which he demonstrated that the organ is in itself capable
of reproducing certain orchestral effects without transcending its
proper functions or descending to trickery. “The Organ,” by =Sir John
Stainer= (1840-1901), is one of the most widely used elementary works
for instruction in organ playing. Dr. Stainer was the successor of Sir
John Goss, at St. Paul’s, London, and was appointed Professor of Music
at Oxford University in 1889. =Frederic Archer= (1838-1901) has been
considered one of the greatest of organ players. After a successful
career in England, he came to America in 1880. He did much towards
popularizing and elevating the art of organ playing in this country.
Prominent among contemporary English organists stands =Edwin H. Lemare=
(1865-——), who succeeded Frederic Archer as organist of Carnegie
Hall, Pittsburg, in 1902. He is a skilful virtuoso, a composer of
originality, and a leading representative of the modern English school.
=Modern Organ Music=.—Organ playing and composition have kept pace
with the mechanical and artistic evolution of the instrument, and the
lines between the various schools are becoming less closely drawn.
The tendency of builders to imitate orchestral tone and effects
has had influence on composers and players alike. This tendency is
less noticeable in the works of the German school, where a modified
polyphony still flourishes, based on the principle of the classic
treatment of the chorale and growing out of the music of the Lutheran
Church. The organ compositions of the modern French school are
characterized by grace, refinement and originality, coupled with a
certain dignity and elegance. They combine free harmonic treatment and
modern polyphony, together with certain ornate characteristics, growing
out of the elaborate ceremonial music of the Latin Church, and bringing
into play all the resources of tone color and expressive treatment
of the modern instrument. Much the same may be said of the modern
English school, which nevertheless still shows traces of the early
English style, based on the dignity and purity of cathedral use and
tradition. The orchestral tendency, both in composition for the organ
and in the transcription of orchestral works for the instrument, shows
itself more or less in all schools, and the organ, in addition to its
position in the church, is becoming more and more a concert instrument.
The compositions of the American organists reflect, in a measure, the
characteristics of the schools in which they have been trained, and in
particular show traces of the styles of the masters with whom they have
chiefly studied.[9]