and that the manufacture of printing ink was its most objectionable
duty. There was risk of fire in the boiling of linseed oil; there was
discomfort and dirt connected with the manipulation of the ingredients;
and in inexpert hands there was waste and often entire failure. In all
large cities, ink-making was set apart and practised as a distinct
trade. As a necessary consequence, the quality deteriorated through the
competition that followed. Moxon’s criticism of ink made in England in
1683 could be applied without any injustice to much of the ink of the
fifteenth century.[403] [p535]
[Illustration: Reduced Fac-simile of a large Wood-cut, said to be of
the Fifteenth Century.
[From Jackson.]]
Gutenberg, Schœffer, Zell, Mentel and many early printers of France
and Italy neglected engraving on wood.[404] It may be that this
neglect originated in the difficulties of printing types and wood-cuts
together,[405] or in a despisal of the rude productions of the
block-printers,[406] and in the intention of the [p536] typographers
to make emphatic the superiority of their branch. Wood-cuts were freely
used by typographers in the heart of Germany and in the Netherlands,
the districts where we find the earliest notices of block-printing,
but they are generally of a low order. Many of them are barbarous, as
faulty in cutting as in drawing, and pleasing only to uncultivated
tastes. It is probable that, about this time, many of the more skillful
engravers and designers[407] abandoned the practice of xylography,
attracted, no doubt, by the superior advantages offered by the newly
invented art of copper-plate printing. The art of engraving on wood,
although it afterward enlisted the services of artists like Durer and
Holbein, could not compete with this formidable rival. It suffered a
long eclipse, from which it did not emerge until the days of Bewick.
The quality of the paper in early books is as unequal as the printing.
In the _Bible of 36 lines_, the paper is thick and strong, of coarse
fibre, yellowish, apparently made from sun-bleached flax; in the books
of Schœffer, and of the later German printers, the paper is thinner,
but dingy and harsh; in the books of the Venetian printers, it is often
very thin, usually of smooth surface and a creamy white tint that
seems to have been unchanged by time. Different qualities are often
noticeable in the same book. There were many paper-mills from which the
printers drew their supplies, and every mill made different qualities.
Blades says that it was the practice to sort the paper before printing,
separating the rough from the smooth, and the thin from the thick,
and to print and bind together sheets of similar quality. The sizes
required by printers were small. The books first made were printed
on sheets about 16 by 21 inches, one leaf of which was as large as
could be printed by one pull of the press. The sizes 15 by 20, 14 by
18 and 12 by 15 inches were common, and [p537] in request for quartos
and octavos. The largest size seems to have been royal, about 20 by
25 inches. The Cost Book of the Ripoli Press gives names and prices
to nine distinct qualities or sizes of paper, but it does not define
the weights and measurements. The smallest size and cheapest quality,
possibly a pot foolscap, was put down at the price of 2 lire 8 soldi
(about $2.18) per ream; the largest and best, probably royal, at 6 lire
8 soldi (about $5.80) per ream.[408]
[Illustration: The Fall of Lucifer, as shown in Zainer’s Edition of the
Speculum Salutis.
An Illustration of the Degradation of Engraving on Wood.
[From Heineken.]]
The paper made for the _Bibles_ of Gutenberg and for the earlier books
was the ordinary writing paper of the period. Made from linen rags
that had not been weakened by caustic alkalies or by steam-boiling and
gas-bleaching processes, and strongly sized by the dipping of each
sheet in a tub [p538] containing a thin solution of glue, it was
strong and of hard surface. But the qualities which commended the paper
to the copyist were objectionable to the printer. The hard surface
caused harsh impression, and strong sizing made the damp sheets stick
together. It was soon discovered that unsized paper, which, according
to Madden, was about half the price of the sized, was easier to print.
It would take a clearer impression, and more thoroughly imbibe the
oily ink. These advantages could not be overlooked, and, consequently,
hard-sized papers went out of fashion. By far the largest part of the
books printed during the last quarter of the fifteenth century were of
unsized or half-sized paper.
The early printer tried to gratify luxurious tastes by printing copies
on vellum, but its inordinate price, and the great difficulties then
encountered in printing, obliged him to give it up as an impracticable
material. When book-lovers found that able printers like Kerver and
Pigouchet printed paper more neatly and evenly in color, vellum[409]
went out of fashion.
[Illustration: A Print of 1475, probably the work of an amateur
engraver.
[From Heineken.]]
We do not know what system or method was observed in early
proof-reading. Madden has pointed out many curious errors in three
distinct copies of a book printed at Weidenbach about 1464, which
seem to show that the compositor of each copy read the proof of his
own work, and read it badly. Possibly this was the method of many
of the amateur printers of that century, whose books, according to
Schelhorn, bristle with horrid and squalid errors. It could not have
been the method of Gutenberg, whose _Bibles_, although not free from
faults, were obviously read with care. Nor was it the method of careful
printers, for there is evidence that many of them [p539] enlisted the
services of eminent scholars as proof-readers or correctors of the
press.[410] These correctors did a double duty; they corrected the
errors of the compositors and those of the manuscript copy.[411] From
the frequency and earnestness of the complaints then made concerning
faulty manuscript texts, [p540] it seems that the copyists needed
correction more than the compositors. But the correctors were not
always equal to the task. Some of them were grossly incompetent, and
still further corrupted the texts they undertook to improve.[412]
Considering the difficulties the early printers encountered in getting
correct copies and competent readers, it is surprising that their books
are not more full of faults. The errors of early printed books have
been frequently commented on, but the remarks of Prosper Marchand are,
perhaps, the most emphatic:
It is a prejudice altogether too common, a prejudice which dealers
in old books have kept alive and profited from, to think that the
editions of the fifteenth century are more accurate because they were
printed from manuscript copies. Many of these editions were printed
from faulty texts, picked up by chance, or selected without judgment
by printers who were unable to see their faults, and were still
further corrupted by the ignorance and rashness of their editors and
correctors. I know that this is a kind of literary blasphemy, but it
is warranted by respectable authority. . . . They are deceived who
think that books are accurate in proportion to their age. For the most
part, the older they are, the more inaccurate they are.[413] [p541]
Inaccurate as early printed books may have been, they were more
correct than those of the copyists. The errors of a faulty first
edition were soon discovered and the faulty editions were supplanted by
the perfect. It is not the least of the many benefits of printing that
it has effectually prevented the accidental or intentional debasement
of texts.
The inferiority of the tools of the early printing office could be
plainly exhibited by contrasting them with those of our time—the
early hand-press with the modern cylinder printing machine—the entire
collection of types made in the fifteenth century with the specimen
book of any reputable modern type-founder. But the pride of the young
printer in improvements which have been most largely made by the men
of this century should be modified by the reflection that there has
been no change in the theory, and but few changes in the elementary
processes of printing. The punch, matrix and mould, the tympan, frisket
and points, the use of damp paper and oily ink, of curved surfaces for
applying the ink, and of blankets for diffusing the impression, are
still in fashion. Printing is done quicker, cheaper, with more neatness
and accuracy, with more regard for the convenience of the reader, with
many new features of artistic merit, and in varieties and quantities
so vast that there can be no comparison between early and modern
productions—but it is the same kind of work it was in the beginning. It
has not been made obsolete by lithography or photography, nor by any
other invention of our time. The method invented by Gutenberg still
keeps its place at the head of the graphic arts.
[p543]
AUTHORITIES CONSULTED.
BECKMANN JOHN. A History of Inventions, Discoveries and Origins.
Translated by William Johnston. 12mo. 2 vols. London, 1846.
BERJEAU J. PH. Biblia Pauperum. Reproduced in Fac-simile . . . . . . .
with an Historical and Bibliographical Introduction. Folio. London,
1859.
—— —— Le Bibliophile Illustré for 1861. Imperial 8vo. London, 1862.
—— —— Book-worm for 1866. Imperial 8vo. London, 1866.
BERNARD AUG. De l’origine et des débuts de l’imprimerie en Europe. 8vo.
2 vols. Paris, 1853.
BIBLIOPHILE BELGE BULLETIN DU. 8vo. Vols. I to IX. Brussels, 1845–1852.
BLADES WILLIAM. The Life and Typography of William Caxton, England’s
First Printer, etc. Royal 4to. 2 vols. London, 1861–1863.
BREITKOPF JOH. GOTTL. IMMAN. Versuch den Ursprung der Spielkarten, die
Einführung des Leinenpapieres, und den Anfang der Holzschneidekunst in
Europa. 4to. 2 vols. in one. Leipsic, 1784.
CAMPBELL M.-F.-A.-G. Annales de la typographie Néerlandaise au XVe
siècle. 8vo. La Haye, 1874.
CAMUS. Notice d’un livre imprimé à Bamberg en 1462. 4to. Paris, an VII.
CRAPELET G.-A. Études pratiques et littéraires sur la typographie. 8vo.
Paris, 1837.
DAUNOU ——. Analyse des opinions diverses sur l’origine de l’imprimerie.
8vo. Paris, an XI.
DE LA BORDE LÉON. Débuts de l’imprimerie à Strasbourg, ou recherches
sur les travaux mystérieux de Gutenberg dans cette ville, et sur le
procès qui lui fut intenté en 1439 à cette occasion. 8vo. Paris, 1840.
—— —— Débuts de l’imprimerie à Mayence et à Bamberg, ou description des
lettres d’indulgence du pape Nicholas V pro regno Cypri, imprimées en
1454. Royal 4to. Paris, 1840.
DE VRIES A. Éclaircissemens sur l’histoire de l’invention de
l’imprimerie. 8vo. La Haye, 1843.
DIDOT M. AMBROISE FIRMIN. Essai sur la typographie. 8vo. Paris, 1851.
DOUCE FRANCIS. Holbein’s Dance of Death . . . with a Dissertation, etc.
12mo. London, 1872.
FALKENSTEIN KARL. Geschichte der Buchdruckerkunst in ihrer Entstehung
und Ausbildung. 4to. Leipsic, 1840.
FISCHER GOTTHELF. Essai sur les monuments typographiques de Jean
Gutenberg, mayençais, inventeur de l’imprimerie. 4to. Mayence, an X.
FOURNIER le jeune P. S. Manuel typographique. 16mo. 2 vols. Paris,
1764–1766.
GRESSWELL WILLIAM PARR. Annals of Parisian Typography, etc. 8vo.
London, 1818.
HAIN L. Repertorium Bibliographicum, in quo Libri Omnes ab Arte
Typographica Inventa usque ad Annum MD. typis expressi, etc. 8vo. 2
vols. Stuttgardt, 1826–1838.
HALLAM HENRY. Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the
Fifteenth, Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. 8vo. 2 vols. New-York,
1841.
—— —— View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages. 8vo. 3 vols.
Boston, 1853.
HANSARD T. C. Typographia: an Historical Sketch of the Origin and
Progress of the Art of Printing, etc. 8vo. London, 1825.
HEINEKEN C. H. Idée générale d’une collection complette d’estampes,
avec une dissertation sur l’origine de la gravure et sur les premiers
livres d’images. 8vo. Leipsic and Vienna, 1771.
HELBIG HENRI. Une Découverte pour l’histoire de l’imprimerie. Pamphlet,
8vo. Brussels, 1855.
—— —— Notes et dissertations relatives à l’histoire de l’imprimerie.
Pamphlet, 8vo. Brussels, without date. (From Vol. XVIII of the
_Bibliophile Belge_.)
HOLTROP JOH. GUIL. Catalogus Librorum Sæculo XVº Impressorum, quotquot
in Bibliotheca Regia Hagana asservantur. 8vo. Hagae-Comitum, 1856.
—— —— Monuments typographiques des Pays-Bas au quinzième siècle. Folio.
La Haye, 1868.
HUMPHREYS H. NOEL. A History of the Art of Printing from its Invention,
etc. Folio. Second Issue. London, 1868.
JACKSON JOHN and CHATTO W. A. A Treatise on Wood Engraving, etc. Second
Edition. 8vo. London, 1861.
JACOB P. L. (Lacroix.) Curiosités de l’histoire des arts. 16mo. Paris,
1858.
JOHNSON J. Typographia, or the Printers’ Instructor, including an
Account of the Origin of Printing. 24mo. 2 vols. London, 1824.
KONING JACQUES. Dissertation sur l’origine, l’invention, et le
perfectionnement de l’imprimerie. 8vo. Amsterdam, 1819.
LACROIX PAUL (Bibliophile Jacob), E. FOURNIER et F. SERÉ. Histoire de
l’imprimerie et des arts et professions, etc. Imperial 8vo. Paris, 1852.
LA CAILLE JEAN DE. Histoire de l’imprimerie et de la librarie où l’on
voit son origine et son progrés jusqu’en 1689. 4to. Paris, 1689.
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l’origine de l’imprimerie. 8vo. Brussels, an VII.
LANZI ABATE LUIGI. The History of Painting in Italy, etc. Translated by
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MADDEN J.-P.-A. Lettres d’un bibliographe. Series I to IV. Royal 8vo.
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[p547]
INDEX
Abbreviations, excessive use of, 164, 525
— of Bible of 36 lines, 414
Abecedarium of Enschedé, 289, 290
Accuracy in types, importance of, 52
Accursius Mariangelus, 256
Acta Diurna of old Rome, 44
Adolph, count of Nassau, 438
— his patronage of Gutenberg, 440
Æneas Sylvius, Pope Pius II, 287
Aix-la-Chapelle, fair of, 394
Aldus Manutius, 291, 503, 540
Amman Jost, the artist, 61
Anachronisms, 206, 211, 218, 497
Andrieszoon Jan, of Haarlem, 320
Annunciation, print of, 72
Antichrist, the block-book, 231
Antimony, probable use of, 66, 519
Antwerp, early type-printing at, 500
— first block-printer at, 314
Apocalypse of St. John, block-book, 210
— evidences of its age, 214
— prices paid for, 211
Apostles’ Creed, the block-book, 228
Appeal against the Turks, 410
Arabic figures, first use of, 526
Ars Memorandi, the block-book, 233
Ars Moriendi, the block-book, 235
Association of printers at Milan, 504
— — — at Strasburg, 381
Assyrian Cylinders, 33
Augsburg, early printing at, 497
Babylon, bricks of, 33
Badius Jodocus, of Paris, 506
Bamberg, Bible of, see Bible of 36 lines.
— early printing at, 485
— Missal, 495
Batavia of Adrian Junius, 335
— its authority considered, 336
Bearers of early printing press, 306
Bechtermüntz, Henry and Nicholas, 441
Beildick Lorentz, testimony of, 385
Bellaert Jacob, of Zierikzee, 319
Berlin print, 80
Bernard August, history of, 11
Bible, early translations of, 181
— first with wood-cuts, 498
— reading of prohibited, 182
Bible, Mazarin, see Bible of 42 lines.
Bible of 1462 (48 lines), 462
Bibles of Mentel at Strasburg, 491
Bible of 36 lines, description of, 412
— — — — its discovery, 411
— — — — not printed by Pfister, 484
— — — — peculiarities of, 414
— — — — possibly the first, 412
— — — — Schelhorn’s view of, 480
— — — — speculations about, 432
— — — — when printed, 415
Bible of 42 lines, description of, 419
— — — — annotations in, 424
— — — — cost of, 474
— — — — defects of, 422
— — — — ornamentation of, 422
— — — — prices paid for, 425
— — — — probably of slow sale, 425
— — — — two kinds of copies, 450
— — — — workmanship of, 421
Bible of the Poor, editions from types, 208
— — — — xylographic editions of, 199
— — — — description of, 200
— — — — Nordlingen edition, 208
— — — — prices paid for, 208
— — — — printing of, 203
Blemishes in books, how corrected, 271
Block-books, Antichrist, 230
— Apocalypse, 210
— Apostles’ Creed, 228
— Ars Memorandi, 233
— Ars Moriendi, 235
— Bible of the Poor, 198
— Book of Kings, 224
— Canticles, 215
— Chiromancy of Hartlieb, 239
— Dance of Death, 247
— Donatus, 254
— Eight Rogueries, 229
— Exercise Lord’s Prayer, 222
— German Planetarium, 241
— Grotesque Alphabet, 226
— Life of St. Meinrat, 246
— Pomerium Spirituale, 244
— Story of the Virgin, 219
— Temptations of Devil, 245
— Wonders of Rome, 243
— absurdities in, 222
— advantages of, 261
— definition of, 194
— disregarded by scholar, 251
— earliest date in, 245
Block-books, great number of, 194, 248
— inferiority of, 195
— literary merit of, 250
— made for priests, 248
— obscurity of, 260
— period of, 251
— permitted to people, 249
— popularity of, 238, 249
— where made, 252
Block-printers, many in number, 248
— faulty work of, 248
— unknown, 252
Block-printing an established trade, 253
— early notices of, 91
— in Holland, 256
— not Gutenberg’s secret, 395
— process of, 83
— slighted, 86, 184
Blocks used for engraving, 114
Bodies, irregularities of, explained, 519
Bodies of types, cuts of, 25, 56, 275, 406
— — — in Speculum, 275
— — — not made by rule, 518
— — — of Caxton, 293
— — — of unknown printer, 292
Bodman’s spurious documents, 436
Book of Kings, 224
Book of Trades, 61
Book-binding, Chinese, 116
— of middle ages, 153
— prices paid for, 168
— sumptuous forms of, 156
Book-collecting, a princely hobby, 167
Book-making, as done in old Rome, 42
— an ecclesiastical art, 148
— becomes a trade, 187
— given up to copyists, 159
— in Ireland, 147
— in monasteries, 148
— oriental method of, 136
Book of Four Stories, 481
Book of Fables, 482
Books, printed, changes in style of, 472
— Chinese, cheapness of, 119
— common in old Rome, 43
— demand for cheapness in, 187
— early printed, cheapness of, 511
— early printed, prices of, 512
— medieval, 150
— — character of, 162
— — cheap forms of, 154, 163
— — large size of, 156
— — made by artists, 166
— — made for the rich, 170
— — neglected by clergy, 159
— — obsoleteness of, 186
— — of romance, 165
— — sale of regulated, 160
— — sumptuousness of, 168
— of dark ages, 45
— of monasteries, 216
— of pictures, 163
— of unknown printer, 284
— number printed before 1500, 511
— the right of the educated, 251
— injudiciously selected, 512
— written and printed, 188
Book-sellers of Paris, 160
Book-selling restricted, 162
Boxhorn, Marcus Zuerius, 350
Branding in middle ages, 38
Brass moulds or matrices, 61
Brass stamps of middle ages, 38
Brass types impracticable, 65
Brethren of Life-in-Common, 177, 250, 443
Bricks, stamped, antiquity of, 30
Brito John, of Bruges, 321
Brotherhood of the Life-in-Common at Weidenbach, 250, 495
Bruges, early printing at, 499
— guild of book-makers at, 314
Brussels print, 78
Bull of Pope Pius II against the Turks, 464
Burnisher of engravers, 84
Calendar of 1457, 432
Calendar or Almanac of 1460, 436
Calico-printing, early, 127
Calligraphy, early, 148, 166
Cambray, record of, 312
Canticles, the block-book, 215
Card-makers, early, 91
Case of early compositors, 523
Castaldi Pamphilo, 28, 486
Catholicon of 1460, 434
Caxton William, of England, 507
Celebration of the Mass, 436
Cennini Bernard, 503
Chases of wood, 306, 527
Chinese printing, early method of, 111
— language not fit for types, 116
— paper, invention of, 133
Chiromancy of Dr. Hartlieb, 238
Cicero, his speculations on types, 36
Clog of England, 175
Codex Argenteus, 125
Cologne as a school for printers, 324, 495
Cologne Chronicle of 1499, 315
Cologne, early printing at, 494
Color work of Peter Schœffer, 456
Complaint against Death, 483
Composing rules, early ignorance of, 524
Composition as done in 1564, 523
— by dictation, 524
— double, indications of, 464
— in imitation of writing, 525
— imperfections of, 525
Composition of types in China, 118
— — — a test of age, 312
— — — cost of, 24
Compositors often men of education, 522
— sometimes women, 523
Condition of medieval society, 179
Confraternity of St. John the Baptist, 314
Consolation of the Sinner, 482
Constitutions of Pope Clement V, 461
Coornhert and Van Zuren, 320
Copper-plate printing, process of, 19
— — invention of, 27
Copyists, faults of, 539
— fond of pictures, 163
— of middle ages, 149
— of old Rome, 42
— of Paris, 162
Cornelis, the binder, 284, 332, 343
Correctors of the press, 540
Coster, Lourens Janszoon, 326
Coster, as described by Junius, 331
— — — by Koning, 356
— — — in archives, 365
— — — in chair book, 367
— — — in treasury book, 366
— as a printer, 339
— as a sexton, 338
— as a tallow-chandler, 365
— as a tavern keeper, 369
— confounded with Janszoon, 368
— alleged descendants of, 345
— portraits of, 371, 374
— statues of, 351, 359
— tablets to, 359, 360
Costerian Museum, 361
Counter-punch, use of, 54
Couplets of Cato 285, 288
Cuneiform inscriptions, 30
Cunio, the story of the two, 129
Cylinders of Assyria, 34
Dance of Death, Holbein’s designs, 183
— — — in Nuremberg Chronicle, 185
— — — popularity of, 184
— — — the block-book, 247
Decretals of Boniface VIII, 466
Desroches, his story about Ludwig, 315
De Vries Abraham, on Coster, 357
Dialogue between Cato, Hugo, et al., 436
Dictation, Madden’s theory of, 450, 524
Diether, Count of Isenburg, 438
Dissertation on Invention, Boxhorn’s, 350
Doctor Hartlieb, Chiromancy of, 238
Doctrinal of Alexander Gallus, 285, 288
— of Cambray, 312
Donatus noticed by Zell, 256, 315
— ascribed to Gutenberg, 258, 401
— imitations of type-work, 261
— of Gutenberg at Mentz, 404
— of Koning, 259
— suggested typography, 392
— of Sweinheym, 257
— of unknown printer, 284
— popularity of the book, 254