The Muduvans have lucky days for starting on a journey--

Monday, start before sunrise.

Tuesday, start in the forenoon.

Wednesday start before 7 A.M.

Thursday, start after eating the morning meal.

Friday, never make a start; it is a bad day.

Saturday and Sunday, start as soon as the sun has risen.

When boys reach puberty, the parents give a feast to the village. In

the case of a girl, a feast is likewise given, and she occupies, for

the duration of the menstrual period, a hut set apart for all the women

in the village to occupy during their uncleanness. When it is over, she

washes her clothes, and takes a bath, washing her head. This is just

what every woman of the village always does. There is no mutilation,

and the girl just changes her child's dress for that of a woman. The

married women of the village assist at confinements. Twins bring good

luck. Monsters are said to be sometimes born, bearing the form of

little tigers, cows, monkeys, etc. On these occasions, the mother is

said generally to die, but, when she does not die, she is said to eat

the monster. Monstrosities must anyway be killed. Childless couples

are dieted to make them fruitful, the principal diet for a man being

plenty of black monkey, and for a woman a compound of various herbs

and spices.

A man may not marry the daughter of his brother or sister; he ought to

marry his uncle's daughter, and he may have two or three wives, who

may or may not be sisters. Among the plateau Muduvars, both polygamy

and polyandry are permitted, the former being common, and the latter

occasional. In the case of the latter, brothers are prohibited from

having a common wife, as also are cousins on the father's side. In

the case of polygamy, the first married is the head wife, and the

others take orders from her, but she has no other privileges. If the

wives are amicably disposed, they live together, but, when inclined

to disagree, they are given separate houses for the sake of peace

and harmony. With quarrelsome women, one wife may be in one village,

and the others in another. A man may be polygamous in one village,

and be one of a polyandrous lot of men a few miles off. On the Cardamom

Hills, and on the western slopes, where the majority of the tribe live,

they are monogamous, and express abhorrence of both the polygamous and

polyandrous condition, though they admit, with an affectation of amused

disgust, that both are practiced by their brethren on the high lands.

Marriages are arranged by the friends, and more often by the cousins

on the mother's side of the bridegroom, who request the hand of a

girl or woman from her parents. If they agree, the consent of the most

remote relatives has also to be obtained, and, if everyone is amicable,

a day is fixed, and the happy couple leave the village to live a few

days in a cave by themselves. On their return, they announce whether

they would like to go on with it, or not. In the former case, the man

publicly gives ear-rings, a metal (generally brass) bangle, a cloth,

and a comb to the woman, and takes her to his hut. The comb is a poor

affair made of split ita or perhaps of bamboo, but it is the essential

part of the ceremony. If the probationary period in the cave has not

proved quite satisfactory to both parties, the marriage is put off,

and the man and the woman are both at liberty to try again with some

one else. Betrothal does not exist as a ceremony, though families

often agree together to marry their children together, but this is not

binding in any way. The tying of the tali (marriage badge) is said to

have been tried in former days as part of the marriage ceremony, but,

as the bride always died, the practice was discontinued. Remarriage of

widows is permitted, and the widow by right belongs to, or should be

taken over by her deceased husband's maternal aunt's son, and not,

under any circumstances, by any of his brothers. In practice she

marries almost any one but one of the brothers. No man should visit the

house of his younger brother's wife, or even look at that lady. This

prohibition does not extend to the wives of his elder brothers, but

sexual intercourse even here would be incest. The same ceremonies are

gone through at the remarriage of a widow as in an ordinary marriage,

the ear-rings and bangles, which she discarded on the death of the

previous husband, being replaced. Widows do not wear a special dress,

but are known by the absence of jewelry. Elopements occur. When a

man and woman do not obtain the consent of the proper parties, they

run away into the jungle or a cave, visiting the village frequently,

and getting grain, etc., from sympathisers. The anger aroused by

their disgraceful conduct having subsided, they quietly return to the

village, and live as man and wife. [It is noted, in the Travancore

Census Report, 1901, that, after a marriage is settled, the bridegroom

forcibly takes away the maiden from her mother's house when she goes

out for water or firewood, and lives with her separately for a few

days or weeks in some secluded part of the forest. They then return,

unless in the meantime they are searched for, and brought back by

their relations.] In theory, a man may divorce his wife at will,

but it is scarcely etiquette to do so, except for infidelity, or in

the case of incompatibility of temper. If he wants to get rid of her

for less horrible crimes, he can palm her off on a friend. A woman

cannot divorce her husband at all in theory, but she can make his

life so unbearable that he gladly allows her to palm herself off on

somebody else. Wives who have been divorced marry again freely.

The tribe follow the west coast or marumakkatayam law of inheritance

with a slight difference, the property descending to an elder or

younger sister's son. Property, which seldom consists of more than

a bill-hook, a blanket, and a few cattle, always goes to a nephew,

and is not divided in any way.

The tribe professes to be Hindu, and the chief gods are Panaliandavar

(a corruption of Palaniandi) and Kadavallu, who are supposed to live

in the Madura temple with Minakshiammal and her husband Sokuru. They

are also said to worship Chantiattu Bhagavati and Neriyamangalam

Sasta. Suryan (the sun) is a beneficent deity. The deities which are

considered maleficent are numerous, and all require propitiation. This

is not very taxing, as a respectful attitude when passing their

reputed haunts seems to suffice. They are alluded to as Karapu (black

ones). One in particular is Nyamaru, who lives on Nyamamallai, the

jungles round which were said to be badly haunted. At present they

are flourishing tea estates, so Nyamaru has retired to the scrub

at the top of the mountain. Certain caves are regarded as shrines,

where spear-heads, a trident or two, and copper coins are placed,

partly to mark them as holy places, and partly as offerings to bring

good luck, good health, or good fortune. They occur in the most remote

spots. The only important festival is Thai Pongal, when all who visit

the village, be they who they may, must be fed. It occurs about the

middle of January, and is a time of feasting and rejoicing.

The tribe does not employ priests of other castes to perform religious

ceremonies. Muduvars who are half-witted, or it may be eccentric,

are recognised as Swamyars or priests. If one desires to get rid

of a headache or illness, the Swamyar is told that he will get four

annas or so if the complaint is soon removed, but he is not expected

to perform miracles, or to make any active demonstration over the

matter. Swamyars who spend their time in talking to the sun and moon

as their brethren, and in supplications to mysterious and unknown

beings, are the usual sort, and, if they live a celibate life,

they are greatly esteemed. For those who live principally on milk,

in addition to practicing the other virtue, the greatest reverence

is felt. Such an one occurs only once or twice in a century.

The dead are buried lying down, face upwards, and placed north and

south. The grave has a little thatched roof, about six feet by two,

put over it. A stone, weighing twenty or thirty pounds, is put at the

head, and a similar stone at the feet. These serve to mark the spot

when the roof perishes, or is burnt during the next grass fire. The

depth of the grave is, for a man, judged sufficient if the gravedigger,

standing on the bottom, finds the level of the ground up to his waist,

but, for a woman, it must be up to his armpits. The reason is that

the surviving women do not like to think that they will be very near

the surface, but the men are brave, and know that, if they lie north

and south, nothing can harm them, and no evil approach. The ghosts of

those killed by accident or dying a violent death, haunt the spot till

the memory of the occurrence fades from the minds of the survivors and

of succeeding generations. These ghosts are not propitiated, but the

haunted spots are avoided as much as possible. The Muduvars share with

many other jungle-folk the idea that, if any animal killed by a tiger

or leopard falls so as to lie north and south, it will not be eaten by

the beast of prey. Nor will it be re-visited, so that sitting over a

"kill" which has fallen north and south, in the hopes of getting a

shot at the returning tiger or leopard, is a useless proceeding.

Totemism does not exist, but, in common with other jungle tribes,

the tiger is often alluded to as jackal.

Fire is still often made by means of the flint and steel, though

match-boxes are common enough. Some dry cotton (generally in a dirty

condition) is placed along the flint, the edge of which is struck with

the steel. The spark generated ignites the cotton, and is carefully

nursed into flame in dead and dry grass. The Muduvars also know how

to make fire by friction, but nowadays this is very seldom resorted

to. A rotten log of a particular kind of tree has first to be found,

the inside of which is in an extremely dry and powdery condition,

while the outside is still fairly hard. Some of the top of the topmost

side of the recumbent log having been cut away at a suitable place,

and most of the inside removed, a very hard and pointed bit of wood is

rapidly rotated against the inner shell of the log where the powdery

stuff is likely to ignite, and this soon begins to smoke, the fire

being then nursed much in the same way as with the fire generated by

the flint and steel.

By the men, the languti and leg cloth of the Tamils are worn. A turban

is also worn, and a cumbly or blanket is invariably carried, and put

on when it rains. [It is noted, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901,

that males dress themselves like the Maravans of the low country. A

huge turban is almost an invariable portion of the toilette. The chief

of the Mudavars is known as Vakka, without whose consent the head-dress

is not to be worn.] I have seen a Muduvar with an umbrella. Nowadays,

the discarded coats of planters, and even trousers and tattered

riding-breeches are common, and a Muduvar has been seen wearing a

blazer. The men wear ear-rings, supposed to be, and sometimes in

reality, of gold, with bits of glass of different colours in them,

and also silver or brass finger and toe rings, and sometimes a bangle

on each arm or on one leg. The women go in very largely for beads,

strings of them adorning their necks, white and blue being favourite

colours. Rings for the ears, fingers and toes, and sometimes many glass

bangles on the arms, and an anklet on each leg, are the usual things,

the pattern of the metal jewelry being often the same as seen on the

women of the plains. The cloth, after being brought round the waist,

and tucked in there, is carried over the body, and two corners are

knotted on the right shoulder. Unmarried girls wear less jewelry than

the married women, and widows wear no jewelry till they are remarried,

when they can in no way be distinguished from their sisters. Tattooing

is not practiced. Sometimes a stout thread is worn on the arm, with

a metal cylinder containing some charm against illness or the evil

eye, but only the wise men or elders of the caste lay much store on,

or have knowledge of these things.

The Muduvars believe that they were originally cultivators of the soil,

and their surroundings and tastes have made them become hunters and

trappers, since coming to the hills. At the present day, they cut down

a bit of secondary jungle or cheppukad, and, after burning it off,

sow ragi (millet), or, where the rainfall is sufficient, hill-rice,

which is weeded and tended by the women, the men contenting themselves

by trying to keep out the enemies to their crops. After harvest there

is not much to be done, except building a new village perhaps, making

traps, and shooting. All they catch is game to them, though we should

describe some of the animals as vermin. They catch rats, squirrels,

quail, jungle fowl, porcupines, mouse-deer, and fish. They kill, with

a blowpipe and dart, many small birds. The traps in use are varied,

but there are three principal ones, one of which looks like a big

bow. It is fixed upright in the ground as a spring to close with a

snap a small upright triangle of sharp-edged bamboo, to which it is

connected, and into which any luckless small game may have intruded

its head, induced to do so by finding all other roads closed with

a cunningly made fence. Another is a bent sapling, from which a

loop of twine or fibre hangs on what appears to be the ground,

but is really a little platform on which the jungle fowl treads,

and immediately finds itself caught by both legs, and hanging in

mid-air. The third is very much the same, but of stouter build. The

loop is upright, and set in a hedge constructed for the purpose of

keeping the fretful porcupine in the path, passing along which the

beast unconsciously releases a pin, back flies the sapling, and the

porcupine is hung. If fouled in any way, he generally uses his teeth to

advantage, and escapes. The Muduvars are also adepts at catching 'ibex'

(wild goat), which are driven towards a fence with nooses set in it

at proper points, which cause the beasts to break their necks. Fish

are caught in very beautifully constructed cruives, and also on

the hook, while, on the larger rivers below the plateau, the use of

the night-line is understood. With the gun, sambar, 'ibex,' barking

deer, mungooses, monkeys, squirrels, and martens are killed. Besides

being a good shot, the Muduvar, when using his own powder, takes no

risks. The stalk is continued until game is approached, sometimes

to within a few yards, when a charge of slugs from the antiquated

match-lock has the same effect as the most up-to-date bullet from

the most modern weapon. Mr. Bensley records how, on one occasion,

two English planters went out with two Muduvars after 'bison.' One

of the Muduvars, carrying a rifle, tripped, and the weapon exploded,

killing one of the planters on the spot. The two Muduvars immediately

took to their heels. The other planter covered them with his rifle,

and threatened to shoot them if they did not return, which they at

last did. Mr. Bensley held the magisterial enquiry, and the Muduvars

were amazed at escaping capital punishment.

In their agricultural operations, the Muduvars are very

happy-go-lucky. They have no scare-crows to avert injury to crops or

frighten away demons, but they employ many devices for keeping off

pigs, sambar, and barking deer from their crops, none of which appear

to be efficacious for long. The implement par excellence of the Muduvar

is the bill-hook, from which he never parts company, and with which

he can do almost anything, from building a house to skinning a rat,

or from hammering sheet-lead into bullets to planting maize.

The bulk of the tribe live on ragi or hill-rice, and whatever

vegetables they can grow, and whatever meat they trap or shoot. They

esteem the flesh of the black monkey (Semnopithecus johni) above

everything, and lust after it. I have seen a Muduvar much pulled down

by illness seize an expiring monkey, and suck the blood from its

jugular vein. Muduvars will not eat beef, dog, jackals, or snakes,

but will eat several sorts of lizards, and rats, 'ibex,' and all the

deer tribe, fish, fowl, and other birds, except kites and vultures,

are put into the pot. The plateau Muduvars, and those on the eastern

slopes, will not eat pig in any shape or form. Those on the western

slopes are very keen on wild pig, and this fact causes them to be

somewhat looked down upon by the others. I think this pork-eating

habit is due to the absence of sambar or other deer in the heart of

the forests. Muduvars are fond of alcohol in any shape or form. They

take a liquor from a wild palm which grows on the western slopes, and,

after allowing it to become fermented, drink it freely. Some members of

the tribe, living in the vicinity of these palms, are more or less in

a state of intoxication during the whole time it is in season. Their

name for the drink is tippily-kal, and the palm resembles the kittul

(Caryota urens). The western slope Muduvars are acquainted with opium

from the west coast, and some of them are slaves to the habit. The

Muduvars do not admit that any other caste is good enough to eat,

drink, or smoke with them. They say that, once upon a time, they

permitted these privileges to Vellalans, but this fact induced so

many visitors to arrive that they really could not afford it any more,

so they eat, drink, and smoke with no one now, but will give uncooked

food to passing strangers.

I have never heard any proverb, song, or folk-tale of the Muduvars,

and believe the story of their arrival on the hills to be their

stock tale. They have a story, which is more a statement of belief

than anything else, that, when a certain bamboo below Pallivasal

flowers, a son of the Maharaja of Travancore turns into a tiger or

puli-manisan, and devours people. Men often turn into puli-manisan

owing chiefly to witchcraft on the part of others, and stories of

such happenings are often told. The nearest approach to a proverb I

have heard is Tingakilamei nalla tingalam, which sounds rather tame

and meaningless in English, "On Monday you can eat well"--the play

on the words being quite lost.

The Muduvars make a miniature tom-tom by stretching monkey skin over

a firm frame of split bamboo or ita, on which the maker thereof will

strum by the hour much to his own enjoyment.

In former days, the whole tribe were very shy of strangers, and it is

only within the last thirty years that they have become used to having

dealings with outsiders. Old men still tell of the days when robbers

from the Coimbatore side used to come up, burn the Muduvar villages,

and carry off what cattle or fowls they could find. Even now, there

are some of the men in whom this fear of strangers seems to be innate,

and who have never spoken to Europeans. In the women this feeling is

accentuated, for, when suddenly met with, they make themselves scarce

in the most surprising way, and find cover as instinctively as a quail

chick. There are now and again men in the tribe who aspire to read,

but I do not know how far any of them succeed.

The Muduvars are becoming accustomed to quite wonderful things--the

harnessing of water which generates electricity to work machinery,

the mono-rail tram which now runs through their country, and, most

wonderful of all, the telephone. An old man described how he would

raise envy and wonder in the hearts of his tribe by relating his

experience. "I am the first of my caste to speak and hear over five

miles," said he, with evident delight.

I have alluded to the two different types of countenance; perhaps

there is a third resulting from a mixture of the other two. The first

is distinctly aquiline-nosed and thin-lipped, and to this type the

men generally belong. The second is flat-nosed, wide-nostrilled,

and thick-lipped, and this fairly represents the women, who compare

most unfavourably with the men in face. I have never seen men of the

second type, but of an intermediate type they are not uncommon. On

the Cardamom Hills there may still exist a tribe of dwarfs, of

which very little is known. The late Mr. J. D. Munro had collected

a little information about them. Mr. A. W. Turner had the luck

to come across one, who was caught eating part of a barking deer

raw. Mr. Turner managed to do a little conversation with the man by

signs, and afterwards he related the incident to Srirangam, a good

old Muduvar shikari (sportsman), who listened thoughtfully, and then

asked "Did you not shoot him?" The question put a new complexion on

to the character of the usually peaceful and timid Muduvar.

I know the Muduvars to be capable of real affection. Kanjan was very

proud of his little son, and used to make plans for wounding an ibex,

so that his boy might finish it off, and thus become accustomed

to shooting.

In South Coimbatore, "honey-combs are collected by Irulas, Muduvars,

and Kadirs. The collection is a dangerous occupation. A hill-man,

with a torch in his hand and a number of bamboo tubes suspended

from his shoulders, descends by means of ropes or creepers to the

vicinity of the comb. The sight of the torch drives away the bees,

and he proceeds to fill the bamboos with the comb, and then ascends

to the top of the rock." [61]

Mugi (dumb).--An exogamous sept of Golla.

Muka.--A sub-division of Konda Razu.

Muka Dora.--Muka is recorded, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891 and

1901, as a sub-division and synonym of Konda Dora, and I am informed

that the Muka Doras, in Vizagapatam, hold a high position, and most of

the chiefs among the Konda Doras are Muka Doras. Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao,

to whom I am indebted to the following note, inclines to the opinion

that the Muka Doras form a caste distinct from the Konda Doras. They

are traditionally regarded as one of the primitive hill tribes, but

their customs at the present day exhibit a great deal of low-country

influence. They speak Telugu, their personal names are pure Telugu,

and their titles are Anna and Ayya as well as Dora. They recognize

one Vantari Dora of Padmapuram as their head.

The Muka Doras are agriculturists and pushing petty traders. They

may be seen travelling about the country with pack bullocks at the

rice harvest season. They irrigate their lands with liquid manure in

a manner similar to the Kunnuvans of the Palni hills in the Madura

country.

They are divided into two sections, viz., Kora-vamsam, which reveres

the sun, and Naga-vamsam, which reveres the cobra, and have further

various exogamous septs or intiperulu, such as vemu or nim tree

(Melia Azadirachta), chikkudi (Dolickos Lablab), velanga (Feronia

elephantum), kakara (Momordica Charantia).

Girls are married either before or after puberty. The menarikam system

is in force, according to which a man should marry his maternal

uncle's daughter. On an auspicious day, some of the elders of the

future bridegroom's family take a cock or goat, a new cloth for the

girl's mother, rice and liquor to the girl's house. The presents are

usually accepted, and the pasupu (turmeric) ceremony, practiced by many

Telugu castes, is performed. On an appointed day, the bridegroom's

party repair to the house of the bride, and bring her in procession

to the house of the bridegroom. Early next morning, the contracting

couple enter a pandal (booth), the two central pillars of which are

made of the neredi (Eugenia Jambolana) and relli (Cassia Fistula)

trees. The maternal uncle, who officiates, links their little fingers

together. Their bodies are anointed with castor-oil mixed with turmeric

powder, and they bathe. New cloths are then given to them by their

fathers-in-law. Some rice is poured over the floor of the house, and

the bride and bridegroom measure this three times. The ends of their

cloths are tied together, and a procession is formed, which proceeds

to the bank of a stream, where the bride fetches tooth-cleaning

sticks three times, and gives them to the bridegroom, who repeats the

process. They then sit down together, and clean their teeth. After

a bath in the stream, the ends of their clothes are once more tied

together, and the procession returns to the bridegroom's house. The

bride cooks some of the rice which has already been measured with water

brought from the stream, and the pair partake thereof. A caste feast,

with much drinking, is held on this and the two following days. The

newly-married couple then proceed, in the company of an old man,

to the bride's house, and remain there from three to five days. If

the girl is adult, she then goes to the home of her husband.

When a girl reaches puberty, she is placed apart in a room, and sits

within a triangular enclosure made by means of three arrows stuck in

the ground, and connected together by three rounds of thread. From

the roof a cradle, containing a stone, is placed. On the last day, a

twig of the neredi tree is plucked, planted on the way to the village

stream, and watered. As she passes the spot, the girl pulls it out of

the ground, and takes it to the stream, into which she throws it. She

then bathes therein.

The dead are, as a rule, burnt, and death pollution is observed for

three days, during which the caste occupation is not carried out. On

the fourth day, a ceremony, called pasupu muttukovadam, or touching

turmeric, is performed. The relations of the deceased repair to the

spot where the corpse was burnt, collect the ashes, and sprinkle

cow-dung, neredi and tamarind water over the spot. Some food is

cooked, and three handfuls are thrown to the crows. They then perform

a ceremonial ablution. The ceremony corresponds to the chinnarozu,

or little day ceremony, of the low-country castes. The more well-to-do

Muka Doras perform the peddarozu, or big day ceremony, on the twelfth

day, or later on. The relations of the deceased then plant a plantain

on the spot where he was burnt, and throw turmeric, castor-oil, and

money according to their means. The coins are collected, and used

for the purchase of materials for a feast.

Mukkara (nose or ear ornament).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Mukkuvan.--The Mukkuvans are the sea fishermen of the Malabar coast,

who are described as follows by Buchanan. [62] "The Mucua, or in the

plural Mucuar, are a tribe who live near the sea-coast of Malayala,

to the inland parts of which they seldom go, and beyond its limits

any way they rarely venture. Their proper business is that of

fishermen, as palanquin-bearers for persons of low birth, or of no

caste; but they serve also as boatmen. The utmost distance to which

they will venture on a voyage is to Mangalore. In some places they

cultivate the cocoanut. In the southern parts of the province most

of them have become Mussulmans, but continue to follow their usual

occupations. These are held in the utmost contempt by those of the

north, who have given up all communication with the apostates. Those

here do not pretend to be Sudras, and readily acknowledge the

superior dignity of the Tiars. They have hereditary chiefs called

Arayan, who settle disputes, and, with the assistance of a council,

punish by fine or excommunication those who transgress the rules of

the caste. The deity of the caste is the goddess Bhadra-Kali, who is

represented by a log of wood, which is placed in a hut that is called

a temple. Four times a year the Mucuas assemble, sacrifice a cock,

and make offerings of fruit to the log of wood. One of the caste

acts as priest (pujari). They are not admitted to enter within the

precincts of any of the temples of the great gods who are worshipped

by the Brahmans; but they sometimes stand at a distance, and send

their offerings by more pure hands."

It is recorded by Captain Hamilton [63] that he saw "at many Muchwa

Houses, a square Stake of Wood, with a few Notches cut about it,

and that Stake drove into the Ground, about two Foot of it being

left above, and that is covered with Cadjans or Cocoanut Tree Leaves,

and is a Temple and a God to that Family."

In the Gazetteer of Malabar (1908), the following account of the

Mukkuvans is given. "A caste, which according to a probably erroneous

tradition came originally from Ceylon, is that of the Mukkuvans, a

caste of fishermen following marumakkatayam (inheritance through the

female line) in the north, and makkattayam (inheritance from father to

son) in the south. Their traditional occupations also include chunam

(lime) making, and manchal-bearing (a manchal is a kind of hammock

slung on a pole, and carried by four men, two at each end). In the

extreme south of the district they are called Arayans, [64] a term

elsewhere used as a title of their headmen. North of Cannanore there

are some fishermen, known as Mugavars or Mugayans, who are presumably

the same as the Mugayars of South Canara. Another account is that the

Mugayans are properly river-fishers, and the Mukkuvans sea-fishers;

but the distinction does not seem to hold good in fact. The Mukkuvans

rank below the Tiyans and the artisan classes; and it is creditable to

the community that some of its members have recently risen to occupy

such offices as that of Sub-magistrate and Sub-registrar. The caste has

supplied many converts to the ranks of Muhammadanism. In North Malabar

the Mukkuvans are divided into four exogamous illams, called Ponillam

(pon, gold), Chembillam (chembu, copper), Karillam, and Kachillam,

and are hence called Nalillakkar, or people of the four illams; while

the South Malabar Mukkuvans and Arayans have only the three latter

illams, and are therefore called Munillakkar, or people of the three

illams. There is also a section of the caste called Kavuthiyans, who

act as barbers to the others, and are sometimes called Panimagans

(work-children). The Nalillakkar are regarded as superior to the

Munillakkar and the Kavuthiyans, and exact various signs of respect

from them. The Kavuthiyans, like other barber castes, have special

functions to perform in connection with the removal of ceremonial

pollution; and it is interesting to note that sea-water is used in the

ritual sprinklings for this purpose. The old caste organisation seems

to have persisted to the present day among the Mukkuvans to an extent

which can be paralleled amongst few other castes. They have assemblies

(rajiams) of elders called Kadavans, or Kadakkodis, presided over

by presidents called Arayans or Karnavans, who settle questions of

caste etiquette, and also constitute a divorce court. The position

of the Arayans, like that of the Kadavans, is hereditary. It is said

to have been conferred by the different Rajas in their respective

territories, with certain insignia, a painted cadjan (palm leaf)

umbrella, a stick, and a red silk sash. The Arayans are also entitled

to the heads of porpoises captured in their jurisdictions, and to

presents of tobacco and pan supari when a girl attains puberty or

is married. Their consent is necessary to all regular marriages. The

Mukkuvans have their oracles or seers called Ayittans or Attans; and,

when an Arayan dies, these select his successor from his Anandravans,

while under the influence of the divine afflatus, and also choose

from among the younger members of the Kadavan families priests called

Manakkans or Banakkans, to perform puja in their temples.

"Fishing is the hereditary occupation of the Mukkuvans. Their boats,

made of aini (Artocarpus hirsuta) or mango wood, and fitted with a

mat sail, cost from Rs. 200 to Rs. 500, and carry a crew of 5 or

8 men according to size. Their nets are of all shapes and sizes,

ranging from a fine net with a 3/8'' mesh for sardines and such

small fry to a stout valiya sravuvala or shark net with a 6 1/2''

or 7'' mesh; and for a big Badagara boat a complete equipment is

said to cost Rs. 1,000. The nets are generally made of fibre, cotton

thread being used only for nets with the finest mesh. Salt is not

usually carried in the boats, and the fish decompose so rapidly in

the tropical sun that the usual fishing grounds are comparatively

close to the shore; but boats sometimes venture out ten, fifteen,

or even twenty miles. Shoals of the migratory sardine, which are

pursued by predaceous sharks, kora, and cat-fish, yield the richest

harvest of fishes great and small to the Mukkuvan. Huge quantities of

mackerel or aila are also caught, and seir, white and black pomfret,

prawns, whiting, and soles are common. The arrival of the boats is the

great event of the day in a fishing village. Willing hands help to

drag them up the beach, and an eager crowd gathers round each boat,

discussing the catch and haggling over the price. The pile of fish

soon melts away, and a string of coolies, each with a basket of fish

on his head, starts off at a sling trot into the interior, and soon

distributes the catch over a large area. Relays of runners convey fresh

fish from Badagara and Tellicherry even as far as the Wynaad. All that

is left unsold is taken from the boats to the yards to be cured under

the supervision of the Salt Department with Tuticorin salt supplied

at the rate of 10 annas per maund. The fisherman is sometimes also

the curer, but usually the two are distinct, and the former disposes

of the fish to the latter 'on fixed terms to a fixed customer,' and

'looks to him for support during the slack season, the rainy and stormy

south-west monsoon.' The salt fish is conveyed by coasting steamers

to Ceylon, and by the Madras Railway to Coimbatore, Salem, and other

places. Sardines are the most popular fish, and are known as kudumbam

pulartti, or the family blessing. In a good year, 200 sardines can be

had for a single pie. Sun-dried, they form valuable manure for the

coffee planter and the cocoanut grower, and are exported to Ceylon,

the Straits Settlements, and occasionally to China and Japan; and,

boiled with a little water, they yield quantities of fish oil for

export to Europe and Indian ports. Salted shark is esteemed a delicacy,

particularly for a nursing woman. Sharks' fins find a ready sale,

and are exported to China by way of Bombay. The maws or sounds of

kora and cat-fishes are dried, and shipped to China and Europe for

the preparation of isinglass." [65] It will be interesting to watch

the effect of the recently instituted Fishery Bureau in developing

the fishing industry and system of fish-curing in Southern India.

Mukkuvans work side by side with Mappillas both at the fishing grounds

and in the curing yards, and the two classes will eat together. It

is said that, in former times, Mappillas were allowed to contract

alliances with Mukkuva women, and that male children born as a result

thereof on Friday were handed over to the Mappilla community. It is

recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "conversion to

Islam is common among this caste. The converts are called Puislam

or Putiya Islam [66] (new Islam). All Puislams follow the occupation

of fishing. In the northernmost taluks there is a rule that Mukkuva

females during their periods cannot remain in the house, but must

occupy the house of a Mappilla, which shows that the two castes live

on very close terms." The fishermen at Tanur are for the most part

Puislamites, and will not go out fishing on Fridays.

From a recent note (1908), I gather that the Mukkuvas and Puislams of

Tanur have been prospering of late years and would appear to be going

in for a display of their prosperity by moving about arrayed in showy

shirts, watch-chains, shoes of the kind known as Arabi cherippu,

etc. This sort of ostentation has evidently not been appreciated

by the Moplahs, who, it is said sent round the Mukkuva village,

known as Mukkadi some Cherumas, numbering over sixty, to notify by

beat of kerosene tins that any Mukkuva or Puislam who went into the

Moplah bazaar wearing a shirt or coat or shoes would go in peril of

his life. Some days after this alleged notification, two Mukkuvas

and a Mukkuva woman complained to the Tirur Sub-Magistrate that they

had been waylaid by several Moplahs on the public road in the Tanur

bazaar, and had been severely beaten, the accused also robbing the

woman of some gold ornaments which were on her person. I am informed

that Tanur is the only place where this feeling exists. Puislams and

Mappillas settle down together peacefully enough elsewhere.

There are two titles in vogue among the Mukkuvans, viz., Arayan

and Marakkan. Of these, the former is the title of the headmen and

members of their families, and the latter a title of ordinary members

of the community. The caste deity is said to be Bhadrakali, and the

Mukkuvans have temples of their own, whereat worship is performed by

Yogi Gurukkals, or, it is said, by the Karanavans of certain families

who have been initiated by a Yogi Gurukkal.

At Tellicherry there are two headmen, called Arayanmar belonging to

the Kachillam and Ponillam sections. In addition to the headmen, there

are caste servants called Manakkan. It is stated, in the Manual of the

South Canara district, that "there is an hereditary headman of the

caste called the Ayathen, who settles disputes. For trifling faults

the ordinary punishment is to direct the culprit to supply so much

oil for lights to be burnt before the caste demon." The Velichapads,

or oracles who become possessed by the spirit of the deity among the

Mukkuvans, are called Ayathen, which is probably an abbreviation of

Ayuthathan, meaning a sword or weapon-bearer, as the oracle, when

under the influence of the deity, carries a sword or knife.

As among other Malayalam castes, Mukkuva girls must go through

a ceremony before they attain puberty. This is called pandal

kizhikkal, and corresponds to the tali-kettu kalyanam of the other

castes. The consent of the Arayan is necessary for the performance

of this ceremony. On the night previous thereto, the girl is smeared

with turmeric paste and oil. Early on the following morning, she

is brought to the pandal (booth), which is erected in front of the

house, and supported by four bamboo posts. She is bathed by having

water poured over her by girls of septs other than her own. After the

bath, she stands at the entrance to the house, and a Kavuthiyachi

(barber woman) sprinkles sea-water over her with a tuft of grass

(Cynodon Dactylon). A cloth is thrown over her, and she is led into

the house. The barber woman receives as her fee a cocoanut, some rice,

and condiments. A tali (marriage badge) is tied on the girl's neck by

her prospective husband's sister if a husband has been selected for

her, or by a woman of a sept other than her own. The girl must fast

until the conclusion of the ceremony, and should remain indoors for

seven days afterwards. At the time of ceremony, she receives presents

of money at the rate of two vellis per family. The Arayan receives

two vellis, a bundle of betel leaves, areca nuts, and tobacco.

Girls are married after puberty according to one of two forms of rite,

called kodi-udukkal (tying the cloth) and vittil-kudal. The former

is resorted to by the more prosperous members of the community, and

lasts over two days. On the first day, the bridegroom goes to the home

of the bride, accompanied by his relations and friends, and sweets,

betel leaves and areca nuts, etc., are given to them. They then

take their departure, and return later in the day, accompanied by

musicians, in procession. At the entrance to the bride's house they

stand while someone calls out the names of the eleven Arayans of the

caste, who, if they are present, come forward without a body-cloth

or coat. Betel leaves and areca nuts are presented to the Arayans or

their representatives, and afterwards to the Rajyakkar, or chief men

of the village. The bridegroom then goes inside, conducted by two men

belonging to the septs of the contracting parties, to the bride's

room. The bridegroom sits down to a meal with nine or eleven young

men in a line, or in the same room. On the second day, the bride is

brought to the pandal. Two persons are selected as representatives

of the bridegroom and bride, and the representative of the former

gives thirty-nine vellis to the representative of the latter. Some

sweetened water is given to the bridegroom's relations. A woman

who has been married according to the kodi-udukkal rite ties a

new cloth round the waist of the bride, after asking her if she is

willing to marry the bridegroom, and obtaining the consent of those

assembled. Sometimes a necklace, composed of twenty-one gold coins,

is also tied on the bride's neck. At night, the bridal couple take

their departure for the home of the bridegroom. In South Canara,

the ceremonial is spread over three days, and varies from the above

in some points of detail. The bridegroom goes in procession to the

bride's house, accompanied by a Sangayi or Munan (best or third man)

belonging to a sept other than that of the bridal couple. The bride

is seated in a room, with a lamp and a tray containing betel leaves,

areca nuts, and flowers. The Sangayi takes a female cloth in which

some money is tied, and throws it on a rope within the room. On the

third day, the bride puts on this cloth, and, seated within the pandal,

receives presents.

The vittil-kudal marriage rite is completed in a single day. The

bridegroom comes to the home of the bride, and goes into her room,

conducted thither by two men belonging to the septs of the contracting

couple. The newly-married couple may not leave the bride's house

until the seventh day after the marriage ceremony, and the wife is

not obliged to live at her husband's house.

There is yet another form of alliance called vechchirukkal, which is

an informal union with the consent of the parents and the Arayans. It

is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "amongst Mukkuvas the

vidaram marriage obtains, but for this no ceremony is performed. The

vidaram wife is not taken to her husbands house, and her family

pay no stridhanam. A vidaram marriage can at any time be completed,

as it were, by the performance of the kalyanam ceremonies. Even if

this be not done, however, a child by a vidaram wife has a claim to

inherit to his father in South Malabar, if the latter recognises him

by paying to the mother directly after her delivery a fee of three

fanams called mukkapanam. A curious custom is that which prescribes

that, if a girl be married after attaining puberty, she must remain

for a period in the status of a vidaram wife, which may subsequently

be raised by the performance of the regular kalyanam."

Divorce is easily effected by payment of a fine, the money being

divided between the husband or wife as the case may be, the temple,

the Arayans, and charity.

A pregnant woman has to go through a ceremony called puli or ney-kudi

in the fifth or seventh month. A ripe cocoanut, which has lost its

water, is selected, and heated over a fire. Oil is then expressed

from it, and five or seven women smear the tongue and abdomen of the

pregnant woman with it. A barber woman is present throughout the

ceremony. The husband lets his hair grow until his wife has been

delivered, and is shaved on the third day after the birth of the

child. At the place where he sits for the operation, a cocoanut,

betel leaves and areca nuts are placed. The cocoanut is broken in

pieces by some one belonging to the same sept as the father of the

child. Pollution is got rid of on this day by a barber woman sprinkling

water at the houses of the Mukkuvans. A barber should also sprinkle

water at the temple on the same day.

The dead are, as a rule, buried. Soon after death has taken place, the

widow of the deceased purchases twenty-eight cubits of white cloth. A

gold ring is put into the hand of the corpse, and given to the widow

or her relations, to be returned to the relations of the dead man. The

corpse is bathed in fresh water, decorated, and placed on a bier. The

widow then approaches, and, with a cloth over her head, cuts her tali

off, and places it by the side of the corpse. Sometimes the tali is

cut off by a barber woman, if the widow has been married according to

the kodi-udukkal rite. In some places, the bier is kept in the custody

of the barber, who brings it whenever it is required. In this case,

the articles requisite for decorating the corpse, e.g., sandal paste

and flowers, are brought by the barber, and given to the son of the

deceased. Some four or five women belonging to the Kadavar families are

engaged for mourning. The corpse is carried to the burial-ground, where

a barber tears a piece of cloth from the winding-sheet, and gives it

to the son. The bearers anoint themselves, bathe in the sea, and, with

wet cloths, go three times round the corpse, and put a bit of gold,

flowers, and rice, in its nose. The relations then pour water over the

corpse, which is lowered into the grave. Once more the bearers, and

the son, bathe in the sea, and go three times round the grave. The

son carries a pot of water, and, at the end of the third round,

throws it down, so that it is broken. On their return home, the son

and bearers are met by a barber woman, who sprinkles them with rice

and water. Death pollution is observed for seven days, during which

the son abstains from salt and tamarind. A barber woman sprinkles

water over those under pollution. On the eighth, or sometimes the

fourteenth day, the final death ceremony is performed. Nine or eleven

boys bathe in the sea, and offer food near it. They then come to the

house of the deceased, and, with lamps on their heads, go round seven

or nine small heaps of raw rice or paddy (unhusked rice), and place

the lamps on the heaps. The eldest son is expected to abstain from

shaving his head for six months or a year. At the end of this time,

he is shaved on an auspicious day. The hair, plantains, and rice,

are placed in a small new pot, which is thrown into the sea. After

a bath, rice is spread on the floor of the house so as to resemble

the figure of a man, over which a green cloth is thrown. At one end

of the figure, a light in a measure is placed. Seven or nine heaps

of rice or paddy are made, on which lights are put, and the son goes

three times round, throwing rice at the north, south, east, and west

corners. This brings the ceremonial to a close.

Mulaka (Solanum xanthocarpum).--A sept of Balija. The fruit of this

plant is tied to the big toe of Brahman corpses.

Muli.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a class of

blacksmiths in Ganjam, and stone-cutters in Vizagapatam. It is said

to be a sub-division of Lohara. Muli also occurs as an occupational

sub-division of Savara.

Muli Kurava.--A name for Kuravas in Travancore.

Mullangi(radish).--An exogamous sept of Komati.

Mullu (thorn).--A gotra of Kurni. Mullu also occurs as a sub-division

of Kurumba.

Multani.--A territorial name, meaning a native of Multan in the

Punjab. They are described, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, as

immigrant traders, found in the large towns, whose business consists

chiefly of banking and money-lending.

Mundala,--A sub-division of Holeya.

Mundapotho.--Mundapotho (mundo, head; potho, bury) is the name of a

class of mendicants who wander about Ganjam, and frequent the streets

of Jagannath (Puri). They try to arouse the sympathy of pilgrims by

burying their head in the sand or dust, and exposing the rest of the

body. They generally speak Telugu.

Mungaru (woman's skirt).--An exogamous sept of Kapu.

Muni.--See Ravulo.

Munillakkar (people of the three illams).--A section of Mukkuvans,

which is divided into three illams.

Munnuti Gumpu.--Recorded, in the Kurnool Manual, as "a mixed caste,

comprising the illegitimate descendants of Balijas, and the male

children of dancing-girls." It is not a caste name, but an insulting

name for those of mixed origin.

Munnuttan (men of the three hundred).--Recorded, at times of census,

as a synonym of Velan, and sub-caste of Panan, among the latter of

whom Anjuttan (men of five hundred) also occurs. In the Gazetteer of

Malabar, Munnuttan appears as a class of Mannans, who are closely akin

to the Velans. In Travancore, Munnutilkar is a name for Kumbakonam

Vellalas, who have settled there.

Muppan.--Muppan has been defined as "an elder, the headman of a class

or business, one who presides over ploughmen and shepherds, etc. The

word literally means an elder: mukkiradu, to grow old, and muppu,

seniority." At recent times of census, Muppan has been returned as

a title by many classes, which include Alavan, Ambalakaran, Kudumi,

Pallan, Paraiyan and Tandan in Travancore, Senaikkudaiyan, Saliyan,

Shanan, Sudarman and Valaiyan. It has further been returned as a

division of Konkana Sudras in Travancore.

During my wanderings in the Malabar Wynad, I came across a gang

of coolies, working on a planter's estate, who called themselves

Muppans. They were interesting owing to the frequent occurrence among

them of a very simple type of finger-print impression (arches).

Muppil (chief).--A sub-division of Nayar.

Murikinadu.--Murikinadu or Murikinati is a territorial name, which

occurs as a division of Telugu Brahmans, and of various Telugu classes,

e.g., Kamsala, Mala, Mangala, Razu, and Tsakala.

Muriya.--A small class in Ganjam, who are engaged in making a

preparation of fried rice (muri) and in cultivation.

Muru Balayanoru (three-bangle people).--A sub-division of Kappiliyan.

Musaliar.--An occupational term, denoting a Muhammadan priest,

returned at times of census in the Tamil country.

Musari.--A division of Malayalam Kammalans, whose occupation is that

of brass and copper smiths. The equivalent Musarlu occurs among the

Telugu Kamsalas.

Mushika (rat).--A gotra of Nagaralu. The rat is the vehicle of the

Elephant God, Vignesvara or Ganesa.

Mushtiga.--An exogamous sept of the Gollas, who may not use the

mushtiga tree (Strychnos Nux-vomica). It also occurs as a synonym

of Jetti.

Mushti Golla.--A class of mendicants, usually of mixed

extraction. Mushti means alms.

Mussad.--For the following note on the Mussads or Muttatus of

Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. They are known

as Muttatus or Mussatus in Travancore and Cochin, and Potuvals (or

Poduvals) or Akapotuvals in North Malabar. The word Muttatu means

elder, and is generally taken to indicate a community, which is higher

than the Ambalavasi castes, as Ilayatu (or Elayad), or younger, denotes

a sub-caste slightly lower than the Brahmans. In early records, the

word Mupputayor, which has an identical meaning, is met with. Potuval

means a common person, i.e., the representative of a committee, and

a Muttatu's right to this name is from the fact that, in the absence

of the Nambutiri managers of a temple, he becomes their agent, and

is invested with authority to exercise all their functions. The work

of an Akapotuval always lies within the inner wall of the shrine,

while that of the Purapotuval or Potuval proper lies outside. The

castemen themselves prefer the name Sivadvija or Saivite Brahman. A

few families possess special titles, such as Nambi and Nambiyar. Their

women are generally known as Manayammamar, mana meaning the house of

a Brahman. There are no divisions or septs among the Muttatus.

The origin of the Muttatus, and their place in Malabar society,

are questions on which a good deal of discussion has been of late

expended. In the Jatinirnaya, an old Sanskrit work on the castes of

Kerala attributed to Sankaracharya, it is said that the four kinds

of Ambalavasis, Tantri, Bharatabhattaraka, Agrima, and Slaghyavakku,

are Brahmans degraded in the Krita, Treta, Dvapara, and Kali ages,

respectively, and that those who were so degraded in the Dvapara

Yuga--the Agrimas or Muttatus--and whose occupation is to cleanse the

stone steps of shrines--are found in large numbers in Kerala. According

to Kerala Mahatmya, another Sanskrit work on Malabar history and

customs, these Muttatus are also known as Sivadvijas, or Brahmans

dedicated to the worship of Siva, occupying a lower position in

Malabar society than that of the Brahmans. One of them, disguised

as a Nambutiri, married a Nambutiri's daughter, but his real status

became known before the marriage was consummated, and the pair were

degraded, and allotted a separate place in society. This tradition is

not necessary to account for the present position of the Muttatus in

Kerala, as, all over India, worship of fixed images was viewed with

disfavour even in the days of Manu. Worship in Saivite temples was

not sought by Brahmans, and was even considered as despiritualising

on account of the divine displeasure which may be expected as the

result of misfeasance. It was for a similar reason that the Nambiyans

of even Vaishnavite temples on the east coast became degraded in

society. The Illayatus and Muttatus have been long known in Malabar

as Nyunas or castes slightly lower than the Brahmans, and Avantaras

or castes intermediate between Brahmans and Ambalavasis. As, in

subsequent days, the Brahmans themselves undertook with impunity the

priestly profession in Hindu temples, Saivite as well as Vaishnavite,

the Muttatus had to be content with a more lowly occupation, viz.,

that of guarding the temples and images. According to Suchindra

Mahatmyam, eleven Brahmans were ordered by Parasu Rama to partake

of the remnants of the food offered to Siva, and to bear the Saivite

image in procession round the shrine on occasions of festivals; and,

according to the Vaikam Sthalapuranam, three families of Sivadvijas

were brought over by the same sage from eastern districts for service

at that temple. Whatever may be said in regard to the antiquity or

authenticity of many of these Sthalapuranams, corroborative evidence

of the Brahmanical origin of the Muttatus may be amply found in

their manners and customs. A fresh colony of Sivadvijas is believed

to have been invited to settle at Tiruvanchikkulam in Cranganore from

Chidambaram by one of the Perumals of Kerala, in connection with the

establishment of Saivite temples there. They have preserved their

original occupation faithfully enough down to the present day.

The houses of Muttatus are known as illams and mattams, the former

being the name of all Nambutiri houses. They are generally built beside

some well-known shrine, with which the inmates are professionally

connected. The dress of both men and women resembles that of the

Nambutiri Brahmans, the injunction to cover the whole of the body when

they go out of doors being applicable also to the Manayammamar. Girls

before marriage wear a ring and kuzal on the neck, and, on festive

occasions, a palakka ring. The chuttu in the ears, and pozhutu tali

on the neck are worn only after marriage, the latter being the symbol

which distinguishes married women from widows and maidens. Widows

are prohibited from wearing any ornament except the chuttu. In food

and drink the Muttatus are quite like the Nambutiris.

The Muttatus are the custodians of the images, which they take

in procession, and wash the stone steps leading to the inner

sanctuary. They live by the naivedya or cooked food offering which

they receive from the temple, and various other emoluments. It may be

noted that one of the causes of their degradation was the partaking

of this food, which Brahmans took care not to do. The Muttatus are

generally well-read in Sanskrit, and study astrology, medicine, and

sorcery. The social government of the Muttatus rests wholly with the

Nambutiris, who enforce the smartavicharam or enquiry into a suspected

case of adultery, as in the case of a Nambutiri woman. When Nambutiri

priests are not available, Muttatus, if learned in the Vedas, may be

employed, but punyaham, or purification after pollution, can only be

done by a Nambutiri.

Like the Nambutiris, the Muttatus strictly observe the rule that only

the eldest male member in a family can marry. The rest form casual

connections with women of most of the Ambalavasi classes. They are,

like the Brahmans, divided into exogamous septs or gotras. A girl is

married before or after puberty. Polygamy is not uncommon, though the

number of wives is never more than four. Widows do not remarry. In

their marriage ceremonies, the Muttatus resemble the Nambutiris,

with some minor points of difference. They follow two sutras, those

of Asvalayana and Baudhayana, the former being members of the Rig Veda

and the latter of the Yajur Veda. The former omit a number of details,

such as the panchamehani and dasamehani, which are observed by the

latter. According to a territorial distinction, Mussad girls of North

Malabar cannot become the daughters-in-law of South Malabar families,

but girls of South Malabar can become the daughters-in-law of North

Malabar families.

The Muttatus observe all the religious rites of the Nambutiris. The

rule is that the eldest son should be named after the paternal

grandfather, the second after the maternal grandfather, and the third

after that of the father. The upanayana ceremony is celebrated between

the ages of seven and eleven, and the Gayatri hymn may only be repeated

ten times thrice daily. In the funeral rites, the help of the Maran

called Chitikan (a corruption of Chaitika, meaning one who is connected

with the funeral pyre) is sought. Pollution lasts only ten days.

The Muttatus stand above all sections of the Ambalavasi group,

and below every recognised section of the Brahman and Kshatriya

communities, with whom they do not hold commensal relations in

any part of Kerala. They are thus on a par with the Illayatus,

but the latter have their own hierarchy, and lead a social life

almost independent of the Brahmans. The Muttatus seek their help

and advice in all important matters. The Muttatus are, however,

privileged to take their food within the nalampalam (temple courts),

and the leaf-plates are afterwards removed by temple servants. The

Ambalavasis do not possess a right of this kind. At Suchindram, the

Nambutiri by whom the chief image is served is not privileged to give

prasada (remains of offerings) to any worshipper, this privilege being

confined to the Muttatus engaged to serve the minor deities of the

shrine. The washing of the stone steps leading to the inner sanctuary,

the mandapa, kitchen, feeding rooms, and bali stones, both inside

and outside the shrine, are done by Muttatus at temples with which

they are connected. All Ambalavasis freely receive food from Muttatus.

It is further noted, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, that "there

is a pithy saying in Malayalam, according to which the Muthads are

to be regarded as the highest of Ambalavasis, and the Elayads as the

lowest of Brahmans. Considerable difference of opinion exists as to

the exact social status of Muthads. For, while some hold that they

are to be regarded as degraded Brahmans, others maintain that they

are only the highest class of Ambalavasis. In the opinion, however,

of the most learned Vydikan who was consulted on the subject, the

Muthads are to be classed as degraded Brahmans. They are supposed

to have suffered social degradation by their having tattooed their

bodies with figures representing the weapons of the god Siva, and

partaking of the offerings made to that god."

A correspondent, who has made enquiry into caste questions in Malabar,

writes to me as follows. There are several ways of spelling the name,

e.g., Mussu, Mussad, and Muttatu. Some people tried to discriminate

between these, but I could not work out any distinctions. In practice,

I think, all the classes noted below are called by either name

indifferently, and most commonly Mussad. There are several classes,

viz.:--

(1) BRAHMAN OR QUASI-BRAHMAN.

(a) Ashtavaidyanmar, or eight physicians, are eight families

of hereditary physicians. They are called Jatimatrakaras (barely

caste people), and it is supposed that they are Nambudiris slightly

degraded by the necessity they may, as surgeons, be under of shedding

blood. Most of them are called Mussad, but one at least is called

Nambi.

(b) Urili Parisha Mussad, or assembly in the village Mussad, who are

said to be degraded because they accepted gifts of land from Parasu

Rama, and agreed to take on themselves the sin he had contracted

by slaying the Kshetriyas. This class, as a whole, is called Sapta

or Saptagrastan.

(2) AMBALAVASI.

(c) Mussad or Muttatu.--They appear to be identical with the

Agapothuvals, or inside Pothuvals, as distinguished from the Pura,

or outside Pothuvals, in North Malabar. They are said to be the

descendants of a Sivadvija man and pure Brahman girl. According

to another account, they lost caste because they ate rice offered

to Siva, which is prohibited by one of the anacharams, or rules of

conduct peculiar to Kerala. They perform various duties in temples,

and escort the idol when it is carried in procession on an arrangement

called tadambu, which is like an inverted shield with a shelf across

it, on which the idol is placed. They wear the punul, or sacred thread.

(d) Karuga Mussad.--So called from the karuga grass (Cynodon Dactylon),

which is used in ceremonies. Their exact position is disputed. They

wear the sacred thread (cf. Karuga Nambudiris in North Malabar),

who cook rice for the sradh (memorial ceremony) of Sudras,

(e) Tiruvalayanath or Kovil (temple) Mussad.--They also wear the

sacred thread, but perform puja in Bhadrakali temples, incidents of

which are the shedding of blood and use of liquor. They seem to be

almost identical with the caste called elsewhere Adigal or Pidaran,

but, I think, Adigals are a little higher, and do not touch liquor,

while Pidarans are divided into two classes, the lower of which does

not wear the thread or perform the actual puja, but only attends to

various matters subsidiary thereto.

In an account of the annual ceremony at the Pishari temple near

Quilandy in Malabar in honour of Bhagavati, Mr. F. Fawcett informs

[67] that the Mussad priests repeat mantrams (prayers) over the goats

for an hour as a preliminary to the sacrifice. Then the chief priest,

with a chopper-like sword, decapitates the goats, and sacrifices

several cocks. The Mussads cook some of the flesh of the goats, and

one or two of the cocks with rice. This rice, when cooked, is taken

to the kavu (grove) to the north of the temple, and there the Mussads

again ply their mantrams.

Musu Kamma.--The name of a special ear ornament worn by the Musu

Kamma sub-division of Balijas. In the Salem District Manual, Musuku

is recorded as a sub-division of this caste.

Mutalpattukar.--A synonym of Tandan in Travancore, indicating those

who received an allowance for the assistance they were called on to

render to carpenters.

Mutracha.--Mutracha appears, in published records, in a variety of

forms, such as Muttaracha, Muttirajulu, Muttarasan, and Mutratcha. The

caste is known by one of these names in the Telugu country, and in

the Tamil country as Muttiriyan or Palaiyakkaran.

Concerning the Mutrachas, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes as follows. [68]

"This is a Telugu caste most numerous in the Kistna, Nellore,

Cuddapah, and North Arcot districts. The Mutrachas were employed by

the Vijayanagar kings to defend the frontiers of their dominions,

and were honoured with the title of paligars (cf. Palaiyakkaran). The

word Mutracha is derived from the Dravidian roots mudi, old, and racha,

a king; but another derivation is from Mutu Raja, a sovereign of some

part of the Telugu country. They eat flesh, and drink liquor. Their

titles are Dora and Naidu." Mr. Stuart writes further [69] that in

the North Arcot district they are "most numerous in the Chendragiri

taluk, but found all over the district in the person of the village

taliari or watchman, for which reason it is often called the taliari

caste. They proudly call themselves paligars, and in Chendragiri doralu

or lords, because several of the Chittoor palaiyams (villages governed

by paligars) were in possession of members of their caste. They seem

to have entered the country in the time of the Vijayanagar kings,

and to have been appointed as its kavilgars (watchmen). The caste

is usually esteemed by others as a low one. Most of its members

are poor, even when they have left the profession of taliari, and

taken to agriculture. They eat in the houses of most other castes,

and are not trammelled by many restrictions. In Chendragiri they

rarely marry, but form connections with women of their caste, which

are often permanent, though not sanctioned by the marriage ceremony,

and the offspring of such associations are regarded as legitimate."

In the Nellore Manual, the Mutrachas are summed up as being hunters,

fishermen, bearers, palanquin-bearers, and hereditary watchmen in the

villages. At times of census, Mutracha or Mutarasan has been recorded

as a sub-division of Urali, and a title of Ambalakkaran. Muttiriyan,

which is simply a Tamil form of Mutracha, appears as a title and

sub-division of Ambalakkaran (q.v.). Further, Tolagari is recorded

as a sub-division of Mutracha. The Tolagaris are stated [70] to

be a small cultivating caste, who were formerly hunters, like the

Palayakkarans. Most of the Mutrachas are engaged in agriculture. At

Paniyam, in the Kurnool district, I found some employed in collecting

winged white-ants (Termites), which they sun-dry, and store in large

pots as an article of food. They are said to make use of some special

powder as a means of attracting the insects, in catching which they

are very expert.

In some places, the relations between the Mutrachas and Gollas, both

of which castes belong to the left-hand section, are strained. On

occasions of marriage among the Madigas, some pan-supari (betel leaves

and areca nuts), is set apart for the Mutrachas, as a mark of respect.

In consequence of the fact that some Mutrachas have been petty

chieftains, they claim to be Kshatriyas, and to be descended from

Yayathi of the Mahabaratha. According to the legend, Devayana, the

daughter of Sukracharya, the priest of the Daityas (demons and giants),

went to a well with Charmanishta, the daughter of the Daitya king. A

quarrel arose between them, and Charmanishta pushed Devayana into a

dry well, from which she was rescued by king Yayathi. Sukracharya

complained to the Daitya king, who made his daughter become a

servant to Yayathi's wife, Devayana. By her marriage Devayana bore

two sons. Subsequently, Yayathi became enamoured of Charmanishta, by

whom he had an illegitimate son. Hearing of this, Sukracharya cursed

Yayathi that he should be subject to old age and infirmity. This curse

he asked his children to take on themselves, but all refused except

his illegitimate child Puru. He accordingly cursed his legitimate sons,

that they should only rule over barren land overrun by Kiratas. One of

them, Durvasa by name, had seven children, who were specially favoured

by the goddess Ankamma. After a time, however, they were persuaded

to worship Maheswara or Virabhadra instead of Ankamma. This made

the goddess angry, and she caused all flower gardens to disappear,

except her own. Flowers being necessary for the purpose of worship,

the perverts stole them from Ankamma's garden, and were caught in the

act by the goddess. As a punishment for their sin, they had to lose

their lives by killing themselves on a stake. One of the seven sons had

a child named Ravideviraju, which was thrown into a well as soon as it

was born. The Naga Kannikas of the nether regions rescued the infant,

and tended it with care. One day, while Ankamma was traversing the

Naga lokam (country), she heard a child crying, and sent her vehicle, a

jackal (nakka), to bring the child, which, however, would not allow the

animal to take it The goddess accordingly herself carried it off. The

child grew up under her care, and eventually had three sons, named

Karnam Raju, Gangi Raju, and Bhupathi Raju, from whom the Mutrachas

are descended. In return for the goddess protecting and bringing up

the child, she is regarded as the special tutelary deity of the caste.

There is a saying current among the Mutrachas that the Mutracha

caste is as good as a pearl, but became degraded as its members

began to catch fish. According to a legend, the Mutrachas, being

Kshatriyas, wore the sacred thread. Some of them, on their way home

after a hunting expedition, halted by a pond, and were tempted by the

enormous number of fish therein to fish for them, using their sacred

threads as lines. They were seen by some Brahmans while thus engaged,

and their degradation followed.

In the Telugu country, two divisions, called Paligiri and Oruganti,

are recognised by the Mutrachas, who further have exogamous septs or

intiperulu, of which the following are examples:--

Avula, cow.

Arigala, a dish carried in processions.

Busi, dirt.

Ella, boundary.

Guvvala, doves.

Indla, house.

Iga, fly.

Koppula, hair-knot.

Katari, dagger.

Marri, Ficus bengalensis.

Nakka, jackal.

Puli, tiger.

Talari, watchman.

Tota, garden.

Uyyala, a swing.

Thumu, iron measure for measuring grain.

During the first menstrual seclusion of a girl, she may not have

her meals served on a metal plate, but uses an earthen cup, which is

eventually thrown away. When she reaches puberty, a girl does up her

hair in a knot called koppu.

In the case of confinement, pollution ends on the tenth day. But,

if a woman loses her infant, especially a first-born, the pollution

period is shortened, and, at every subsequent time of delivery, the

woman bathes on the seventh or ninth day. Every woman who visits her on

the bathing day brings a pot of warm water, and pours it over her head.

Muttal (substitute).--A sub-division of Maran.

Muttan.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Muttans are summed

up as "a trading caste in Malabar. The better educated members of it

have begun to claim a higher social status than that usually accorded

them. Formerly they claimed to be Nayars, but recently they have

gone further, and, in the census schedules, some of them returned

themselves as Vaisyas, and added the Vaisya title Gupta to their

names. They do not, however, wear the sacred thread, or perform any

Vedic rites, and Nayars consider themselves polluted by their touch."

It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, under the conjoint

heading Muttan and Tarakan, that "these two are allied castes, but

the latter would consider it a disgrace to acknowledge any affinity

with the former. Tarakan literally means a broker. Dr. Gundert says

that these were originally warehouse-keepers at Palghat. Muttan is

probably from Muttavan, an elder, Tarakans have returned Muttan as

a sub-division, and vice versâ, and both appear as sub-divisions of

Nayar. We have in our schedules instances of persons who have returned

their caste as Tarakan, but with their names Krishna Muttan (male)

and Lakshmi Chettichiar (female). A Muttan may, in course of time,

become a Tarakan, and then a Nayar. Both these castes follow closely

the customs and manners of Nayars, but there are some differences. I

have not, however, been able to get at the real state of affairs, as

the members of the caste are very reticent on the subject, and simply

assert that they are in all respects the same as Nayars. One difference

is that a Brahmani does not sing at their tali-kettu marriages. Again,

instead of having a Marayan, Attikurissi, or Elayad as their priest,

they employ a man of their own caste, called Choratton. This man

assists at their funeral ceremonies, and purifies them at the end

of pollution, just as the Attikurissi does for Nayars. Kali temples

seem to be specially affected by this caste, and these Chorattons

are also priests in these temples. The Muttan and Tarakan castes are

practically confined to Palghat and Walluvanad taluks."

In a note on some castes in Malabar which are most likely of

foreign origin, it is stated, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that

"this is certainly true of the Muttans, who are found only in the

Palghat taluk and in the parts of Walavanad bordering on it, a part

of the country where there is a large admixture of Tamils in the

population. They are now advancing a claim to be Vaisyas, and some

of them have adopted the title Gupta which is proper to that caste,

while a few have the title Ezhutacchan. Some Muttans in Palghat are

called Mannadiars, a title also apparently borne by some Taragans. The

Muttans follow makkattayam (inheritance from father to son), and do

not enter into the loose connections known as sambandhams; their women

are called Chettichiars, clearly indicating their eastern origin;

and their period of pollution is ten days, according to which test

they would rank as a high caste. On the other hand, they may eat meat

and drink liquor. Their purificatory ceremonies are performed by a

class known as Chorttavans (literally, sprinklers), who are said to

be identical with Kulangara Nayars, and not by Attikurrissi Nayars

as in the case with Nambudris, Ambalavasis, and Nayars. There is

considerable antagonism between the Palghat and Walavanad sections of

the caste. Another caste of traders, which has now been practically

incorporated in the Nayar body, is the class known as Taragans

(literally, brokers) found in Palghat and Walavanad, some of whom

have considerable wealth and high social position. The Taragans of

Angadippuram and the surrounding neighbourhood claim to be immigrants

from Travancore, and to be descendants of Ettuvittil Pillamar of

Quilon, who are high caste Nayars. They can marry Kiriyattil women,

and their women occasionally have sambandham with Samantan Rajas. The

Palghat Taragans on the other hand can marry only in their caste."

Muttasari.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a

name by which Kammalans are addressed.

Muttiriyan.--See Mutracha.

Mutyala (pearl).--An exogamous sept, and name of a sub-division of

Balijas who deal in pearls. The Ambalakarans say that they were born

of the sweat (muttu, a pearl or bead of perspiration) of Paramasiva.

Muvvari.--Recorded [71] as "a North Malabar caste of domestic servants

under the Embrantiri Brahmans. Their customs resemble those of the

Nayars, but the Elayads and the Marayans will not serve them."

Myasa.--Myasa, meaning grass-land or forest, is one of the two main

divisions, Uru (village) and Myasa, of the Bedars and Boyas. Among the

Myasa Bedars, the rite of circumcision is practiced, and is said to

be the survival of a custom which originated when they were included

in the army of Haidar Ali

N

Nadan.--Nadan, meaning ruler of a country or village, or one who

lives in the country, is a title of the Shanans, who, further, call

themselves Nadans in preference to Shanans.

Nadava.--" This, "Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [72] "is a caste of Canarese

farmers found only in South Canara. The Nadavas have returned four

sub-divisions, one of which is Bant, and two of the other three

are sub-divisions of Bants, the most important being Masadi. In the

case of 33,212 individuals, Nadava has been returned as sub-division

also. I have no information regarding the caste, but they seem to

be closely allied to the Bant caste, of which Nadava is one of the

sub-divisions." The name Nadava or Nadavaru means people of the nadu

or country. It is one of the sub-divisions of the Bants.

Naga (cobra: Naia tripudians).--Nag, Naga, Nagasa, or Nageswara,

occurs in the name of a sept or gotra of various classes in Ganjam

and Vizagapatam, e.g., Aiyarakulu, Bhondari, Bhumia, Bottada, Domb,

Gadaba, Konda Dora, Medara, Muka Dora, Nagaralu, Omanaito, Poroja,

Rona, and Samantiya. Members of the Nagabonso sept of Odiya claim

to be descendants of Nagamuni, the serpent rishi. Naga is further a

gotra or sept of Kurnis and Toreyas, of whom the latter, at their

weddings, worship at 'ant' (Termites) hills, which are often the

home of cobras. It is also a sub-division of Gazula Kapus and Koppala

Velamas. Nagavadam (cobra's hood) is the name of a sub-division of the

Pallis, who wear an ornament, called nagavadam, shaped like a cobra's

head, in the dilated lobes of the ears. Among the Viramushtis there

is a sept named Naga Mallika (Rhinacanthus communis), the roots of

which shrub are believed to be an antidote to the bite of poisonous

snakes. The flowers of Couroupita guianensis, which has been introduced

as a garden tree in Southern India, are known as naga linga pu, from

the staminal portion of the flower which curves over the ovary being

likened to a cobra's hood, and the ovary to a lingam.

Nagali (plough).--An exogamous sept of Kapu.

Nagalika (of the plough).--A name for Lingayats engaged in cultivation.

Nagaralu.--The Nagaralu are a cultivating caste in Vizagapatam,

concerning whom it is recorded [73] that "Nagaralu means the dwellers

in a nagaram or city, and apparently this caste was originally a

section of the Kapus, which took to town life, and separated itself

off from the parent stock. They say their original occupation was

medicine, and a number of them are still physicians and druggists,

though the greater part are agriculturists."

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana

Rao. Viziaram Raz, the friend of Bussy, conferred mokhasas (grants

of land) on some of the most important members of the caste, whose

descendants are to be found in various places. The caste is divided

into three sections or gotras, viz., Nagesvara (cobra) Kurmesa

(tortoise), and Vignesvara or Mushika (rat). The rat is the vehicle

of the elephant god Ganesa or Vignesvara. It is further divided into

exogamous septs or intiperulu, such as sampathi (riches), chakravarthi

(king or ruler), majji, etc.

The menarikam system, according to which a man should marry his

maternal uncle's daughter, is in force. Girls are usually married

before puberty, and a Brahman officiates at marriages. The marriage

of widows and divorce are not permitted.

The dead are burnt, and the chinna (little) and pedda rozu (big day)

death ceremonies, whereat a Brahman officiates, are celebrated.

Some members of the caste have acquired a great reputation as

medicine-men and druggists.

The usual caste title is Pathrulu, indicating those who are fit to

receive a gift

Nagartha.--Nagarata, Nagarattar, or Nagarakulam is returned, in

the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Chetti. In the

Census Report, 1891, it is recorded that the Nagarattu "hail from

Kanchipuram (Conjeeveram), where, it is said, a thousand families of

this caste formerly lived. Their name (nagaram, a city) refers to their

original home. They wear the sacred thread, and worship both Vishnu and

Siva. They take neither flesh nor alcohol. As they maintain that they

are true Vaisyas, they closely imitate the Brahmanical ceremonies of

marriage and death. This sub-division has a dancing-girl and a servant

attached to it, whose duties are to dance, and to do miscellaneous

work during marriages. The caste servant is called Jatipillai (child

of the caste).

Concerning the Nagarthas, who are settled in the Mysore Province,

I gather [74] that "the account locally obtained connects them with

the Ganigas, and the two castes are said to have been co-emigrants to

Bangalore where one Mallaraje Ars made headmen of the principal members

of the two castes, and exempted them from the house-tax. Certain

gotras are said to be common to both castes, but they never eat

together or intermarry. Both call themselves Dharmasivachar Vaisyas,

and the feuds between them are said to have often culminated in much

unpleasantness. The Nagarthas are principally found in towns and large

trade centres. Some are worshippers of Vishnu, and others of Siva. Of

the latter, some wear the linga. They are dealers in bullion, cloth,

cotton, drugs and grain. A curious mode of carrying the dead among

the Namadari or Vaishnavite Nagarthas is that the dead body is rolled

up in a blanket, instead of a bier or vimana as among others. These

cremate their dead, whereas the others bury them. Marriage must be

performed before a girl reaches puberty, and widows are not allowed

to remarry. Polygamy is allowed, and divorce can be for adultery

alone. It is recorded by Mr. L. Rice [75] that "cases sometimes occur

of a Sivachar marrying a Namadari woman, and, when this happens,

her tongue is burned with the linga, after which she forsakes her

parents' house and religion. It is stated that the Sivachar Nagarthas

never give their daughters in marriage to the Namadari sect." Among

the gotras returned by the Nagarthas are Kasyapa, Chandramauleswara,

and Cholendra.

Naga-sreni.--A fanciful name, meaning those who live in the Naga

street, used as a caste name by the Patramela dancing-girl caste.

Nagavasulu.--The Nagavasulu are described, in the Vizagapatam

Manual, as "cultivators in the Vizagapatam district. Women who have

not entered into matrimony earn money by prostitution, and acting

as dancers at feasts. Some of the caste lead a bad life, and are

excluded from the body of the caste." In the Madras Census Report,

1891, it is stated that "Nagavasamu means a company of dancing-girls,

and the sons of women of this profession frequently call themselves

Nagavasulu. The bulk of the caste in Vizagapatam, however, are said

to be respectable farmers." It is noted, in the Census Report, 1901,

that "most of the Nagavasulu are cultivators, but some of the women,

are prostitutes by profession, and outsiders are consequently admitted

to the caste. Their title is Naidu."

Nagellu (plough).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Nagna (naked).--A name for Sanyasis, who go about naked.

Naidu.--Naidu or Nayudu is a title, returned at times of census by

many Telugu classes, e.g., Balija, Bestha, Boya, Ekari, Gavara, Golla,

Kalingi, Kapu, Mutracha, and Velama. A Tamilian, when speaking of a

Telugu person bearing this title, would call him Naicker or Naickan

instead of Naidu.

Naik.--The word Naik (Nayaka, a leader or chief) is used, by the older

writers on Southern India, in several senses, of which the following

examples, given by Yule and Burnell, [76] may be cited:--

(a) Native captain or headman. "Il s'appelle Naique, qui signifie

Capitaine." Barretto, Rel du Prov de Malabar.

(b) A title of honour among Hindus in the Deccan. "The kings of Deccan

also have a custome when they will honour a man or recompence their

service done, and rayse him to dignitie and honour. They give him

the title of Naygue".--Linschoten.

(c) The general name of the kings of Vijayanagara, and of the Lords

of Madura and other places. "Il y a plusieurs Naiques au Sud de Saint

Thomé, qui sont Souverains: Le Naigue de Madure on est un".--Thevenot.

Naik, Naickan, Naicker, Nayak or Nayakkan has been returned, at

recent times of census, by the Tamil Pallis, Irulas, and Vedans,

and also by various Telugu and Canarese classes, e.g.:--

Telugu--Balija, Boya, Ekari, Golla, Kavarai, Muttiriyan, Odde,

Tottiyan, and Uppiliyan.

Canarese--Bedar, Cheptegara, Charodi, Kannadiyan, Servegara, Siviyar,

and Toreya. Some Jen Kurumbas (a jungle folk) in the Wynad are also

locally known as Naikers.

Tulu--The Mogers, in some parts of South Canara, prefer the title

Naiker to the ordinary caste title Marakaleru, and some Bants have

the same title.

The headman among the Lambadis or Brinjaris is called Naik. Naicker

further occurs as a hereditary title in some Brahman families. I have,

for example, heard of a Desastha Brahman bearing the name Nyna Naicker.

Naik, Naiko, or Nayako appears as the title of various Oriya classes,

e.g., Alia, Aruva, Bagata, Gaudo, Jatapu, Odia, Pentiya, Rona, and

Teli. It is noted by Mr. S. P. Rice that "the Uriya Korono, or head

of the village, appropriates to himself as his caste distinction the

title Potonaiko signifying the Naik or head of the town."

The name Nayar or Nair is, it may be noted, akin to Naik and Naidu,

and signifies a leader or soldier. [77] In this connection, Mr. Lewis

Moore writes [78] that "almost every page of Mr. Sewell's interesting

book on Vijayanagar [79] bears testimony to the close connection

between Vijayanagar and the west coast. It is remarkable that Colonel

(afterwards Sir Thomas) Munro, in the memorandum written by him

in 1802 on the poligars (feudal chiefs) of the Ceded Districts,

when dealing with the cases of a number of poligars who were direct

descendants of men who had been chiefs under the kings of Vijayanagar,

calls them throughout his report Naigue or Nair, using the two names

as if they were identical." [80]

It is noted by Mr. Talboys Wheeler [81] that, in the city of Madras in

former days, "police duties were entrusted to a Hindu official, known

as the Pedda Naik or 'elder chief,' who kept a staff of peons, and

was bound to make good all stolen articles that were not recovered."

In the South Canara district, the name Naikini (Naik females) is

taken by temple dancing-girls.

Nainar.--See Nayinar.

Nakash.--A name, denoting exquisite workmanship, by which Rachevars

or Chitrakaras are known in some places.