[1] "It is, perhaps, by surveying India that we at this day can best
represent to ourselves and appreciate the vast external reform worked
upon the heathen world by Christianity, as it was organized and
executed throughout Europe by the combined authority of the Holy
Roman Empire and the Church Apostolic." Sir Alfred C. Lyall, _Asiatic
Studies_, i. 2.
[2] Henry Whitehead, D. D., bishop of Madras, _The Village Deities of
Southern India_ (Madras, 1907).
[3] "The effect of caste is to give all Hindu society a religious
basis." Sir A. C. Lyall, _Brahmanism_.
[4] Thus, in Berar, "there is a strong non-Aryan leaven in the dregs
of the agricultural class, derived from the primitive races which
have gradually melted down into settled life, and thus become fused
with the general community, while these same races are still distinct
tribes in the wild tracts of hill and jungle." Sir Alfred C. Lyall,
_As. St._, i. 6.
[5] Siva is said to have first appeared in the beginning of the
present age as Sveta, the White, for the purpose of benefiting the
Brahmans, and he is invariably painted white; whilst Vishnu, when
pictured, is always of a dark-blue colour.
[6] As in the case of Siva's traditional white complexion, it may not
be without significance, from a racial point of view, that Vishnu,
Rama and Krishna have various darker shades of colour attributed to
them, viz. blue, hyacinthine, and dark azure or dark brown
respectively. The names of the two heroes meaning simply "black" or
"dark," the blue tint may originally have belonged to Vishnu, who is
also called _pitavasas_, dressed in yellow garment, i.e. the colours
of sky and sun combined.
[7] This notion not improbably took its origin in the mystic
cosmogonic hymn, Rigv. x. 129, where it is said that--"that one
(existent, neutr.) breathed breathless by (or with) its _svadha_ (?
inherent power, or nature), beyond that there was nothing whatever
... that one live (germ) which was enclosed in the void was generated
by the power of heat (or fervour); desire then first came upon it,
which was the first seed of the mind ... fertilizing forces there
were, _svadha_ below, _prayati_ (? will) above."
HINDU KUSH, a range of mountains in Central Asia. Throughout 500 m. of
its length, from its roots in the Pamir regions till it fades into the
Koh-i-Baba to the west of Kabul, this great range forms the water-divide
between the Kabul and the Oxus basins, and, for the first 200 m.
reckoning westwards, the southern boundary of Afghanistan. It may be
said to spring from the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir, where it unites
with the great meridional system of Sarikol stretching northwards, and
the yet more impressive mountain barrier of Muztagh, the northern base
of which separates China from the semi-independent territory of Kanjut.
The Wakhjir pass, crossing the head of the Taghdumbash Pamir into the
sources of the river Hunza, almost marks the tri-junction of the three
great chains of mountains. As the Hindu Kush strikes westwards, after
first rounding the head of an Oxus tributary (the Ab-i-Panja, which
Curzon considers to be the true source of the Oxus), it closely
overlooks the trough of that glacier-fed stream under its northern
spurs, its crest at the nearest point being separated from the river by
a distance which cannot much exceed 10 m. As the river is here the
northern boundary of Afghanistan, and the crest of the Hindu Kush the
southern boundary, this distance represents the width of the Afghan
kingdom at that point.
_Physiography._--For the first 100 m. of its length the Hindu Kush is
a comparatively flat-backed range of considerable width, permitting
the formation of small lakes on the crest, and possessing no
considerable peaks. It is crossed by many passes, varying in height
from 12,500 ft. to 17,500 ft., the lowest and the easiest being the
well-known group about Baroghil, which has from time immemorial
offered a line of approach from High Asia to Chitral and Jalalabad. As
the Hindu Kush gradually recedes from the Ab-i-Panja and turns
south-westwards it gains in altitude, and we find prominent peaks on
the crest which measure more than 24,000 ft. above sea-level. Even
here, however, the main central water-divide, or axis of the chain, is
apparently not the line of highest peaks, which must be looked for to
the south, where the great square-headed giant called Tirach Mir
dominates Chitral from a southern spur. For some 40 or 50 m. of this
south-westerly bend, bearing away from the Oxus, where the Hindu Kush
overlooks the mountain wilderness of Badakshan to the west, the crest
is intersected by many passes, of which the most important is the
Dorah group (including the Minjan and the Mandal), which rise to about
15,000 ft., and which are, under favourable conditions, practicable
links between the Oxus and Chitral basins.
Kafiristan section.
From the Dorah to the Khawak pass (or group of passes, for it is
seldom that one line of approach only is to be found across the Hindu
Kush), which is between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in altitude, the
water-divide overlooks Kafiristan and Badakshan. Here its exact
position is matter of conjecture. It lies amidst a wild, inaccessible
region of snowbound crests, and is certainly nowhere less than 15,000
ft. above sea-level. There is a tradition that Timur attempted the
passage of the Hindu Kush by one of the unmapped passes hereabouts,
and that, having failed, he left a record of his failure engraved on a
rock in the pass.
Passes.
The Khawak, at the head of the Panjshir tributary of the Kabul river,
leading straight from Badakshan to Charikar and the city of Kabul, is
now an excellent kafila route, the road having been engineered under
the amir Abdur Rahman's direction, and it is said to be available for
traffic throughout the year. From the Khawak to the head of the
Ghorband (a river of the Hindu Kush which, rising to the north-west of
Kabul, flows north-east to meet the Panjshir near Charikar, whence
they run united into the plains of Kohistan) the Hindu Kush is
intersected by passes at intervals, all of which were surveyed, and
several utilized, during the return of the Russo-Afghan boundary
commission from the Oxus to Kabul in 1886. Those utilized were the
Kaoshan (the "Hindu Kush" pass _par excellence_), 14,340 ft.; the
Chahardar (13,900 ft.), which is a link in one of the amir of
Afghanistan's high roads to Turkestan; and the Shibar (9800 ft.),
which is merely a diversion into the upper Ghorband of that group of
passes between Bamian and the Kabul plains which are represented by
the Irak, Hajigak, Unai, &c. About this point it is geographically
correct to place the southern extremity of the Hindu Kush, for here
commences the Koh-i-Baba system into which the Hindu Kush is merged.
General conformation.
The general conformation of the Hindu Kush system south of the Khawak,
no less than such fragmentary evidence of its rock composition as at
present exists to the north, points to its construction under the same
conditions of upheaval and subsequent denudation as are common to the
western Himalaya and the whole of the trans-Indus borderland. Its
upheaval above the great sea which submerged all the north-west of the
Indian peninsula long after the Himalaya had massed itself as a
formidable mountain chain, belongs to a comparatively recent geologic
period, and the same thrust upwards of vast masses of cretaceous
limestone has disturbed the overlying recent beds of shale and clays
with very similar results to those which have left so marked an
impress on the Baluch frontier. Successive flexures or ridges are
ranged in more or less parallel lines, and from between the bands of
hard, unyielding rock of older formation the soft beds of recent shale
have been washed out, to be carried through the enclosing ridges by
rifts which break across their axes. The Hindu Kush is, in fact, but
the face of a great upheaved mass of plateau-land lying beyond it
northwards, just as the Himalaya forms the southern face of the great
central tableland of Tibet, and its general physiography, exhibiting
long, narrow, lateral valleys and transverse lines of "antecedent"
drainage, is similar. There are few passes across the southern
section of the Hindu Kush (and this section is, from the
politico-geographical point of view, more important to India than the
whole Himalayan system) which have not to surmount a succession of
crests or ridges as they cross from Afghan Turkestan to Afghanistan.
The exceptions are, of course, notable, and have played an important
part in the military history of Asia from time immemorial. From a
little ice-bound lake called Gaz Kul, or Karambar, which lies on the
crest of the Hindu Kush near its northern origin at the head of the
Taghdumbash Pamir, two very important river systems (those of Chitral
and Hunza) are believed to originate. The lake really lies on the
watershed between the two, and is probably a glacial relic. Its
contribution to either infant stream appears to depend on conditions
of overflow determined by the blocking of ice masses towards one end.
It marks the commencement of the water-divide which primarily
separates the Gilgit basin from that of the Yashkun, or Chitral,
river, and subsequently divides the drainage of Swat and Bajour from
that of the Chitral (or Kunar). The Yashkun-Chitral-Kunar river (it is
called by all three names) is the longest affluent of the Kabul, and
it is in many respects a more important river than the Kabul.
Throughout its length it is closely flanked on its left bank by this
main water-divide, which is called Moshabar or Shandur in its northern
sections, and owns a great variety of names where it divides Bajour
from the Kunar valley. It is this range, crowned by peaks of 22,000
ft. altitude and maintaining an average elevation of some 10,000 ft.
throughout its length of 250 m., that is the real barrier of the
north--not the Hindu Kush itself. Across it, at its head, are the
glacial passes which lead to the foot of the Baroghil. Of these
Darkot, with a glacial staircase on each side, is typical. (See
GILGIT.) Those passes (the Kilik and Mintaka) from the Pamir regions,
which lead into the rocky gorges and defiles of the upper affluents of
the Hunza to the east of the Darkot, belong rather to the Muztagh
system than to the Hindu Kush. Other passes across this important
water-divide are the Shandur (12,250 ft.), between Gilgit and Mastuj;
the Lowarai (10,450 ft.), between the Panjkora and Chitral valleys;
and farther south certain lower crossings which once formed part of
the great highway between Kabul and India.
Chitral.
Deep down in the trough of the Chitral river, about midway between its
source and its junction with the Kabul at Jalalabad, is the village
and fort of Chitral (q.v.). Facing Chitral, on the right bank of the
river, and extending for some 70 m. from the Hindu Kush, is the lofty
snow-clad spur of the Hindu Kush known as Shawal, across which one or
two difficult passes lead into the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan. This
spur carries the boundary of Afghanistan southwards to Arnawai (some
50 m. below Chitral), where it crosses the river to the long Shandur
watershed. South of Arnawai the Kunar valley becomes a part of
Afghanistan (see KUNAR). The value of Chitral as an outpost of British
India may be best gauged by its geographical position. It is about 100
m. (direct map measurement) from the outpost of Russia at Langar Kisht
on the river Panja, with the Dorah pass across the Hindu Kush
intervening. The Dorah may be said to be about half-way between the
two outposts, and the mountain tracks leading to it on either side are
rough and difficult. The Dorah, however, is not the only pass which
leads into the Chitral valley from the Oxus. The Mandal pass, a few
miles south of the Dorah, is the connecting link between the Oxus and
the Bashgol valley of Kafiristan; and the Bashgol valley leads
directly to the Chitral valley at Arnawai, about 50 m. below Chitral.
Nor must we overlook the connexion between north and south of the
Hindu Kush which is afforded by the long narrow valley of the Chitral
(or Yashkun) itself, leading up to the Baroghil pass. This route was
once made use of by the Chinese for purposes of pilgrimage, if not for
invasion. Access to Chitral from the north is therefore but a matter
of practicable tracks, or passes, in two or three directions, and the
measure of practicability under any given conditions can best be
reckoned from Chitral itself. By most authorities the possibility of
an advance in force from the north, even under the most favourable
conditions, is considered to be exceedingly small; but the tracks and
passes of the Hindu Kush are only impracticable so long as they are
left as nature has made them.
_Historical Notices._--Hindu Kush is the Caucasus of Alexander's
historians. It is also included in the Paropamisus, though the latter
term embraces more, Caucasus being apparently used only when the alpine
barrier is in question. Whether the name was given in mere vanity to the
barrier which Alexander passed (as Arrian and others repeatedly allege),
or was founded also on some verbal confusion, cannot be stated. It was
no doubt regarded (and perhaps not altogether untruly) as a part of a
great alpine zone believed to traverse Asia from west to east, whether
called Taurus, Caucasus or Imaus. Arrian himself applies Caucasus
distinctly to the Himalaya also. The application of the name Tanais to
the Syr seems to indicate a real confusion with Colchian Caucasus.
Alexander, after building an Alexandria at its foot (probably at Hupian
near Charikar), crossed into Bactria, first reaching Drapsaca, or
Adrapsa. This has been interpreted as Anderab, in which case he probably
crossed the Khawak Pass, but the identity is uncertain. The ancient Zend
name is, according to Rawlinson, Paresina, the essential part of
Paropamisus; this accounts for the great Asiastic _Parnassus_ of
Aristotle, and the _Pho-lo-sin-a_ of Hsuan Tsang.
The name Hindu Kush is used by Ibn Batuta, who crossed (c. 1332) from
Anderab, and he gives the explanation of the name which, however
doubtful, is still popular, as (Pers.) Hindu-Killer, "because of the
number of Indian slaves who perished in passing" its snows. Baber always
calls the range Hindu Kush, and the way in which he speaks of it shows
clearly that it was a range that was meant, not a solitary pass or peak
(according to modern local use, as alleged by Elphinstone and Burnes).
Probably, however, the title was confined to the section from Khawak to
Koh-i-Baba. The name has by some later Oriental writers been modified
into Hindu _Koh_ (mountain), but this is factitious, and throws no more
light on the origin of the title. The name seems to have become known to
European geographers by the Oriental translations of the two Petis de la
Croix, and was taken up by Delisle and D'Anville. Rennell and
Elphinstone familiarized it. Burnes first crossed the range (1832). A
British force was stationed at Bamian beyond it in 1840, with an outpost
at Saighan.
The Hindu Kush, formidable as it seems, and often as it has been the
limit between petty states, has hardly ever been the boundary of a
considerable power. Greeks, White Huns, Samanidae of Bokhara,
Ghaznevides, Mongols, Timur and Timuridae, down to Saddozais and
Barakzais, have ruled both sides of this great alpine chain.
AUTHORITIES.--Information about the Hindu Kush and Chitral is now
comparatively exact. The Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission of 1884 and
the Chitral expedition of 1895 opened up a vast area for geographical
investigation, and the information collected is to be found in the
reports and gazetteers of the Indian government. The following are the
chief recent authorities:--Report of the Russo-Afghan Boundary
Commission (1886); Report of Lockhart's Mission (1886); Report of
Asmar Boundary Commission (1895); Report of Pamir Boundary Commission
(1896); J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindu Kush_ (Calcutta, 1880); W.
M'Nair, "Visit to Kafiristan," vol. vi. _R.G.S. Proc._, 1884; F.
Younghusband, "Journeys on the Pamirs, &c.," vol. xiv. _R.G.S. Proc._,
1892; Colonel Durand, _Making a Frontier_ (London, 1899); Sir G.
Robertson, _Chitral_ (London, 1899). (T. H. H.*)
HINDUR, or NALAGARH, one of the Simla hill states, under the government
of the Punjab, India. Pop. (1901) 52,551; area, 256 sq. m.; estimated
revenue, L8600. The country was overrun by the Gurkhas for some years
before 1815, when they were driven out by the British, and the raja was
confirmed in possession of the territory. The principal products are
grain and opium.
HINGANGHAT, a town of British India in Wardha district, Central
Provinces, 21 m. S.W. of Wardha town. Pop (1901) 12,662. It is a main
seat of the cotton trade, the cotton here produced in the rich Wardha
valley having given its name to one of the best indigenous staples of
India. The principal native traders are Marwaris, many of whom have
large transactions and export on their own account; but the greater
number act as middle-men. There are two cotton-mills and several ginning
and pressing factories.
HINGE (in Mid. Eng. _henge_ or _heeng_, from _hengen_, to hang), a
movable joint, particularly that by which a door or window "hangs" from
its side-post, or by which a lid or cover is attached to that which it
closes; also any device which allows two parts to be joined together and
move upon each other (see JOINERY). Figuratively the word is used of
that on which something depends, a cardinal or turning point, a crisis.
HINGHAM, a township of Plymouth county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on
Massachusetts Bay. Pop (1890) 4564; (1900) 5059 (969 being
foreign-born); (1905, state census) 4819; (1910) 4965. Area, about 30
sq. m. The township is traversed by the New York, New Haven & Hartford
railway, and contains the villages of Hingham, West Hingham, Hingham
Center, and South Hingham. Derby Academy, a co-educational school
founded and endowed with about L12,000 in 1784 by Sarah Derby
(1714-1790), was opened in 1791. Hingham has a public library (1868),
with 12,000 volumes in 1908. The Old Meeting House, erected in 1681, is
one of the oldest church buildings in the country used continuously.
Manufactures were relatively much more important in the 17th and 18th
centuries than since. There were settlers here as early as 1633, some of
them--notably Edmund Hobart, ancestor of Bishop John Henry
Hobart,--being natives of Hingham, Norfolk, England, whence the name;
and in 1635 common land called Barecove became the township of Hingham.
See _History of the Town of Hingham_ (4 vols., Hingham, 1893).
HINRICHS, HERMANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1794-1861), German philosopher,
studied theology at Strassburg, and philosophy at Heidelberg under Hegel
(q.v.), who wrote a preface to his _Religion im innern Verhaltniss zur
Wissenschaft_ (Heidelberg, 1722). He became a _Privatdozent_ in 1819,
and held professorships at Breslau (1822) and Halle (1824).
WORKS.--(1) Philosophical: _Grundlinien der Philosophie der Logik_
(Halle, 1826); _Genesis des Wissens_ (Heidelberg, 1835). (2) On
aesthetics: _Vorlesungen uber Goethes Faust_ (Halle, 1825); _Schillers
Dichtungen nach ihrem historischen Zusammenhang_ (Leipzig, 1837-1839).
By these works he became a recognized exponent of orthodox
Hegelianism. (3) Historical: _Geschichte der Rechts- und
Staatsprinzipien seit der Reformation bis auf die Gegenwart_ (Leipzig,
1848-1852); _Die Konige_ (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1853).
HINSCHIUS, PAUL (1835-1898), German jurist, was the son of Franz Sales
August Hinschius (1807-1877), and was born in Berlin on the 25th of
December 1835. His father was not only a scientific jurist, but also a
lawyer in large practice in Berlin. After working under his father,
Hinschius in 1852 began to study jurisprudence at Heidelberg and Berlin,
the teacher who had most influence upon him being Aemilius Ludwig
Richter (1808-1864), to whom he afterwards ascribed the great revival of
the study of ecclesiastical law in Germany. In 1855 Hinschius took the
degree of _doctor utriusque juris_, and in 1859 was admitted to the
juridical faculty of Berlin. In 1863 he went as professor
extraordinarius to Halle, returning in the same capacity to Berlin in
1865; and in 1868 became professor ordinarius at the university of Kiel,
which he represented in the Prussian Upper House (1870-1871). He also
assisted his father in editing the _Preussische Anwaltszeitung_ from
1862 to 1866 and the _Zeitschrift fur Gesetzgebung und Rechtspflege in
Preussen_ from 1867 to 1871. In 1872 he was appointed professor
ordinarius of ecclesiastical law at Berlin. In the same year he took
part in the conferences of the ministry of ecclesiastical affairs, which
issued in the famous "Falk laws." In connexion with the developments of
the _Kulturkampf_ which resulted from the "Falk laws," he wrote several
treatises: e.g. on "The Attitude of the German State Governments towards
the Decrees of the Vatican Council" (1871), on "The Prussian Church Laws
of 1873" (1873), "The Prussian Church Laws of the years 1874 and 1875"
(1875), and "The Prussian Church Law of 14th July 1880" (1881). He sat
in the Reichstag as a National Liberal from 1872 to 1878, and again in
1881 and 1882, and from 1889 onwards he represented the university of
Berlin in the Prussian Upper House. He died on the 13th of December
1898.
The two great works by which Hinschius established his fame are the
_Decretales Pseudo-Isidorianae et capitula Angilramni_ (2 parts,
Leipzig, 1863) and _Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten in
Deutschland_, vols, i.-vi. (Berlin, 1869-1877). The first of these, for
which during 1860 and 1861 he had gathered materials in Italy, Spain,
France, England, Scotland, Ireland, Holland and Belgium, was the first
critical edition of the False Decretals. His most monumental work,
however, is the _Kirchenrecht_, which remains incomplete. The six
volumes actually published (_System des katholischen Kirchenrechts_)
cover only book i. of the work as planned; they are devoted to an
exhaustive historical and analytical study of the Roman Catholic
hierarchy and its government of the church. The work is planned with
special reference to Germany; but in fact its scheme embraces the whole
of the Roman Catholic organization in its principles and practice.
Unfortunately even this part of the work remains incomplete; two
chapters of book i. and the whole of book ii., which was to have dealt
with "the rights and duties of the members of the hierarchy," remain
unwritten; the most notable omission is that of the ecclesiastical law
in relation to the regular orders. Incomplete as it is, however, the
_Kirchenrecht_ remains a work of the highest scientific authority.
Epoch-making in its application of the modern historical method to the
study of ecclesiastical law in its theory and practice, it has become
the model for the younger school of canonists.
See the articles s.v. by E. Seckel in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_
(3rd ed., 1900), and by Ulrich Steitz in the _Allgemeine deutsche
Biographie_, vol. 50 (Leipzig, 1905).
HINTERLAND (German for "the land behind"), the region lying behind a
coast or river line, or a country dependent for trade or commerce on any
other region. In the purely physical sense "interior" or "back country"
is more commonly used, but the word has gained a distinct political
significance. It first came into prominence during 1883-1885, when
Germany insisted that she had a right to exercise jurisdiction in the
territory behind those parts of the African coast that she had occupied.
The "doctrine of the hinterland" was that the possessor of the littoral
was entitled to as much of the back country as geographically,
economically or politically was dependent upon the coast lands, a
doctrine which, in the space of ten years, led to the partition of
Africa between various European powers.
HINTON, JAMES (1822-1875), English surgeon and author, son of John
Howard Hinton (1791-1873), Baptist minister and author of the _History
and Topography of the United States_ and other works, was born at
Reading in 1822. He was educated at his grandfather's school near
Oxford, and at the Nonconformist school at Harpenden, and in 1838, on
his father's removal to London, was apprenticed to a woollen-draper in
Whitechapel. After retaining this situation about a year he became clerk
in an insurance office. His evenings were spent in intense study, and
this, joined to the ardour, amounting to morbidness, of his interest in
moral problems, so affected his health that in his nineteenth year he
resolved to seek refuge from his own thoughts by running away to sea.
His intention having, however, been discovered, he was sent, on the
advice of the physician who was consulted regarding his health, to St
Bartholomew's Hospital to study for the medical profession. After
receiving his diploma in 1847, he was for some time assistant surgeon at
Newport, Essex, but the same year he went out to Sierra Leone to take
medical charge of the free labourers on their voyage thence to Jamaica,
where he stayed some time. He returned to England in 1850, and entered
into partnership with a surgeon in London, where he soon had his
interest awakened specially in aural surgery, and gave also much of his
attention to physiology. He made his first appearance as an author in
1856 by contributing papers on physiological and ethical subjects to the
_Christian Spectator_; and in 1859 he published _Man and his
Dwelling-place_. A series of papers entitled "Physiological Riddles," in
the _Cornhill Magazine_, afterwards published as _Life in Nature_
(1862), as well as another series entitled _Thoughts on Health_ (1871),
proved his aptitude for popular scientific exposition. After being
appointed aural surgeon to Guy's Hospital in 1863, he speedily acquired
a reputation as the most skilful aural surgeon of his day, which was
fully borne out by his works, _An Atlas of Diseases of the membrana
tympani_ (1874), and _Questions of Aural Surgery_ (1874). But his health
broke down, and in 1874 he gave up practice; and he died at the Azores
of acute inflammation of the brain on the 16th of December 1875. In
addition to the works already mentioned, he was the author of _The
Mystery of Pain_ (1866) and _The Place of the Physician_ (1874). On
account of their fresh and vigorous discussion of many of the important
moral and social problems of the time, his writings had a wide
circulation on both sides of the Atlantic.
His _Life and Letters_, edited by Ellice Hopkins, with an introduction
by Sir W. W. Gull, appeared in 1878.
HIOGO [HYOGO], a town of Japan in the province of Settsu, Nippon, on the
western shore of the bay of Osaka, adjoining the foreign settlement of
Kobe, 21 m. W. of Osaka by rail. The growth of its prosperity has been
very remarkable. Its population, including that of Kobe, was 135,639 in
1891, and 285,002 in 1903. From 1884 to the close of the century its
trade increased nearly eightfold, and the increase was not confined to a
few staples of commerce, but was spread over almost the whole trade, in
which silk and cotton fabrics, floor-mats, straw-plaits, matches, and
cotton yarns are specially important. Kobe owes much of its prosperity
to the fact of serving largely as the shipping port of Osaka, the chief
manufacturing town in Japan. The foreign community, exclusive of
Chinese, exceeds 1000 persons. Kobe is considered the brightest and
healthiest of all the places assigned as foreign settlements in Japan,
its pure, dry air and granite subsoil constituting special advantages.
It is in railway communication with all parts of the country, and
wharves admit of steamers of large size loading and discharging cargo
without the aid of lighters. The area originally appropriated for a
foreign settlement soon proved too restricted, and foreigners received
permission to lease lands and houses direct from Japanese owners beyond
the treaty limits, a privilege which, together with that of building
villas on the hills behind the town, ultimately involved some diplomatic
complications. Kobe has a shipbuilding yard, and docks in its immediate
neighbourhood.
Hiogo has several temples of interest, one of which has near it a huge
bronze statue of Buddha, while by the Minatogawa, which flows into the
sea between Hiogo and Kobe, a temple commemorates the spot where
Kusunoki Masashige, the mirror of Japanese loyalty, met his death in
battle in 1336. The temple of Ikuta was erected on the site of the
ancient fane built by Jingo on her return from Korea in the 3rd century.
Hiogo's original name was Bako. Its position near the entrance of the
Inland Sea gave it some maritime importance from a very early period,
but it did not become really prominent until the 12th century, when
Kiyomori, chief of the Taira clan, transferred the capital from Kioto to
Fukuhara, in Hiogo's immediate neighbourhood, and undertook various
public works for improving the place. The change of capital was very
brief, but Hiogo benefited permanently from the distinction.
HIP. (1) (From O. Eng. _hype_, a word common in various forms to many
Teutonic languages; cf. Dutch _heup_, and Ger. _Hufte_), the projecting
part of the body formed by the top of the thighbone and the side of the
pelvis, in quadrupeds generally known as the haunch (see JOINTS). (2)(O.
Eng. _heope_, from same root as M.H. Ger. _hiefe_, a thorn-bush), the
fruit of the dog-rose (_Rosa canina_); "hips" are usually joined with
"haws," the fruit of the hawthorn.
HIP-KNOB, in architecture, the finial on the hip of a roof, between the
barge-boards of a gable.
HIPPARCHUS (fl. 146-126 B.C.), Greek astronomer, was born at Nicaea in
Bithynia early in the 2nd century B.C. He observed in the island of
Rhodes probably from 161, certainly from 146 until about 126 B.C., and
made the capital discovery of the precession of the equinoxes in 130
(see ASTRONOMY: _History_). The outburst of a new star in 134 B.C. is
stated by Pliny (_Hist. nat._ ii. 26) to have prompted the preparation
of his catalogue of 1080 stars, substantially embodied in Ptolemy's
_Almagest_. Hipparchus founded trigonometry, and compiled the first
table of chords. Scientific geography originated with his invention of
the method of fixing terrestrial positions by circles of latitude and
longitude. There can be little doubt that the fundamental part of his
astronomical knowledge was derived from Chaldaea. None of his many works
has survived except a Commentary on the _Phaenomena_ of Aratus and
Eudoxus, published by P. Victorius at Florence in 1567, and included by
D. Petavius in his _Uranologium_ (Paris, 1630). A new edition was
published by Carolus Manitius (Leipzig, 1894).
See J. B. J. Delambre, _Histoire de l'astronomie ancienne_, i. 173; P.
Tannery, _Recherches sur l'histoire de l'astr. ancienne_, p. 130; A.
Berry, _Hist. of Astronomy_, pp. 40-61; M. Marie, _Hist. des
sciences_, i. 207; G. Cornewall Lewis, _Astronomy of the Ancients_, p.
207; R. Grant, _Hist. of Phys. Astronomy_, pp. 318, 437; F. Boll,
_Sphaera_, p. 61 (Leipzig, 1903); R. Wolf, _Geschichte der
Astronomie_, p. 45; J. F. Montucla, _Hist. des mathematiques_, t. i.
p. 257; J. A. Schmidt, _Variorum philosophicorum decas_, cap. i.
(Jenae, 1691). (A. M. C.)
HIPPASUS OF METAPONTUM, Pythagorean philosopher, was one of the earliest
of the disciples of Pythagoras. He is mentioned both by Diogenes
Laertius and by Iamblichus, but nothing is known of his life. Diogenes
says that he left no writings, but other authorities make him the author
of a [Greek: mystikos logos] directed against the Pythagoreans.
According to Aristotle (_Metaphysica_, i. 3), he was an adherent of the
Heraclitean fire-doctrine, whereas the Pythagoreans maintained the
theory that number is the principle of everything. He seems to have
regarded the soul as composed of igneous matter, and so approximates the
orthodox Pythagorean doctrine of the central fire, or Hestia, to the
more detailed theories of Heraclitus. In spite of this divergence,
Hippasus is always regarded as a Pythagorean.
See Diogenes viii. 84; Brandis, _History of Greek and Roman
Philosophy_; also PYTHAGORAS.
HIPPEASTRUM, in botany, a genus of the natural order Amaryllidaceae,
containing about 50 species of bulbous plants, natives of tropical and
sub-tropical South America. In cultivation they are generally known as
_Amaryllis_. The handsome funnel-shaped flowers are borne in a cluster
of two to many, at the end of a short hollow scape. The species and the
numerous hybrids which have been obtained artificially, show a great
variety in size and colour of the flower, including the richest deep
crimson and blood-red, white, or with striped, mottled or blended
colours. They are of easy culture, and free-blooming habit. Like other
bulbs they are increased by offsets, which should be carefully removed
when the plants are at rest, and should be allowed to attain a fair size
before removal. These young bulbs should be potted singly in February or
March, in mellow loamy soil with a moderate quantity of sand, about
two-thirds of the bulb being kept above the level of the soil, which
should be made quite solid. They should be removed to a temperature of
60 deg. by night and 70 deg. by day, very carefully watered until the
roots have begun to grow freely, after which the soil should be kept
moderately moist. As they advance the temperature should be raised to 70
deg. at night, and to 80 deg. or higher with sun heat by day. They do
not need shading, but should have plenty of air, and be syringed daily
in the afternoon. When growing they require a good supply of water.
After the decay of the flowers they should be returned to a brisk moist
temperature of from 70 deg. to 80 deg. by day during summer to perfect
their leaves, and then be ripened off in autumn. Through the winter they
should have less water, but must not be kept entirely dry. The minimum
temperature should now be about 55 deg., to be increased 10 deg. or 15
deg. in spring. As the bulbs get large they will occasionally need
shifting into larger pots. Propagation is also readily effected by seeds
for raising new varieties. Seeds are sown when ripe in well drained pans
of sandy loam at a temperature of about 65 deg. The seedlings when large
enough to handle are placed either singly in very small pots or several
in a pot or shallow pan, and put in a bottom heat, in a moist atmosphere
with a temperature from 60 deg. to 70 deg. _H. Ackermanni_, with large,
handsome, crimson flowers--itself a hybrid--is the parent of many of the
large-flowered forms; _H. equestre_ (Barbados lily), with
yellowish-green flowers tipped with scarlet, has also given rise to
several handsome forms; _H. aulicum_ (flowers crimson and green), _H.
pardinum_ (flowers creamy-white spotted with crimson), and _H. vittatum_
(flowers white with red stripes, a beautiful species and the parent of
many varieties), are stove or warm greenhouse plants. These kinds,
however, are now only regarded as botanical curiosities, and are rarely
grown in private or commercial establishments. They have been ousted by
the more gorgeous looking hybrids, which have been evolved during the
past 100 years. _H. Johnsoni_ is named after a Lancashire watchmaker who
raised it in 1799 by crossing _H. Reginae_ with _H. vittatum_. Since
that time other species have been used for hybridizing, notably _H.
reticulatum_, _H. aulicum_, _H. solandriflorum_, and sometimes _H.
equestre_ and _H. psittacinum_. The finest forms since 1880 have been
evolved from _H. Leopoldi_ and _H. pardinum_. (J. Ws.)
HIPPED ROOF, the name given in architecture to a roof which slopes down
on all four sides instead of terminating on two sides against a
vertical gable. Sometimes a compromise is made between the two, half the
roof being hipped and half resting on the vertical wall; this gives much
more room inside the roof, and externally a most picturesque effect,
which is one of the great attractions of domestic architecture in the
south of England, and is rarely found in other countries.
HIPPEL, THEODOR GOTTLIEB VON (1741-1796), German satirical and humorous
writer, was born on the 31st of January 1741, at Gerdauen in East
Prussia, where his father was rector of a school. He enjoyed an
excellent education at home, and in his sixteenth year he entered
Konigsberg university as a student of theology. Interrupting his
studies, he went, on the invitation of a friend, to St Petersburg, where
he was introduced at the brilliant court of the empress Catherine II.
Returning to Konigsberg he became a tutor in a private family; but,
falling in love with a young lady of high position, his ambition was
aroused, and giving up his tutorship he devoted himself with enthusiasm
to legal studies. He was successful in his profession, and in 1780 was
appointed chief burgomaster in Konigsberg, and in 1786 privy councillor
of war and president of the town. As he rose in the world, however, his
inclination for matrimony vanished, and the lady who had stimulated his
ambition was forgotten. He died at Konigsberg on the 23rd of April 1796,
leaving a considerable fortune. Hippel had extraordinary talents, rich
in wit and fancy; but his was a character full of contrasts and
contradictions. Cautiousness and ardent passion, dry pedantry and piety,
morality and sensuality; simplicity and ostentation composed his nature;
and, hence, his literary productions never attained artistic finish. In
his _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ (1778-1781) he intended to
describe the lives of his father and grandfather, but he eventually
confined himself to his own. It is an autobiography, in which persons
well known to him are introduced, together with a mass of heterogeneous
reflections on life and philosophy. _Kreuz- und Querzuge des Ritters A
bis Z_ (1793-1794) is a satire levelled against the follies of the
age--ancestral pride and the thirst for orders, decoration and the like.
Among others of his better known works are _Uber die Ehe_ (1774) and
_Uber die burgerliche Verbesserung der Weiber_ (1792). Hippel has been
called the fore-runner of Jean Paul Richter, and has some resemblance to
this author, in his constant digressions and in the interweaving of
scientific matter in his narrative. Like Richter he was strongly
influenced by Laurence Sterne.
In 1827-1838 a collected edition of Hippel's works in 14 vols., was
issued at Berlin. _Uber die Ehe_ has been edited by E. Brenning
(Leipzig, 1872), and the _Lebenslaufe nach aufsteigender Linie_ has in
a modernized edition by A. von Ottingen (1878), gone through several
editions. See J. Czerny, _Sterne, Hippel und Jean Paul_ (Berlin,
1904).
HIPPIAS OF ELIS, Greek sophist, was born about the middle of the 5th
century B.C. and was thus a younger contemporary of Protagoras and
Socrates. He was a man of great versatility and won the respect of his
fellow-citizens to such an extent that he was sent to various towns on
important embassies. At Athens he made the acquaintance of Socrates and
other leading thinkers. With an assurance characteristic of the later
sophists, he claimed to be regarded as an authority on all subjects, and
lectured, at all events with financial success, on poetry, grammar,
history, politics, archaeology, mathematics and astronomy. He boasted
that he was more popular than Protagoras, and was prepared at any moment
to deliver an extempore address on any subject to the assembly at
Olympia. Of his ability there is no question, but it is equally certain
that he was superficial. His aim was not to give knowledge, but to
provide his pupils with the weapons of argument, to make them fertile in
discussion on all subjects alike. It is said that he boasted of wearing
nothing which he had not made with his own hands. Plato's two dialogues,
the _Hippias major_ and _minor_, contain an expose of his methods,
exaggerated no doubt for purposes of argument but written with full
knowledge of the man and the class which he represented. Ast denies
their authenticity, but they must have been written by a contemporary
writer (as they are mentioned in the literature of the 4th century), and
undoubtedly represent the attitude of serious thinkers to the growing
influence of the professional Sophists. There is, however, no question
that Hippias did a real service to Greek literature by insisting on the
meaning of words, the value of rhythm and literary style. He is credited
with an excellent work on Homer, collections of Greek and foreign
literature, and archaeological treatises, but nothing remains except the
barest notes. He forms the connecting link between the first great
sophists, Protagoras and Prodicus, and the innumerable eristics who
brought their name into disrepute.
For the general atmosphere in which Hippias moved see SOPHISTS; also
histories of Philosophy (e.g. Windelband, Eng. trans. by Tufts, pt. 1,
c. 2, SS 7 and 8).
HIPPO, a Greek philosopher and natural scientist, classed with the
Ionian or physical school. He was probably a contemporary of Archelaus
and lived chiefly in Athens. Aristotle declared that he was unworthy of
the name of philosopher, and, while comparing him with Thales in his
main doctrine, adds that his intellect was too shallow for serious
consideration. He held that the principle of all things is moisture
([Greek: to hygron]); that fire develops from water, and from fire the
material universe. Further he denied all existence save that of material
things as known through the senses, and was, therefore, classed among
the "Atheists." The gods are merely great men canonized by popular
tradition. It is said that he composed his own epitaph, wherein he
claims for himself a place in this company.
HIPPOCRAS, an old medicinal drink or cordial, made of wine mixed with
spices--such as cinnamon, ginger and sugar--and strained through woollen
cloths. The early spelling usual in English was _ipocras_, or _ypocras_.
The word is an adaptation of the Med. Lat. _Vinum Hippocraticum_, or
wine of Hippocrates, so called, not because it was supposed to be a
receipt of the physician, but from an apothecary's name for a strainer
or sieve, "Hippocrates' sleeve" (see W. W. Skeat, _Chaucer_, note to the
_Merchant's Tale_).
HIPPOCRATES, Greek philosopher and writer, termed the "Father of
Medicine," was born, according to Soranus, in Cos, in the first year of
the 80th Olympiad, i.e. in 460 B.C. He was a member of the family of the
Asclepiadae, and was believed to be either the nineteenth or seventeenth
in direct descent from Aesculapius. It is also claimed for him that he
was descended from Hercules through his mother, Phaenarete. He studied
medicine under Heraclides, his father, and Herodicus of Selymbria; in
philosophy Gorgias of Leontini and Democritus of Abdera were his
masters. His earlier studies were prosecuted in the famous Asclepion of
Cos, and probably also at Cnidos. He travelled extensively, and taught
and practised his profession at Athens, probably also in Thrace,
Thessaly, Delos and his native island. He died at Larissa in Thessaly,
his age being variously stated as 85, 90, 104 and 109. The incidents of
his life are shrouded by uncertain traditions, which naturally sprang up
in the absence of any authentic record; the earliest biography was by
one of the Sorani, probably Soranus the younger of Ephesus, in the 2nd
century; Suidas, the lexicographer, wrote of him in the 11th, and
Tzetzes in the 12th century. In all these biographies there is internal
evidence of confusion; many of the incidents related are elsewhere told
of other persons, and certain of them are quite irreconcilable with his
character, so far as it can be judged of from his writings and from the
opinions expressed of him by his contemporaries; we may safely reject,
for instance, the legends that he set fire to the library of the Temple
of Health at Cnidos, in order to destroy the evidence of plagiarism, and
that he refused to visit Persia at the request of Artaxerxes Longimanus,
during a pestilential epidemic, on the ground that he would in so doing
be assisting an enemy. He is referred to by Plato (_Protag._ p. 283;
_Phaedr._ p. 211) as an eminent medical authority, and his opinion is
also quoted by Aristotle. The veneration in which he was held by the
Athenians serves to dissipate the calumnies which have been thrown on
his character by Andreas, and the whole tone of his writings bespeaks a
man of the highest integrity and purest morality.
Born of a family of priest-physicians, and inheriting all its traditions
and prejudices, Hippocrates was the first to cast superstition aside,
and to base the practice of medicine on the principles of inductive
philosophy. It is impossible to trace directly the influence exercised
upon him by the great men of his time, but one cannot fail to connect
his emancipation of medicine from superstition with the widespread power
exercised over Greek life and thought by the living work of Socrates,
Plato, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Herodotus and Thucydides. It was
a period of great intellectual development, and it only needed a
powerful mind such as his to bring to bear upon medicine the same
influences which were at work in other sciences. It must be remembered
that his training was not altogether bad, although superstition entered
so largely into it. He had a great master in Democritus, the originator
of the doctrine of atoms, and there is every reason to believe that the
various "asclepia" were very carefully conducted hospitals for the sick,
possessing a curious system of case-books, in the form of votive
tablets, left by the patients, on which were recorded the symptoms,
treatment and result of each case. He had these records at his command;
and he had the opportunity of observing the system of training and the
treatment of injuries in the gymnasia. One of his great merits is that
he was the first to dissociate medicine from priest-craft, and to direct
exclusive attention to the natural history of disease. How strongly his
mind revolted against the use of charms, amulets, incantations and such
devices appears from his writings; and he has expressly recorded, as
underlying all his practice, the conviction that, however diseases may
be regarded from the religious point of view, they must all be
scientifically treated as subject to natural laws (_De aere_, 29). Nor
was he anxious to maintain the connexion between philosophy and medicine
which had for long existed in a confused and confusing fashion.[1] His
knowledge of anatomy, physiology and pathology was necessarily
defective, the respect in which the dead body was held by the Greeks
precluding him from practising dissection; thus we find him writing of
the tissues without distinguishing between the various textures of the
body, confusing arteries, veins and nerves, and speaking vaguely of the
muscles as "flesh." But when we come to study his observations on the
natural history of disease as presented in the living subject, we
recognize at once the presence of a great clinical physician.
Hippocrates based his principles and practice on the theory of the
existence of a spiritual restoring essence or principle, [Greek:
physis], the _vis medicatrix naturae_, in the management of which the
art of the physician consisted. This art could, he held, be only
obtained by the application of experience, not only to disease at large,
but to disease in the individual. He strongly deprecated blind
empiricism; the aphorism "[Greek: he peira sphalere, he krisis chalepe]"
(whether it be his or not), tersely illustrates his position. Holding
firmly to the principle, [Greek: nouson physies ietroi], he did not
allow himself to remain inactive in the presence of disease; he was not
a merely "expectant" physician; as Sydenham puts it, his practice was
"the support of enfeebled and the coercion of outrageous nature." He
largely employed powerful medicines and blood-letting both ordinary and
by cupping. He advises, however, great caution in their application. He
placed great dependence on diet and regimen, and here, quaint as many of
his directions may now sound, not only in themselves, but in the reasons
given, there is much which is still adhered to at the present day. His
treatise [Greek: Peri aeron, hydaton, kai topon] (_Airs, Waters, and
Places_) contains the first enunciation of the principles of public
health. Although the treatises [Greek: Peri krisimon] cannot be accepted
as authentic, we find in the [Greek: Prognostikon] evidence of the
acuteness of observation in the manner in which the occurrence of
critical days in disease is enunciated. His method of reporting cases is
most interesting and instructive; in them we can read how thoroughly he
had separated himself from the priest-physician. Laennec, to whom we are
indebted for the practice of auscultation, freely admits that the idea
was suggested to him by study of Hippocrates, who, treating of the
presence of morbid fluids in the thorax, gives very particular
directions, by means of succussion, for arriving at an opinion
regarding their nature. Laennec says, "Hippocrate avait tente
l'auscultation immediate." Although the treatise [Greek: Peri nouson] is
doubtfully from the pen of Hippocrates, it contains strong evidence of
having been the work of his grandson, representing the views of the
Father of Medicine. Although not accurate in the conclusions reached at
the time, the value of the method of diagnosis is shown by the retention
in modern medicine of the name and the practice of "Hippocratic
succussion." The power of graphic description of phenomena in the
Hippocratic writings is illustrated by the retention of the term "facies
Hippocratica," applied to the appearance of a moribund person, pictured
in the _Prognostics_. In surgery his writings are important and
interesting, but they do not bear the same character of caution as the
treatises on medicine; for instance, in the essay _On Injuries of the
Head_, he advocates the operation "of trephining" more strongly and in
wider classes of cases than would be warranted by the experience of
later times.
The _Hippocratic Collection_ consists of eighty-seven treatises, of
which a part only can be accepted as genuine. The collection has been
submitted to the closest criticism in ancient and modern times by a
large number of commentators (for full list of the early commentators,
see Adams's _Genuine Works of Hippocrates_, Sydenham Society, i. 27,
28). The treatises have been classified according to (1) the direct
evidence of ancient writers, (2) peculiarities of style and method,
and (3) the presence of anachronisms and of opinions opposed to the
general Hippocratic teaching--greatest weight being attached to the
opinions of Erotian and Galen. The general estimate of commentators is
thus stated by Adams: "The peculiar style and method of Hippocrates
are held to be conciseness of expression, great condensation of
matter, and disposition to regard all professional subjects in a
practical point of view, to eschew subtle hypotheses and modes of
treatment based on vague abstractions." The treatises have been
grouped in the four following sections: (1) genuine; (2) those
consisting of notes taken by students and collected after the death of
Hippocrates; (3) essays by disciples; (4) those utterly spurious.
Littre accepts the following thirteen as absolutely genuine: (1) _On
Ancient Medicine_ ([Greek: Peri archaies ietrikes]); (2) _The
Prognostics_ ([Greek: Prognostikon]); (3) _The Aphorisms_ ([Greek:
Aphorismoi]); (4) _The Epidemics_, i. and iii. ([Greek: Epidemion a'
kai g']); (5) _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_ ([Greek: Peri diaites
oxeon]); (6) _On Airs, Waters, and Places_ ([Greek: Peri aeron,
hydaton, kai topon]); (7) _On the Articulations_ ([Greek: Peri
arthron]); (8) _On Fractures_ ([Greek: Peri agmon]); (9) _The
Instruments of Reduction_ ([Greek: Mochlikos]); (10) _The Physician's
Establishment, or Surgery_ ([Greek: Kat' ietreion]); (11) _On Injuries
of the Head_ ([Greek: Peri ton en kephale tromaton]); (12) _The Oath_
([Greek: Horkos]); (13) _The Law_ ([Greek: Nomos]). Of these Adams
accepts as certainly genuine the 2nd, 6th, 5th, 3rd (7 books), 4th,
7th, 8th, 9th and 12th, and as "pretty confidently acknowledged as
genuine, although the evidence in their favour is not so strong," the
1st, 10th and 13th, and, in addition, (14) _On Ulcers_ ([Greek: Peri
helkon]); (15) _On Fistulae_ ([Greek: Peri syringon]); (16) _On
Hemorrhoids_ ([Greek: Peri haimorrhoidon]); (17) _On the Sacred
Disease_ ([Greek: Peri hieres nousou]). According to the sceptical and
somewhat subjective criticism of Ermerins, the whole collection is to
be regarded as spurious except _Epidemics_, books i. and iii. (with a
few interpolations), _On Airs, Waters, and Places_, _On Injuries of
the Head_ ("insigne fragmentum libri Hippocratei"), the former portion
of the treatise _On Regimen in Acute Diseases_, and the "obviously
Hippocratic" fragments of the _Coan Prognostics_. Perhaps also the
_Oath_ may be accepted as genuine; its comparative antiquity is not
denied. The _Aphorisms_ are certainly later and inferior. In the other
non-Hippocratic writings Ermerins thinks he can distinguish the hands
of no fewer than nineteen different authors, most of them anonymous,
and some of them very late.
The earliest Greek edition of the Hippocratic writings is that which
was published by Aldus and Asulanus at Venice in 1526 (folio); it was
speedily followed by that of Frobenius, which is much more accurate
and complete (fol., Basel, 1538). Of the numerous subsequent editions,
probably the best was that of Foesius (Frankfort, 1595, 1621, Geneva,
1657), until the publication of the great works of Littre, _Oeuvres
completes d'Hippocrate, traduction nouvelle avec le texte grec en
regard, collationnee sur les manuscrits et toutes les editions,
accompagnee d'une introduction, de commentaires medicaux, de
variantes, et de notes philologiques_ (10 vols., Paris, 1839-1861),
and of F. Z. Ermerins, _Hippocratis et aliorum medicorum veterum
reliquiae_ (3 vols., Utrecht, 1859-1864). See also Adams (as cited
above), and Reinhold's _Hippocrates_ (2 vols., Athens, 1864-1867).
Daremberg's edition of the _Oeuvres choisies_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1855)
includes the _Oath_, the _Law_, the _Prorrhetics_, book i., the
_Prognostics, On Airs, Waters, and Places, Epidemics_, books i. and
iii., _Regimen_, and _Aphorisms_. Of the separate works attributed to
Hippocrates the editions and translations are almost innumerable; of
the _Prognostics_, for example, seventy editions are known, while of
the _Aphorisms_ there are said to exist as many as three hundred. For
some notice of the Arabic, Syriac and Hebrew translations of works
professedly by Hippocrates (Ibukrat or Bukrat), the number of which
greatly exceeds that of the extant Greek originals, reference may be
made to Flugel's contribution to the article "Hippokrates" in the
_Encyklopadie_ of Ersch and Gruber. They have been partially
catalogued by Fabricius in his _Bibliotheca Graeca_. (J. B. T.)