FOOTNOTES:

[1] Cuvier in the second edition of his _Règne Animal_ only referred

to it in a footnote (i. 498).

[2] Cruise in 1822 (_Journ. Residence in New Zealand_, p. 313) had

spoken of an "emeu" found in that island, which must of course have

been an _Apteryx_.

[3] In 1842, according to Broderip (_Penny Cyclopaedia_, xxiii. 146),

two had been presented to the Zoological Society by the New Zealand

Company, and two more obtained by Lord Derby, one of which he had

given to Gould. In 1844 the British Museum possessed three, and the

sale catalogue of the Rivoli Collection, which passed in 1846 to the

Academy of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia, includes a single

specimen--probably the first taken to America.

[4] This bird in 1859 laid an egg, and afterwards continued to lay

one or two more every year. In 1865 a male of the same species was

introduced, but though a strong disposition to breed was shown on the

part of both, and the eggs, after the custom of the _Ratitae_, were

incubated by him, no progeny was hatched (_Proceedings_, 1868, p.

329).

[5] A fine series of figures of all these supposed species is given

by Rowley (_Orn. Miscellany_, vol. i. pls. 1-6). Some others, as _A.

maxima_, _A. mollis_, and _A. fusca_ have also been indicated, but

proof of their validity has yet to be adduced.

KIZILBASHES (Turkish, "Red-Heads"), the nickname given by the Orthodox

Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants from Persia, who are found

chiefly in the plains from Kara-Hissar along Tokat and Amasia to Angora.

During the wars with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these

districts. They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure

Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their immigration

dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737). They are an industrious

honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and as physicians, scribes, and so

on. They form the bulk of the amir's cavalry. Their name seems to have

been first used in Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps.

See Ernest Chantre, _Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Asie

occidentale_ (Lyons, 1895).

KIZIL IRMAK, i.e. "Red River" (anc. _Halys_), the largest river in Asia

Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of 6500 ft., and running

south-west past Zara to Sivas. Below Sivas it flows south to the

latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves gradually round to the north.

Finally, after a course of about 600 m., it discharges its waters into

the Black Sea between Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta.

The only important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the

Geuk Irmak on the left bank.

KIZLYAR (KIZLIAR, or KIZLAR), a town of Russia, in Caucasia, in the

province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz, in the low-lying delta of

the river Terek, about 35 m. from the Caspian. The population decreased

from 8309 in 1861 to 7353 in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main

stream between two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to

flooding. The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has

Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings include the

Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery, founded by the

Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian church of SS Peter and Paul,

remarkable for its size and wealth. The population is mainly supported

by the gardens and vineyards irrigated by canals from the river. A

government vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 3½ m. from

the town. About 1,200,000 gallons of Kizlyar wine are sold annually at

the fair of Nizhniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are woven. Kizlyar is

mentioned as early as 1616, but the most notable accession of

inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and Persians) took place in 1715. Its

importance as a fortress dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer

kept in repair.

KIZYL-KUM, a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the Aral Lake

between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the river Amu-darya on the

S.W. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is in part covered with

drift-sand or dunes, many of which are advancing slowly but steadily

towards the S.W. In character they resemble those of the neighbouring

Kara-kum desert (see KARA-KUM). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W.

towards the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as

compared with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the surface

is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E., as it ascends

towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it is braided with deep

accumulations of fertile loess.

KJERULF, HALFDAN (1815-1868), Norwegian musical composer, the son of a

high government official, was born at Christiania on the 15th of

September 1815. His early education was at Christiania University, for a

legal career, and not till he was nearly 26--on the death of his

father--was he able to devote himself entirely to music. As a fact, he

actually started on his career as a music teacher and composer of songs

before ever having seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years

did he attract any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid

for a year's instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years after his

return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial classical

concerts, while he himself was working with Björnson and other writers

at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame rests almost entirely on

his beautiful and manly national part-songs and solos; but his

pianoforte music is equally charming and simple. Kjerulf died at

Grefsen, on the 11th of August 1868.

KJERULF, THEODOR (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was born at

Christiania on the 30th of March 1825. He was educated in the university

at Christiania, and subsequently studied at Heidelberg, working in

Bunsen's laboratory. In 1858 he became professor of geology in the

university of his native city, and he was afterwards placed in charge of

the geological survey of the country, then established mainly through

his influence. His contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous

and important, especially in reference to the southern portion of the

country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and

Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal results were

embodied in his work _Udsigt over det sydlige Norges Geologi_ (1879). He

was author also of some poetical works. He died at Christiania on the

25th of October 1888.

KLADNO, a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W. of Prague by

rail. Pop. (1900), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is situated in a region very

rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and possesses some of the largest

iron and steel works in Bohemia. Near it is the mining town of

Buschtehrad (pop. 3510), situated in the centre of very extensive

coal-fields. Buschtehrad was originally the name of the castle only.

This was from the 15th century to 1630 the property of the lords of

Kolovrat, and came by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of

Tuscany, to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buschtehrad was first

given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been called Buckow

since its foundation in 1700. There is another castle of Buschtehrad

near Horic. Kladno, which for centuries had been a village of no

importance, was sold in 1705 by the grand-duchess Anna Maria of Tuscany

to the cloister in Brewnow, to which it still belongs. The mining

industry began in 1842.

KLAFSKY, KATHARINA (1855-1896), Hungarian operatic singer, was born at

Szt János, Wieselburg, of humble parents. Being employed at Vienna as a

nurserymaid, her fine soprano voice led to her being engaged as a chorus

singer, and she was given good lessons in music. By 1882 she became

well-known in Wagnerian rôles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased

her reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she appeared in

London, and had a great success in Wagner's operas, notably as

Brünnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as vocal gifts being of

an exceptional order. She sang in America in 1895, but died of brain

disease in 1896.

A _Life_, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig).

KLAGENFURT (Slovene, _Celovec_), the capital of the Austrian duchy of

Carinthia, 212 m. S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 24,314. It is

picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is in communication with

the Wörther-see by the 3 m. long Lend canal. Among the more noteworthy

buildings are the parish church of St Ægidius (1709), with a tower 298

ft. in height; the cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (1582-1593, burnt

1723, restored 1725); the churches of the Benedictines (1613), of the

Capuchins (1646), and of the order of St Elizabeth (1710). To these must

be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the _burg_ or castle,

existing in its present form since 1777; and the _Landhaus_ or house of

assembly, dating from the end of the 14th century, and containing a

museum of natural history, and collection of minerals, antiquities,

seals, paintings and sculptures. The most interesting public monument is

the great _Lindwurm_ or Dragon, standing in the principal square (1590).

The industrial establishments comprise white lead factories, machine and

iron foundries, and commerce is active, especially in the mineral

products of the region.

Upon the Zollfeld to the north of the city once stood the ancient Roman

town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt became the property

of the crown, but by a patent of Maximilian I. of the 24th of April

1518, it was conceded to the Carinthian estates, and has since then

taken the place of St Veit as capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723

and 1796 Klagenfurt suffered from destructive fires, and in 1690 from

the effects of an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took

the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon as his

headquarters.

KLAJ (latinized CLAJUS), JOHANN (1616-1656), German poet, was born at

Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at Wittenberg he went to

Nuremberg as a "candidate for holy orders," and there, in conjunction

with Georg Philipp Harsdörffer, founded in 1644 the literary society

known as the Pegnitz order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master

in the Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at

Kitzingen, where he died in 1656. Klaj's poems consist of dramas,

written in stilted language and redundant with adventures, among which

are _Höllen- und Himmelfahrt Christi_ (Nuremberg, 1644), and _Herodes,

der Kindermörder_ (Nuremberg, 1645), and a poem, written jointly with

Harsdörffer, _Pegnesische Schäfergedicht_ (1644), which gives in

allegorical form the story of his settlement in Nuremberg.

See Tittmann, _Die Nürnberger Dichterschule_ (Göttingen, 1847).

KLAMATH, a small tribe of North American Indians of Lutuamian stock.

They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes, and are now on the

Klamath reservation, southern Oregon.

See A. S. Gatschet, "Klamath Indians of Oregon," _Contributions to

North American Ethnology_, vol. ii. (Washington, 1890).

KLAPKA, GEORG (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born at Temesvár on

the 7th of April 1820, and entered the Austrian army in 1838. He was

still a subaltern when the Hungarian revolution of 1848 broke out, and

he offered his services to the patriot party. He served in important

staff appointments during the earlier part of the war which followed;

then, early in 1849, he was ordered to replace General Mészáros, who had

been defeated at Kaschau, and as general commanding an army corps he

had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapólna, Isaszeg, Waitzen,

Nagy Sarlo and Komárom. Then, as the fortune of war turned against the

Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a short time as minister of war,

took command at Komárom, from which fortress he conducted a number of

successful expeditions until the capitulation of Világos in August put

an end to the war in the open field. He then brilliantly defended

Komárom for two months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms.

Klapka left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years

in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland. He

continued by every means in his power to work for the independence of

Hungary, especially at moments of European war, such as 1854, 1859 and

1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed to him to promise success. After

the war of 1866 (in which as a Prussian major-general he organized a

Hungarian corps in Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian

government to return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a

member of the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the

Deák party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the Turkish army in

view of the war with Russia. General Klapka died at Budapest on the 17th

of May 1892. A memorial was erected to his memory at Komárom in 1896.

He wrote _Memoiren_ (Leipzig, 1850); _Der Nationalkrieg in Ungarn_,

&c. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, _Der Krieg im

Orient ... bis Ende Juli 1855_ (Geneva, 1855); and _Aus meinen

Erinnerungen_ (translated from the Hungarian, Zürich, 1887).

KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835), German Orientalist and traveller,

was born in Berlin on the 11th of October 1783, the son of the chemist

Martin Heinrich Klaproth (q.v.). He devoted his energies in quite early

life to the study of Asiatic languages, and published in 1802 his

_Asiatisches Magazin_ (Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called

to St Petersburg and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805

he was a member of Count Golovkin's embassy to China. On his return he

was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on an ethnographical and

linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and was afterwards employed for

several years in connexion with the academy's Oriental publications. In

1812 he moved to Berlin; but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816

Humboldt procured him from the king of Prussia the title and salary of

professor of Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain

in Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works. He

died in that city on the 28th of August 1835.

The principal feature of Klaproth's erudition was the vastness of the

field which it embraced. His great work _Asia polyglotta_ (Paris, 1823

and 1831, with _Sprachatlas_) not only served as a _résumé_ of all

that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the

classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the

Russian Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now

superseded. The _Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller_ (1821), a series of

documents in the military archives of St Petersburg purporting to be

the travels of George Ludwig von ----, and a similar series obtained

from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as spurious.

Klaproth's other works include: _Reise in den Kaukasus und Georgien in

den Jahren 1807 und 1808_ (Halle, 1812-1814; French translation,

Paris, 1823); _Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des östlichen

Kaukasus_ (Weimar, 1814); _Tableaux historiques de l'Asie_ (Paris,

1826); _Mémoires relatifs à l'Asie_ (Paris, 1824-1828); _Tableau

historique, geographique, ethnographique et politique de Caucase_

(Paris, 1827); and _Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue géorgienne_

(Paris, 1827).

KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817), German chemist, was born at

Wernigerode on the 1st of December 1743. During a large portion of his

life he followed the profession of an apothecary. After acting as

assistant in pharmacies at Quedlinburg, Hanover, Berlin and Danzig

successively he came to Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder

in 1771 as manager of his business, and in 1780 he started an

establishment on his own account in the same city, where from 1782 he

was pharmaceutical assessor of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 he

was appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when the

university was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of

chemistry. He died in Berlin on the 1st of January 1817. Klaproth was

the leading chemist of his time in Germany. An exact and conscientious

worker, he did much to improve and systematize the processes of

analytical chemistry and mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value

of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents

of the Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to

discover uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize them as

distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of them in the pure

metallic state; and he elucidated the composition of numerous substances

till then imperfectly known, including compounds of the then newly

recognized elements: tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium.

His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in _Beiträge

zur chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkörper_ (5 vols., 1795-1810) and

_Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts_ (1815). He also published

a _Chemisches Wörterbuch_ (1807-1810), and edited a revised edition of

F. A. C. Gren's _Handbuch der Chemie_ (1806).

KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE (1753-1800), French general, was born on the 9th

of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father was a builder. He was

trained, partly at Paris, for the profession of architect, but his

opportune assistance to two German nobles in a tavern brawl obtained for

him a nomination to the military school of Munich. Thence he obtained a

commission in the Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his

humble birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he was

appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he studied

fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in the Haut-Rhin

volunteers, and was from his military knowledge at once elected adjutant

and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel. At the defence of Mainz he so

distinguished himself that though disgraced along with the rest of the

garrison and imprisoned, he was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793

promoted general of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the

Vendéan war, and two months later was made a general of division. In

these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he defeated

the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly expressing his opinion

that lenient measures ought to be pursued towards the Vendéans he was

recalled; but in April 1794 he was once more reinstated and sent to the

Army of the Sambre-and-Meuse. He displayed his skill and bravery in the

numerous actions around Charleroi, and especially in the crowning

victory of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1794-95 he besieged

Mainz. In 1795 and again in 1796 he held the chief command of an army

temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as commander-in-chief.

On the 13th of October 1795 he fought a brilliant rearguard action at

the bridge of Neuwied, and in the offensive campaign of 1796 he was

Jourdan's most active and successful lieutenant. Having, after the

retreat to the Rhine (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS), declined the chief

command, he withdrew into private life early in 1798. He accepted a

division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but was wounded in

the head at Alexandria in the first engagement, which prevented his

taking any further part in the campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him

to be appointed governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign of 1799,

however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza and Jaffa, and

won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the 15th of April 1799. When

Napoleon returned to France towards the end of 1799 he left Kléber in

command of the French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of

bringing his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests, he

made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith, the British

admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he attacked the Turks at

Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against 60,000, and utterly

defeated them on the 20th of March 1800. He then retook Cairo, which had

revolted from the French. Shortly after these victories he was

assassinated at Cairo by a fanatic on the 14th of June 1800, the same

day on which his friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kléber was

undoubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary

epoch. Though he distrusted his powers and declined the responsibility

of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to show that he would

have been unequal to it. As a second in command he was not excelled by

any general of his time. His conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when

the treasury was empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay,

shows that his powers as an administrator were little--if at

all--inferior to those he possessed as a general.

Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan's chief of staff, published in 1867 a

valuable biography of Kléber. See also Reynaud, _Life of Merlin de

Thionville_; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, _Souvenirs_; Las Casas, _Memorial de

Ste Hélène_; J. Charavaray, _Les Généraux morts pour la patrie_;

General Pajol, _Kléber_; lives of Marceau and Desaix; M. F. Rousseau,

_Kléber et Menou en Egypte_ (Paris, 1900).

KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (1810-1876), German writer of Jewish origin, was

born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was educated at the gymnasium in Pest,

and studied medicine in Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and

Greece, he settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained

until his death on the 2nd of August 1876. He was the author of many

dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies _Maria von Medici_

(1841); _Luines_ (1842); _Zenobia_ (1847); _Moreto_ (1859); _Maria_

(1860); _Strafford_ (1862) and _Heliodora_ (1867); and the comedies _Die

Herzogin_ (1848); _Ein Schützling_ (1850); and _Voltaire_ (1862). The

tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become bombastic and obscure,

but many of his characters are vigorously conceived, and in nearly all

his tragedies there are passages of brilliant rhetoric. He is chiefly

known as the author of the elaborate though uncompleted _Geschichte des

Dramas_ (1865-1876), in which he undertook to record the history of the

drama from the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the

Elizabethan period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward as

the chief part of his task. The work, which is in thirteen bulky

volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred by

eccentricities of style and judgment.

Klein's _Dramatische Werke_ were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1872).

KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH WILHELM VON (1777-1811), German poet, dramatist

and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-Oder on the 18th of October 1777.

After a scanty education, he entered the Prussian army in 1792, served

in the Rhine campaign of 1796 and retired from the service in 1799 with

the rank of lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the

university of Frankfort-on-Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post

in the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his roving,

restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a lengthened leave

of absence he visited Paris and then settled in Switzerland. Here he

found congenial friends in Heinrich Zschokke (q.v.) and Ludwig Friedrich

August Wieland (1777-1819), son of the poet; and to them he read his

first drama, a gloomy tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_ (1803),

originally entitled _Die Familie Ghonorez_. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist

returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in Weimar,

stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again proceeded to Paris, and

returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was transferred to the

_Domänenkammer_ (department for the administration of crown lands) at

Königsberg. On a journey to Dresden in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the

French as a spy, and being sent to France was kept for six months a

close prisoner at Châlons-sur-Marne. On regaining his liberty he

proceeded to Dresden, where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Müller

(1779-1829) he published in 1808 the journal _Phöbus_. In 1809 he went

to Prague, and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-1811)

the _Berliner Abendblätter_. Captivated by the intellectual and musical

accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist, who was

himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed to do her

bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution by first shooting

the lady and then himself on the shore of the Wannsee near Potsdam, on

the 21st of November 1811. Kleist's whole life was filled by a restless

striving after ideal and illusory happiness, and this is largely

reflected in his work. He was by far the most important North German

dramatist of the Romantic movement, and no other of the Romanticists

approaches him in the energy with which he expresses patriotic

indignation.

His first tragedy, _Die Familie Schroffenstein_, has been already

referred to; the material for the second, _Penthesilea_ (1808), queen

of the Amazons, is taken from a Greek source and presents a picture of

wild passion. More successful than either of these was his romantic

play, _Das Käthchen von Heilbronn, oder Die Feuerprobe_ (1808), a

poetic drama full of medieval bustle and mystery, which has retained

its popularity. In comedy, Kleist made a name with _Der zerbrochene

Krug_ (1811), while _Amphitryon_ (1808), an adaptation of Molière's

comedy, is of less importance. Of Kleist's other dramas, _Die

Hermannschlacht_ (1809) is a dramatic treatment of an historical

subject and is full of references to the political conditions of his

own times. In it he gives vent to his hatred of his country's

oppressors. This, together with the drama _Prinz Friedrich von

Homburg_, the latter accounted Kleist's best work, was first published

by Ludwig Tieck in _Kleists hinterlassene Schriften_ (1821). _Robert

Guiskard_, a drama conceived on a grand plan, was left a fragment.

Kleist was also a master in the art of narrative, and of his

_Gesammelte Erzählungen_ (1810-1811), _Michael Kohlhaas_, in which the

famous Brandenburg horse dealer in Luther's day (see KOHLHASE) is

immortalized, is one of the best German stories of its time. He also

wrote some patriotic lyrics. His _Gesammelte Schriften_ were published

by Ludwig Tieck (3 vols. 1826) and by Julian Schmidt (new ed. 1874);

also by F. Muncker (4 vols. 1882); by T. Zolling (4 vols. 1885); by K.

Siegen, (4 vols. 1895); and in a critical edition by E. Schmidt (5

vols. 1904-1905). His _Ausgewählte Dramen_ were published by K. Siegen

(Leipzig, 1877); and his letters were first published by E. von Bülow,

_Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe_ (1848).

See further A. Wilbrandt, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1863); O. Brahm,

_Heinrich von Kleist_ (1884); R. Bonafous, _Henri de Kleist, sa vie et

ses oeuvres_ (1894); H. Conrad, _Heinrich von Kleist als Mensch und

Dichter_ (1896); G. Minde-Pouet, _Heinrich von Kleist, seine Sprache

und sein Stil_ (1897); R. Steig, _Heinrich von Kleists Berliner

Kämpfe_ (1901); F. Servaes, _Heinrich von Kleist_ (1902); S.

Wukadinowic, _Kleist-Studien_ (1904); S. Rahmer, _H. von Kleist als

Mensch und Dichter_ (1909).

KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON (1715-1759), German poet, was born at

Zeblin, near Köslin in Pomerania, on the 7th of March 1715. After

attending the Jesuit school in Deutschkrona and the gymnasium in Danzig,

he proceeded in 1731 to the university of Königsberg, where he studied

law and mathematics. On the completion of his studies, he entered the

Danish army, in which he became an officer in 1736. Recalled to Prussia

by Frederick II. in 1740, he was appointed lieutenant in a regiment

stationed at Potsdam, where he became acquainted with J. W. L. Gleim

(q.v.), who interested him in poetry. After distinguishing himself at

the battle of Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) and the siege of Neisse (1741),

he was promoted captain in 1749 and major in 1756. Quartered during the

winter of 1757-1758 in Leipzig, he found relief from his irksome

military duties in the society of Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (q.v.).

Shortly afterwards in the battle of Kunersdorf, on the 12th of August

1759, he was mortally wounded while leading the attack, and died at

Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th of August following.

Kleist's chief work is a poem in hexameters, _Der Frühling_ (1749), for

which Thomson's _Seasons_ largely supplied ideas. In his description of

the beauties of nature Kleist shows real poetical genius, an almost

modern sentiment and fine taste. He also wrote some charming odes,

idylls and elegies, and a small epic poem _Cissides und Paches_ (1759),

the subject being two Thessalian friends who die an heroic death for

their country in a battle against the Athenians.

Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his _Gedichte_, which

was followed by a second in 1758. After his death his friend Karl

Wilhelm Ramler (q.v.) published an edition of _Kleists sämtliche

Werke_ in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition was published by A.

Sauer, in 3 vols. (1880-1882). Cf. further, A. Chuquet, _De Ewaldi

Kleistii vita et scriptis_ (Paris, 1887), and H. Pröhle, _Friedrich

der Grosse und die deutsche Literatur_ (1872).

KLERKSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 118 m. S.W. of Johannesburg and 192

m. N.E. of Kimberley by rail. Pop. (1904), 4276 of whom 2203 were

whites. The town, built on the banks of the Schoonspruit 10 m. above its

junction with the Vaal, possesses several fine public buildings. In the

neighbourhood are gold-mines, the reef appearing to form the western

boundary of the Witwatersrand basin. Diamonds (green in colour) and coal

are also found in the district. Klerksdorp was one of the villages

founded by the first Boers who crossed the Vaal, dating from 1838. The

modern town, which is on the side of the _spruit_ opposite the old

village, was founded in 1888.

KLESL (or KHLESL), MELCHIOR (1552-1630), Austrian statesman and

ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was born in Vienna.

Under the influence of the Jesuits he was converted to Roman

Catholicism, and having finished his education at the universities of

Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chancellor of the university of

Vienna; and as official and vicar-general of the bishop of Passau he

exhibited the zeal of a convert in forwarding the progress of the

counter-reformation in Austria. He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but

more important was his association with the archduke Matthias which

began about the same time. Both before and after 1612, when Matthias

succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the originator

and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed the concessions

to the Hungarian Protestants in 1606. He assisted to secure the election

of Matthias to the imperial throne, and sought, but without success, to

strengthen the new emperor's position by making peace between the

Catholics and the Protestants. When during the short reign of Matthias

the question of the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the

bishop, although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire

in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the Roman

Catholic Church, advised that this question should be shelved until some

arrangement with the Protestant princes had been reached. This counsel

was displeasing to the archduke Maximilian and to Ferdinand, afterwards

the emperor Ferdinand II. who believed that Klesl was hostile to the

candidature of the latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake

his influence with the emperor; and in June 1618, a few months before

the death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and

imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had been a cardinal

since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope Gregory XV., and

was released from imprisonment. In 1627 Ferdinand II. allowed him to

return to his episcopal duties in Vienna, where he died on the 18th of

September 1630.

See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, _Khlesls Leben_ (Vienna,

1847-1851); A. Kerschbaumer, _Kardinal Klesl_ (Vienna, 1865); and

_Klesls Briefe an Rudolfs II. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von

Dietrichstein_, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900).

KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (1752-1831), German dramatist and

novelist, was born of humble parentage at Frankfort-on-Main, on the 17th

of February 1752. His father died when he was a child, and his early

years were a hard struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter

the university of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom

he had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways. In 1775

Klinger gained with his tragedy _Die Zwillinge_ a prize offered by the

Hamburg theatre, under the auspices of the actress Sophie Charlotte

Ackermann (1714-1792) and her son the famous actor and playwright,

Friedrich Ludwig Schröder (1744-1816). In 1776 Klinger was appointed

_Theaterdichter_ to the "Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft" and held

this post for two years. In 1778 he entered the Austrian military

service and took part in the Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went

to St Petersburg, became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled

and attached to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to

Italy and France. In 1785 he was appointed director of the corps of

cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress Catharine,

was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799. In 1803 Klinger was

nominated by the emperor Alexander curator of the university of Dorpat,

an office he held until 1817; in 1811 he became lieutenant-general. He

then gradually gave up his official posts, and after living for many

years in honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 25th of February

1831.

Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of fine feeling,

though the bitter experiences and deprivations of his youth are largely

reflected in his dramas. It was one of his earliest works, _Sturm und

Drang_ (1776), which gave its name to this literary epoch. In addition

to this tragedy and _Die Zwillinge_ (1776), the chief plays of his early

period of passionate fervour and restless "storm and stress" are _Die

neue Arria_ (1776), _Simsone Grisaldo_ (1776) and _Stilpo und seine

Kinder_ (1780). To a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of

_Medea in Korinth_ and _Medea auf dem Kaukasos_ (1791). In Russia he

devoted himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of

which the best known are _Fausts Leben, Taten und Höllenfahrt_ (1791),

_Geschichte Giafars des Barmeciden_ (1792) and _Geschichte Raphaels de

Aquillas_ (1793). This series was closed in 1803 with _Betrachtungen und

Gedanken über verschiedene Gegenstände der Welt und der Literatur_. In

these works Klinger gives calm and dignified expression to the leading

ideas which the period of _Sturm und Drang_ had bequeathed to German

classical literature.

Klinger's works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815), also

1832-1833 and 1842. The most recent edition is in eight volumes

(1878-1880); but none of these is complete. A selection will be found

in A. Sauer, _Stürmer und Dränger_, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt,

_Lenz und Klinger_ (1878); M. Rieger, _Klinger in der Sturm- und

Drangperiode_ (1880); and _Klinger in seiner Reife_ (1896).

KLINGER, MAX (1857- ), German painter, etcher and sculptor, was born at

Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the classes at the Carlsruhe art

school in 1874, and went in the following year to Berlin, where in 1878

he created a sensation at the Academy exhibition with two series of

pen-and-ink drawings--the "Series upon the Theme of Christ" and

"Fantasies upon the Finding of a Glove." The daring originality of these

imaginative and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and

the artist was voted insane; nevertheless the "Glove" series was bought

by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of "The Judgment of Paris"

caused a similar storm of indignant protest in 1887, owing to its

rejection of all conventional attributes and the naïve directness of the

conception. His vivid and somewhat morbid imagination, with its leaning

towards the gruesome and disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his

mind, found their best expression in his "cycles" of etchings:

"Deliverances of Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid," "A Brahms Phantasy,"

"Eve and the Future," "A Life," and "Of Death"; but in his use of the

needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of the great masters;

it supplies him merely with means of expressing his ideas. After 1886

Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to painting and sculpture. In

his painting he aims neither at classic beauty nor modern truth, but at

grim impressiveness not without a touch of mysticism. His "Pietà" at the

Dresden Gallery, the frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the "Christ

in Olympus," at the Modern Gallery in Vienna, are characteristic

examples of his art. The Leipzig Museum contains his sculptured "Salome"

and "Cassandra." In sculpture he favours the use of varicoloured

materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine sculpture. His

"Beethoven" is a notable instance of his work in this direction.

KLIPSPRINGER, the Boer name of a small African mountain-antelope

(_Oreotragus saltator_), ranging from the Cape through East Africa to

Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by its blunt rounded hoofs,

thick pithy hair and gold-spangled colouring. The klipspringer

represents a genus by itself, the various local forms not being worthy

of more than racial distinction. The activity of these antelopes is

marvellous.

KLONDIKE, a district in Yukon Territory, north-western Canada,

approximately in 64° N. and 140° W. The limits are rather indefinite,

but the district includes the country to the south of the Klondike

River, which comes into the Yukon from the east and has several

tributaries, as well as Indian River, a second branch of the Yukon,

flowing into it some distance above the Klondike. The richer

gold-bearing gravels are found along the creeks tributary to these two

rivers within an area of about 800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a

dissected peneplain with low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft.

above the sea at the Dome which forms its centre. All of the

gold-bearing creeks rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various

directions toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive

being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion and Gold

Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles in which it was

gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its length probably

surpassed any other known placer deposit. Rich gravel was discovered on

Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild rush to this almost inaccessible

region followed, a population of 30,000 coming in within the next three

or four years with a rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900

the climax of $22,000,000. Since then the production has steadily

declined, until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000. The richest gravels were

worked out before 1910, and most of the population had left the Klondike

for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which for a time was a

bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled to about 3000 inhabitants.

As the ground was almost all frozen, the mines were worked by a thawing

process, first by setting fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods

being introduced to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and

hydraulic mining were resorted to with success.

The Klondike, in spite of its isolated position, brought together miners

and adventurers from all parts of the world, and it is greatly to the

credit of the Canadian government and of the mounted police, who were

entrusted with the keeping of order, that life and property were as safe

as elsewhere and that no lawless methods were adopted by the miners as

in placer mining camps in the western United States. The region was at

first difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort

in summer, travelling by well-appointed steamers on the Pacific and the

Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil, summer roads were

excessively bad in earlier days, but good wagon roads have since been

constructed to all the important mining centres. Dawson itself has all

the resources of a civilized city in spite of being founded on a frozen

peat-bog; and is supplied with ordinary market vegetables from farms

just across the river. During the winter, when for some time the sun

does not appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually

without wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably

warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges are

generally made use of, except on the stage route south to White Horse,

where horses are used. A telegraph line connects Dawson with British

Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping it in order are so great over

the long intervening wilderness that communication is often broken. Gold

is practically the only economic product of the Klondike, though small

amounts of tin ore occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on

the Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small stringers of

quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which form the bed rock of

much of the region, and no important quartz veins have been discovered;

so that unlike most other placer regions the Klondike has not developed

lode mines to continue the production of gold when the gravels are

exhausted.

KLOPP, ONNO (1822-1903), German historian, was born at Leer on the 9th

of October 1822, and was educated at the universities of Bonn, Berlin

and Göttingen. For a few years he was a teacher at Leer and at

Osnabrück; but in 1858 he settled at Hanover, where he became intimate

with King George V., who made him his _Archivrat_. Thoroughly disliking

Prussia, he was in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive

policy; and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied the

exiled king to Hietzing. He became a Roman Catholic in 1874. He died at

Penzing, near Vienna, on the 9th of August 1903. Klopp is best known as

the author of _Der Fall des Hauses Stuart_ (Vienna, 1875-1888), the

fullest existing account of the later Stuarts.

His _Der König Friedrich II. und seine Politik_ (Schaffhausen, 1867)

and _Geschichte Ostfrieslands_ (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike

of Prussia. His other works include _Der dreissigjährige Krieg bis zum

Tode Gustav Adolfs_ (Paderborn, 1891-1896); a revised edition of his

_Tilly im dreissigjährigen Kriege_ (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of George

V., _König Georg V._ (Hanover, 1878); _Phillipp Melanchthon_ (Berlin,

1897). He edited _Corrispondenza epistolare tra Leopoldo I. imperatore

ed il P. Marco l'Aviano capuccino_ (Gratz, 1888). Klopp also wrote

much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover, including the

_Offizieller Bericht über die Kriegsereignisse zwischen Hannover und

Preussen im Juni 1866_ (Vienna, 1867), and he edited the works of

Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884).

See W. Klopp, _Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf_ (Wehberg, 1907).

KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (1724-1803), German poet, was born at

Quedlinburg, on the 2nd of July 1724, the eldest son of a lawyer, a man

of sterling character and of a deeply religious mind. Both in his

birthplace and on the estate of Friedeburg on the Saale, which his father

later rented, young Klopstock passed a happy childhood; and more

attention having been given to his physical than to his mental

development he grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman

and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to Quedlinburg

where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739 proceeded to the famous

classical school of Schulpforta. Here he soon became an adept in Greek

and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in

German. His original intention of making the emperor Henry I. ("The

Fowler") the hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton's

_Paradise Lost_, with which he became acquainted through Bodmer's

translation, abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at

school, he had already drafted the plan of _Der Messias_, upon which his

fame mainly rests. On the 21st of September 1745 he delivered on quitting

school a remarkable "leaving oration" on epic poetry--_Abschiedsrede über

die epische Poesie, kultur- und literargeschichtlich erläutert_--and next

proceeded to Jena as a student of theology, where he elaborated the first

three cantos of the _Messias_ in prose. The life at this university being

uncongenial to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here

joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to the _Bremer

Beiträge_. In this periodical the first three cantos of the _Messias_ in

hexameters were anonymously published in 1748. A new era in German

literature had commenced, and the name of the author soon became known.

In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is _An

meine Freunde_ (1747), afterwards recast as _Wingolf_ (1767). He left the

university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative

at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin (the "Fanny" of his

odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly therefore he accepted in 1750

an invitation from Jakob Bodmer (q.v.), the translator of _Paradise

Lost_, to visit him in Zürich. Here Klopstock was at first treated with

every kindness and respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer,

however, was disappointed to find in the young poet of the _Messias_ a

man of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between the two

friends.

At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V. of Denmark, on the

recommendation of his minister Count von Bernstorff (1712-1772), an

invitation to settle at Copenhagen, with an annuity of 400 talers, with

a view to the completion of the _Messias_. The offer was accepted; on

his way to the Danish capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in

1754 became his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the "Cidli" of his

odes), an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short;

she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief at her

loss finds pathetic expression in the 15th canto of the _Messias_. The

poet subsequently published his wife's writings, _Hinterlassene Werke

von Margareta Klopstock_ (1759), which give evidence of a tender,

sensitive and deeply religious spirit. Klopstock now relapsed into

melancholy; new ideas failed him, and his poetry became more and more

vague and unintelligible. He still continued to live and work at

Copenhagen, and next, following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (q.v.),

turned his attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should

replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In 1770, on

the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bernstorff from office, he

retired with the latter to Hamburg, but retained his pension together

with the rank of councillor of legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the

last five cantos of the _Messias_. In the following year he published

his strange scheme for the regeneration of German letters, _Die

Gelehrtenrepublik_ (1774). In 1775 he travelled south, and making the

acquaintance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the

margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title of

_Hofrat_ and a pension from the margrave, which he retained together

with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to Hamburg where he

spent the remainder of his life. His latter years he passed, as had

always been his inclination, in retirement, only occasionally relieved

by association with his most intimate friends, busied with philological

studies, and hardly interesting himself in the new developments of

German literature. The American War of Independence and the Revolution

in France aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic sent

him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified at the terrible

scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of liberty, he returned

it. When 67 years of age he contracted a second marriage with Johanna

Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece of his late wife, who for

many years had been one of his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg

on the 14th of March 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried with

great pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard

of the village of Ottensen.

Klopstock's nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and in it his

deep, noble character found its truest expression. He was less suited

for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt up in himself, a

stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without

even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art

of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the

_Messias_, despite the magnificent passages which especially the

earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a theme must

necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption, presented

serious difficulties to adequate epic treatment. The Gospel story was

too scanty, and what might have been imported from without and

interwoven with it was rejected by the author as profane. He had

accordingly to resort to Christian mythology; and here again,

circumscribed by the dogmas of the Church, he was in danger of

trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Christian faith. The

personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in an individual form,

still less could angels and devils--and in the case of God Himself it

was impossible. The result was that, despite the groundwork--the

Gospels, the _Acts of the Apostles_, the _Revelation of St John_, and

the model ready to hand in Milton's _Paradise Lost_--material elements

are largely wanting and the actors in the poem, Divine and human, lack

plastic form. That the poem took twenty-five years to complete could

not but be detrimental to its unity of design; the original enthusiasm

was not sustained until the end, and the earlier cantos are far

superior to the later. Thus the intense public interest the work

aroused in its commencement had almost vanished before its completion.

It was translated into seventeen languages and led to numerous

imitations. In his odes Klopstock had more scope for his peculiar

talent. Among the best are _An Fanny_; _Der Zürchersee_; _Die tote

Klarissa_; _An Cidli_; _Die beiden Musen_; _Der Rheinwein_; _Die

frühen Gräber_; _Mein Vaterland_. His religious odes mostly take the

form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is _Die Frühlingsfeier_.

His dramas, in some of which, notably _Hermanns Schlacht_ (1769) and

_Hermann und die Fürsten_ (1784), he celebrated the deeds of the

ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, _Der Tod Adams_ (1757)

and _Salomo_ (1764), took his materials from the Old Testament, are

essentially lyrical in character and deficient in action. In addition

to _Die Gelehrtenrepublik_, he was also the author of _Fragmente über

Sprache und Dichtkunst_ (1779) and _Grammatische Gespräche_ (1794),

works in which he made important contributions to philology and to the

history of German poetry.

Klopstock's _Werke_ first appeared in seven quarto volumes

(1798-1809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo

volumes was published (1798-1817), to which six additional volumes

were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844-1845,

1854-1855, 1879 (ed. by R. Boxberger), 1884 (ed. by R. Hamel) and 1893

(a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of the _Odes_

was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a commentary on

these by H. Düntzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878). For Klopstock's

correspondence see K. Schmidt, _Klopstock und seine Freunde_ (1810);

C. A. H. Clodius, _Klopstocks Nachlass_ (1821); J. M. Lappenberg,

_Briefe von und an Klopstock_ (1867). Cf. further K. F. Cramer,

_Klopstock, er und über ihn_ (1780-1792); J. G. Gruber, _Klopstocks

Leben_ (1832); R. Hamel, _Klopstock-Studien_ (1879-1880); F. Muncker,

_F. G. Klopstock_, the most authoritative biography, (1888); E.

Bailly, _Étude sur la vie et les oeuvres de Klopstock_ (Paris, 1888).

KLOSTERNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 5-½ m. N.W. of

Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 11,595. It is situated on the right bank of

the Danube, at the foot of the Kahlenberg, and is divided by a small

stream into an upper and a lower town. As an important pioneer station

Klosterneuburg has various military buildings and stores, and among the

schools it possesses an academy of wine and fruit cultivation.

On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand the

magnificent buildings (erected 1730-1834) of the Augustine canonry,

founded in 1106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This foundation is the

oldest and richest of the kind in Austria; it owns much of the land

upon which the north-western suburbs of Vienna stand. Among the points

of interest within it are the old chapel of 1318, with Leopold's tomb

and the altar of Verdun, dating from the 12th century, the treasury and

relic-chamber, the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the

picture gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the

wine-cellar, containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The

inhabitants of Klosterneuburg are mainly occupied in making wine, of

excellent quality. There is a large cement factory outside the town. In

Roman times the castle of Citium stood in the region of Klosterneuburg.

The town was founded by Charlemagne, and received its charter as a town

in 1298.

KLOTZ, REINHOLD (1807-1870), German classical scholar, was born near

Chemnitz in Saxony on the 13th of March 1807. In 1849 he was appointed

professor in the university of Leipzig in succession to Gottfried

Hermann, and held this post till his death on the 10th of August 1870.

Klotz was a man of unwearied industry, and devoted special attention to

Latin literature.

He was the author of editions of several classical authors, of which

the most important were: the complete works of Cicero (2nd ed.,

1869-1874); Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides (1841-1867),

in continuation of Pflugk's edition, but unfinished; Terence

(1838-1840), with the commentaries of Donatus and Eugraphius. Mention

should also be made of: _Handwörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache_ (5th

ed., 1874); _Römische Litteraturgeschichte_ (1847), of which only the

introductory volume appeared; an edition of the treatise _De Graecae

linguae particulis_ (1835-1842) of Matthaeus Deverius (Devares), a

learned Corfiote (c. 1500-1570), and corrector of the Greek MSS. in

the Vatican; the posthumous _Index Ciceronianus_ (1872) and _Handbuch

der lateinischen Stilistik_ (1874). From 1831-1855 Klotz was editor of

the _Neue Jahrbücher für Philologie_ (Leipzig). During the troubled

times of 1848 and the following years he showed himself a strong

conservative.

A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the _Jahrbücher_ for

1871, pp. 154-163.

KNARESBOROUGH, a market town in the Ripon parliamentary division of the

West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16½ m. W. by N. from York by a branch

of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 4979. Its

situation is most picturesque, on the steep left bank of the river Nidd,

which here follows a well-wooded valley, hemmed in by limestone cliffs.

The church of St John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous

Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building

containing several interesting monuments. Knaresborough Castle was

probably founded in 1070 by Serlo de Burgh. Its remains, however, are of

the 14th century, and include a massive keep rising finely from a cliff

above the Nidd. After the battle of Marston Moor it was taken by

Fairfax, and in 1648 it was ordered to be dismantled. To the south of

the castle is St Robert's chapel, an excavation in the rock constructed

into an ecclesiastical edifice in the reign of Richard I. Several of the

excavations in the limestone, which is extensively quarried, are

incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little farther down the river is St

Robert's cave, which is supposed to have been the residence of the

hermit, and in 1744 was the scene of the murder of Daniel Clarke by

Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton's well-known novel. Opposite

the castle is the Dropping Well, the waters of which are impregnated

with lime and have petrifying power, this action causing the curious and

beautiful incrustations formed where the water falls over a slight

cliff. The Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. There

is a large agricultural trade, and linen and leather manufactures and

the quarries also employ a considerable number of persons.

Knaresborough (_Canardesburg_, _Cnarreburc_, _Cknareburg_), which

belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of William the

Conqueror's grant to his follower Serlo de Burgh. Being forfeited by his

grandson Eustace FitzJohn in the reign of Stephen, Knaresborough was

granted to Robert de Stuteville, from whose descendants it passed

through marriage to Hugh de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas

Becket, who with his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle

for a whole year. During the 13th and 14th centuries the castle and

lordship changed hands very frequently; they were granted successively

to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of

Evesham, to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died without

issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt, duke of

Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy of Lancaster. In

1317 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the castle of Knaresborough for

Thomas duke of Lancaster against the king, surrendered under conditions

to William de Ros of Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to

destroy all the records of the liberties and privileges of the town

which were kept in the castle. In 1368 an inquisition was taken to

ascertain these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held

"all the soil of their borough yielding 7s. 4d. yearly and doing suit at

the king's court." In the reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough is said by

Leland to be "no great thing and meanely builded but the market there is

quik." During the civil wars Knaresborough was held for some time by the

Royalists, but they were obliged to surrender, and the castle was among

those ordered to be destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on

Wednesday and a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St

Mark to that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II.

confirming earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on

Knaresborough Common in the 16th century. From 1555 to 1867 the town

returned two members to parliament, but in the latter year the number

was reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of

the West Riding.

KNAVE (O.E. _cnafa_, cognate with Ger. _Knabe_, boy), originally a male

child, a boy (Chaucer, _Canterbury Tales_: "Clerk's Tale," I. 388). Like

Lat. _puer_, the word was early used as a name for any boy or lad

employed as a servant, and so of male servants in general (Chaucer:

"Pardoner's Tale," 1. 204). The current use of the word for a man who is

dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was however an early usage, and is found

in Layamon (c. 1205). In playing-cards the lowest court card of each

suit, the "jack," representing a medieval servant, is called the

"knave." (See also VALET.)

KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON (1744-1834), German poet and translator, was

born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia on the 30th of November

1744. After having studied law for a short while at Halle, he entered

the regiment of the crown prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached

to it as officer for ten years. Disappointed in his military career,

owing to the slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting

the post of tutor to Prince Konstantin of Weimar, accompanied him and

his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On this

journey he visited Goethe in Frankfort-on-Main, and introduced him to

the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This meeting is memorable as

being the immediate cause of Goethe's later intimate connexion with the

Weimar court. After Knebel's return and the premature death of his pupil

he was pensioned, receiving the rank of major. In 1798 he married the

singer Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he removed

to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd of February 1834.

Knebel's _Sammlung kleiner Gedichte_ (1815), issued anonymously, and

_Distichen_ (1827) contain many graceful sonnets, but it is as a

translator that he is best known. His translation of the elegies of

Propertius, _Elegien des Properz_ (1798), and that of Lucretius' _De

rerum natura_ (2 vols., 1831) are deservedly praised. Since their first

acquaintance Knebel and Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least

interesting of Knebel's writings is his correspondence with the eminent

poet, _Briefwechsel mit Goethe_ (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851).

Knebel's _Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel_ was edited by K. A.

Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed., 1840). See

Hugo von Knebel-Döberitz, _Karl Ludwig von Knebel_ (1890).

KNEE (O.E. _cnéow_, a word common to Indo-European languages, cf. Ger.

_Knie_, Fr. _genou_, Span, _hinojo_, Lat. _genu_, Gr. [Greek: gonu],

Sansk. _janu_), in human anatomy, the articulation of the upper and

lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur and the tibia (see

JOINTS). The word is also used of articulation resembling the knee-joint

in shape or position in other animals; it thus is applied to the carpal

articulation of the fore leg of a horse, answering to the ankle in man,

or to the tarsal articulation or heel of a bird's foot.

KNELLER, SIR GODFREY (1648-1723), a portrait painter whose celebrity

belongs chiefly to England, was born in Lübeck in the duchy of Holstein,

of an ancient family, on the 8th of August 1648. He was at first

intended for the army, and was sent to Leyden to learn mathematics and

fortification. Showing, however, a marked preference for the fine arts,

he studied in the school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in

Amsterdam. In 1672 he removed to Italy, directing his chief attention to

Titian and the Caracci; Carlo Maratta gave him some guidance and

encouragement. In Rome, and more especially in Venice, Kneller earned

considerable reputation by historical paintings as well as portraits. He

next went to Hamburg, painting with still increasing success. In 1674 he

came to England at the invitation of the duke of Monmouth, was

introduced to Charles II., and painted that sovereign, much to his

satisfaction, several times. Charles also sent him to Paris, to take the

portrait of Louis XIV. When Sir Peter Lely died in 1680, Kneller, who

produced in England little or nothing in the historical department,

remained without a rival in the ranks of portrait painting; there was no

native-born competition worth speaking of. Charles appointed him court

painter; and he continued to hold the same post into the days of George

I. Under William III. (1692) he was made a knight, under George I.

(1715) a baronet, and by order of the emperor Leopold I. a knight of the

Roman Empire. Not only his court favour but his general fame likewise

was large: he was lauded by Dryden, Addison, Steele, Prior, Tickell and

Pope. Kneller's gains also were very considerable; aided by habits of

frugality which approached stinginess, he left property yielding an

annual income of £2000. His industry was maintained till the last. His

studio had at first been in Covent Garden, but in his closing years he

lived in Kneller Hall, Twickenham. He died of fever, the date being

generally given as the 7th of November 1723, though some accounts say

1726. He was buried in Twickenham church, and has a monument in

Westminster Abbey. An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an ornamental

painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and had died in 1702. The

style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait painter represented the

decline of that art as practised by Vandyck; Lely marks the first grade

of descent, and Kneller the second. His works have much freedom, and are

well drawn and coloured; but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a

great extent monotonous, this arising partly from the habit which he had

of lengthening the oval of all his heads. The colouring may be called

brilliant rather than true. He indulged much in the common-places of

allegory; and, though he had a quality of dignified elegance not

unallied with simplicity, genuine simple nature is seldom to be traced

in his works. His fame has greatly declined, and could not but do so

after the advent of Reynolds. Among Kneller's principal paintings are

the "Forty-three Celebrities of the Kit-Cat Club," and the "Ten Beauties

of the Court of William III.," now at Hampton Court; these were painted

by order of the queen; they match, but match unequally, the "Beauties of

the Court of Charles II.," painted by Lely. He executed altogether the

likenesses of ten sovereigns, and fourteen of his works appear in the

National Portrait Gallery. It is said that Kneller's own favourite

performance was the portrait of the "Converted Chinese" in Windsor

Castle. His later works are confined almost entirely to England, not

more than two or three specimens having gone abroad after he had settled

here. (W. M. R.)

KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN (c. 1650-c. 1720), Dutch colonist of New

Netherland (New York), was a native of Wyhe (Wie), Overyssel, Holland.

Before 1683 he settled near what is now Albany, New York, and there in

1704 he bought through Harme Gansevoort one-fourth of the land in

Dutchess county near Red Hook, which had been patented in 1688 to Peter

Schuyler, who in 1722 deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the upper

fourth of his patent to the seven children of Knickerbocker. The eldest

of these children, Johannes Harmensen, received from the common council

of the city of Albany a grant of 50 acres of meadow and 10 acres of

upland on the south side of Schaghticoke Creek. This Schaghticoke estate

was held by Johannes Harmensen's son Johannes (1723-1802), a colonel in

the Continental Army in the War of Independence, and by his son Harmen

(1779-1855), a lawyer, a federalist representative in Congress in

1809-1811, a member of the New York Assembly in 1816, and a famous

gentleman of the old school, who for his courtly hospitality in his

manor was called "the prince of Schaghticoke" and whose name was

borrowed by Washington Irving for use in his (Diedrich) _Knickerbocker's

History of New York_ (1809). Largely owing to this book, the name

"Knickerbockers" has passed into current use as a designation of the

early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The son of

Johannes, David Buel Knickerbacker (1833-1894), who returned to the

earlier spelling of the family name, graduated at Trinity College in

1853 and at the General Theological Seminary in 1856, was a rector for

many years at Minneapolis, Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated

Protestant Episcopal bishop of Indiana.

See the series of articles by W. B. Van Alstyne on "The Knickerbocker

Family," beginning in vol. xxix., No. 1 (Jan. 1908) of the _New York

Genealogical and Biographical Record_.

KNIFE (O.E. _cníf_, a word appearing in different forms in many Teutonic

languages, cf. Du. _knijf_, Ger. _Kneif_, a shoemaker's knife, Swed.

_knif_; the ultimate origin is unknown; Skeat finds the origin in the

root of "nip," formerly "knip"; Fr. _canif_ is also of Teutonic origin),

a small cutting instrument, with the blade either fixed to the handle or

fastened with a hinge so as to clasp into the handle (see CUTLERY). For

the knives chipped from flint by prehistoric man see ARCHAEOLOGY and

FLINT IMPLEMENTS.

KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH, FREIHERR VON (1752-1796), German author,

was born on the family estate of Bredenbeck near Hanover on the 16th of

October 1752. After studying law at Göttingen he was attached

successively to the courts of Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as

gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring from court service in 1777, he lived a

private life with his family in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and

Hanover until 1791, when he was appointed _Oberhauptmann_ (civil

administrator) in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1796. Knigge,

under the name "Philo," was one of the most active members of the

_Illuminati_, a mutual moral and intellectual improvement society

founded by Adam Weishaupt (1748-1830) at Ingolstadt, and which later

became affiliated to the Freemasons. Knigge is known as the author of

several novels, among which _Der Roman meines Lebens_ (1781-1787; new

ed., 1805) and _Die Reise nach Braunschweig_ (1792), the latter a rather

coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary

achievement was, however, _Über den Umgang mit Menschen_ (1788), in

which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful, happy and useful

life; it has been often reprinted.

Knigge's _Schriften_ were published in 12 volumes (1804-1806). See K.

Goedeke, _Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge_ (1844); and H. Klencke, _Aus

einer alten Kiste_ (_Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem

Nachlasse Knigges_) (1853).

KNIGHT, CHARLES (1791-1873), English publisher and author, the son of a

bookseller and printer at Windsor, was born on the 15th of March 1791.

He was apprenticed to his father, but on the completion of his

indentures he took up journalism and interested himself in several

newspaper speculations. In 1823, in conjunction with friends he had made

as publisher (1820-1821) of _The Etonian_, he started _Knight's

Quarterly Magazine_, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge and

Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to a close with its sixth

number, but it initiated for Knight a career as publisher and author

which extended over forty years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up

his publishing business, and became the superintendent of the

publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for

which he projected and edited _The British Almanack and Companion_,

begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business on his own account with the

publication of _The Library of Entertaining Knowledge_, writing several

volumes of the series himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started _The Penny

Magazine_ and _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, both of which had a large

circulation. _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, however, on account of the heavy

excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary sacrifice.

Besides many illustrated editions of standard works, including in 1842

_The Pictorial Shakespeare_, which had appeared in parts (1838-1841),

Knight published a variety of illustrated works, such as _Old England_

and _The Land we Live in_. He also undertook the series known as _Weekly

Volumes_. He himself contributed the first volume, a biography of

William Caxton. Many famous books, Miss Martineau's _Tales_, Mrs

Jameson's _Early Italian Painters_ and G. H. Lewes's _Biographical

History of Philosophy_, appeared for the first time in this series. In

1853 he became editor of _The English Cyclopaedia_, which was

practically only a revision of _The Penny Cyclopaedia_, and at about the

same time he began his _Popular History of England_ (8 vols.,

1856-1862). In 1864 he withdrew from the business of publisher, but he

continued to write nearly to the close of his long life, publishing _The

Shadows of the Old Booksellers_ (1865), an autobiography under the title

_Passages of a Working Life during Half a Century_ (2 vols., 1864-1865),

and an historical novel, _Begg'd at Court_ (1867). He died at

Addlestone, Surrey, on the 9th of March 1873.

See A. A. Clowes, _Knight, a Sketch_ (1892); and F. Espinasse, in _The

Critic_ (May 1860).

KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY (1845- ), American artist, was born at

Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the École des

Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked in the private studio

of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in France, having a house and studio

at Poissy on the Seine. He painted peasant women out of doors with great

popular success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the Legion

of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was made a knight of

the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria, Munich, 1893, receiving the

gold medal of honour from the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts,

Philadelphia, 1893. His son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape

painter.

KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON (1843-1908), English landscape painter, was born at

Sevenoaks, Kent; he started as a schoolmaster, but painting was his

hobby, and he subsequently devoted himself to it. In 1861 he had his

first picture hung at the Academy. He was essentially an open-air

painter, constantly going on sketching tours in the most picturesque

spots of England, and all his pictures were painted out of doors. He

died at Dover on the 2nd of January 1908. The Chantrey trustees bought

his "December's Bareness Everywhere" for the nation in the following

month. Most of his best pictures had passed into the collection of Mr

Iceton of Putney (including "White Walls of Old England" and "Hereford

Cathedral"), Mr Walter Briggs of Burley in Wharfedale (especially

"Pinner"), and Mr S. M. Phillips of Wrotham (especially two

water-colours of Richmond Bridge).

KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY. These two words, which are nearly but not quite

synonymous, designate a single subject of inquiry, which presents itself

under three different although connected and in a measure intermingled

aspects. It may be regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of

feudal tenure, in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity,

and in the third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements.

The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings FEUDALISM and

KNIGHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with the second and third.

For the more important religious as distinguished from the military

orders of knighthood or chivalry the reader is referred to the headings

ST JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; TEUTONIC KNIGHTS; and TEMPLARS.

"The growth of knighthood" (writes Stubbs) "is a subject on which the

greatest obscurity prevails": and, though J. H. Round has done much to

explain the introduction of the system into England,[1] its actual

origin on the continent of Europe is still obscure in many of its most

important details.

The words _knight_ and _knighthood_ are merely the modern forms of the

Anglo-Saxon or Old English _cniht_ and _cnihthád_. Of these the primary

signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of the second that

period of life which intervenes between childhood and manhood. But some

time before the middle of the 12th century they had acquired the meaning

they still retain of the French _chevalier_ and _chevalerie_. In a

secondary sense _cniht_ meant a servant or attendant answering to the

German _Knecht_, and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is described

as a _leorning cniht_. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been

occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin _miles_--usually

translated by _thegn_--which in the earlier middle ages was used as the

designation of the domestic as well as of the martial officers or

retainers of sovereigns and princes or great personages.[2] Sharon

Turner suggests that _cniht_ from meaning an attendant simply may have

come to mean more especially a military attendant, and that in this

sense it may have gradually superseded the word thegn.[3] But the word

thegn itself, that is, when it was used as the description of an

attendant of the king, appears to have meant more especially a military

attendant. As Stubbs says "the thegn seems to be primarily the warrior

gesith"--the gesithas forming the chosen band of companions (_comites_)

of the German chiefs (_principes_) noticed by Tacitus--"he is probably

the gesith who had a particular military duty in his master's service";

and he adds that from the reign of Athelstan "the gesith is lost sight

of except very occasionally, the more important class having become

thegns, and the lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of

the king."[4] It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could

never have superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military

attendant, at all events of the king. But besides the king, the

ealdormen, bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and to

these it is more than probable that the name of _cniht_ was applied.

Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of retainers and

dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there is evidence enough to

show that among them were some called _cnihtas_ who were not always the

humblest or least considerable of their number.[5] The testimony of

Domesday also establishes the existence in the reign of Edward the

Confessor of what Stubbs describes as a "large class" of landholders who

had commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubtful

whether their tenure had not already assumed a really feudal character.

But in any event it is manifest that their condition was in many

respects similar to that of a vast number of unquestionably feudal and

military tenants who made their appearance after the Norman Conquest. If

consequently the former were called _cnihtas_ under the Anglo-Saxon

régime, it seems sufficiently probable that the appellation should have

been continued to the latter--practically their successors--under the

Anglo-Norman régime. And if the designation of knights was first applied

to the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons--who although

they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services to the

king--the extension of that designation to the whole body of military

tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged process.

Assuming, however, that _knight_ was originally used to describe the

military tenant of a noble person, as _cniht_ had sometimes been used to

describe the thegn of a noble person, it would, to begin with, have

defined rather his social status than the nature of his services. But

those whom the English called _knights_ the Normans called _chevaliers_,

by which term the nature of their services was defined, while their

social status was left out of consideration. And at first _chevalier_ in

its general and honorary signification seems to have been rendered not

by _knight_ but by _rider_, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon

Chronicle, wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the

Conqueror "dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere."[6] But, as E. A. Freeman

says, "no such title is heard of in the earlier days of England. The

thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on foot; the horse might

bear him to the field, but when the fighting itself came he stood on

his native earth to receive the onslaught of her enemies."[7] In this

perhaps we may behold one of the most ancient of British insular

prejudices, for on the Continent the importance of cavalry in warfare

was already abundantly understood. It was by means of their horsemen

that the Austrasian Franks established their superiority over their

neighbours, and in time created the Western Empire anew, while from the

word _caballarius_, which occurs in the _Capitularies_ in the reign of

Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance languages.[8]

In Germany the chevalier was called _Ritter_, but neither _rider_ nor

_chevalier_ prevailed against _knight_ in England. And it was long after

_knighthood_ had acquired its present meaning with us that _chivalry_

was incorporated into our language. It may be remarked too in passing

that in official Latin, not only in England but all over Europe, the

word _miles_ held its own against both _eques_ and _caballarius_.

Origin of Medieval Knighthood.

Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed in the

middle ages--implying as it did a formal assumption of and initiation

into the profession of arms--nothing beyond more or less probable

conjecture is possible. The medieval knights had nothing to do in the

way of derivation with the "equites" of Rome, the knights of King

Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But there are

grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of chivalry are to be

detected in early Teutonic customs, and that they may have made some

advance among the Franks of Gaul. We know from Tacitus that the German

tribes in his day were wont to celebrate the admission of their young

men into the ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and

ceremony. The people of the district to which the candidate belonged

were called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be

conferred upon him were inquired into; and, if he were deemed fitted and

worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of his near

kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance. Again, among the Franks

we find Charlemagne girding his son Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious

girding his son Charles the Bald with the sword, when they arrived at

manhood.[9] It seems certain here that some ceremony was observed which

was deemed worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of

recognized importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony

extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and emperors.

But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied in the first

instance to the mounted warriors who formed the most formidable portion

of the warlike array of the Franks. It was among the Franks indeed, and

possibly through their experiences in war with the Saracens, that

cavalry first acquired the pre-eminent place which it long maintained in

every European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid

force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist of the

noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman observes,[10]

will be the same. Since then we discover in the _Capitularies_ of

Charlemagne actual mention of "caballarii" as a class of warriors, it

may reasonably be concluded that formal investiture with arms applied to

the "caballarii" if it was a usage extending beyond the sovereign and

his heir-apparent. "But," as Hallam says, "he who fought on horseback

and had been invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted

nothing more to render him a knight;" and so he concludes, in view of

the verbal identity of "chevalier" and "caballarius," that "we may refer

chivalry in a general sense to the age of Charlemagne."[11] Yet, if the

"caballarii" of the _Capitularies_ are really the precursors of the

later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin name for a knight

is "miles," although "caballarius" became in various forms the

vernacular designation.

Knighthood in England.

Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of Croyland is

really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century, the knighting of Heward or

Hereward by Brand, abbot of Burgh (now Peterborough), was accepted from

Selden to Hallam as an historical fact, and knighthood was supposed, not

only to have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to have had a

distinctively religious character which was contemned by the Norman

invaders. The genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to

support this view. When William of Malmesbury describes the knighting of

Athelstan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, his investiture

"with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon sword with a golden

sheath," there is no hint of any religious observance. In spite of the

silence of our records, Dr Stubbs thinks that kings so well acquainted

with foreign usages as Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could

hardly have failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry

then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is supported in

this opinion by the circumstance that it is nowhere mentioned as a

Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold received knighthood from

William of Normandy makes it clear either that Harold was not yet a

knight, which in the case of so tried a warrior would imply that

"dubbing to knighthood" was not yet known in England even under Edward

the Confessor, or, as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the 11th

century the custom had grown in Normandy into "something of a more

special meaning" than it bore in England.

Regarded as a method of military organization, the feudal system of

tenures was always far better adapted to the purposes of defensive than

of offensive warfare. Against invasion it furnished a permanent

provision both in men-at-arms and strongholds; nor was it unsuited for

the campaigns of neighbouring counts and barons which lasted for only a

few weeks, and extended over only a few leagues. But when kings and

kingdoms were in conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions became

necessary, it was speedily discovered that the unassisted resources of

feudalism were altogether inadequate. It became therefore the manifest

interest of both parties that personal services should be commuted into

pecuniary payments. Then there grew up all over Europe a system of

fining the knights who failed to respond to the sovereign's call or to

stay their full time in the field; and in England this fine developed,

from the reign of Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a regular

war-tax called _escuage_ or _scutage_ (q.v.). In this way funds for war

were placed at the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the

feudatories and their retainers still formed the most considerable

portion of their armies, the conditions under which they served were

altogether changed. Their military service was now far more the result

of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose warlike

enterprises after he was king were confined within the four seas, this

alteration does not seem to have proceeded very far, and Scotland and

Wales were subjugated by what was in the main, if not exclusively, a

feudal militia raised as of old by writ to the earls and barons and the

sheriffs.[12] But the armies of Edward III., Henry V. and Henry VI.

during the century of intermittent warfare between England and France

were recruited and sustained to a very great extent on the principle of

contract.[13] On the Continent the systematic employment of mercenaries

was both an early and a common practice.

The Crusades.

Besides consideration for the mutual convenience of sovereigns and their

feudatories, there were other causes which materially contributed

towards bringing about those changes in the military system of Europe

which were finally accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During

the Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights and

obligations had no place, and it was seen that the volunteers who

flocked to the standards of the various commanders were not less but

even more efficient in the field than the vassals they had hitherto been

accustomed to lead. It was thus established that pay, the love of

enterprise and the prospect of plunder--if we leave zeal for the sacred

cause which they had espoused for the moment out of sight--were quite as

useful for the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as

the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty. Moreover,

the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers of an expedition

to Palestine were seasoned and experienced although frequently

impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to hire themselves to the

highest bidder, and well worth the wages they received. Again, it was

owing to the crusades that the church took the profession of arms under

her peculiar protection, and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation

into it assumed a religious as well as a martial character.

Knighthood independent of Feudalism.

To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits of

knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they did not

possess a sufficient property qualification--of which perhaps they had

denuded themselves in order to their equipment for the Holy War. And

thus the conception of knighthood as of something distinct from

feudalism both as a social condition and a personal dignity arose and

rapidly gained ground. It was then that the analogy was first detected

between the order of knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an

actual union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establishment

of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars and the Knights

Hospitallers were the most eminent examples. As comprehensive in their

polity as the Benedictines or Franciscans, they gathered their members

from, and soon scattered their possessions over, every country in

Europe. And in their indifference to the distinctions of race and

nationality they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had

become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognized, like the

church, as a universal institution which knit together the whole warrior

caste of Christendom into one great fraternity irrespective alike of

feudal subordination and territorial boundaries. Somewhat later the

adoption of hereditary surnames and armorial bearings marked the

existence of a large and noble class who either from the subdivision of

fiefs or from the effects of the custom of primogeniture were very

insufficiently provided for. To them only two callings were generally

open, that of the churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a

rule offered greater attractions than the former in an era of much

licence and little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of

birth, although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince

or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an adequate

maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the shape of booty

or of ransom.[14] It is probably to this period and these circumstances

that we must look for at all events the rudimentary beginnings of the

military as well as the religious orders of chivalry. Of the existence

of any regularly constituted companionships of the first kind there is

no trustworthy evidence until between two and three centuries after

fraternities of the second kind had been organized. Soon after the

greater crusading societies had been formed similar orders, such as

those of St James of Compostella, Calatrava and Alcantara, were

established to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the

Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks than

knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister, and they

were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy, poverty and

obedience. From a very early stage in the development of chivalry,

however, we meet with the singular institution of brotherhood in arms;

and from it the ultimate origin if not of the religious fraternities at

any rate of the military companionships is usually derived.[15] By this

institution a relation was created between two or more monks by

voluntary agreement, which was regarded as of far more intimacy and

stringency than any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied.

Brothers in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the

affections of their "lady-loves." They shared in every danger and in

every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour of another

as promptly and zealously as his own. The plot of the medieval romance

of _Amis and Amiles_ is built entirely on such a brotherhood. Their

engagements usually lasted through life, but sometimes only for a

specified period or during the continuance of specified circumstances,

and they were always ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing

in the shape of a solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of

the Eucharist together. Romance and tradition speak of strange

rites--the mingling and even the drinking of blood--as having in remote

and rude ages marked the inception of these martial and fraternal

associations.[16] But in later and less barbarous times they were

generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal and reciprocal exchange

of weapons and armour. In warfare it was customary for knights who were

thus allied to appear similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or

cognisances, to the end that their enemies might not know with which of

them they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to

accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in the

field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow up bodies

of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity, although free

from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or livery, and naming

themselves after some special symbol or some patron saint of their

adoption. And such bodies placed under the command of a sovereign or

grand master, regulated by statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical

endowments would have been precisely what in after times such orders as

the Garter in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in

Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually were.[17]

Grades of Knighthood.

During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat earlier and

later, the general arrangements of a European army were always and

everywhere pretty much the same.[18] Under the sovereign the constable

and the marshal or marshals held the chief commands, their authority

being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them were the

heralds, who were the officers of their military court, wherein offences

committed in the camp and field were tried and adjudged, and among whose

duties it was to carry orders and messages, to deliver challenges and

call truces, and to identify and number the wounded and the slain. The

main divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other

principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of some of the

greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller divisions still

under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction from knights banneret

they came to be called, knights bachelors. All knights whether bachelors

or bannerets were escorted by their squires. But the banner of the

banneret always implied a more or less extensive command, while every

knight was entitled to bear a pennon and every squire a pencel. All

three flags were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and

carried on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion of

the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was square the

pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was either pointed or

forked at its extremity, and the pencel, which was considerably less

than the others, always terminated in a single tail or streamer.[19]

If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from another

point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into four than

into three stages, of which two may be called provisional and two final.

The bachelor and the banneret were both equally knights, only the one

was of greater distinction and authority than the other. In like manner

the squire and the page were both in training for knighthood, but the

first had advanced further in the process than the second. It is true

that the squire was a combatant while the page was not, and that many

squires voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the

insufficiency of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of

knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous education the

successive conditions of page and squire were passed through in boyhood

and youth, and the condition of knighthood was reached in early manhood.

Every feudal court and castle was in fact a school of chivalry, and

although princes and great personages were rarely actually pages or

squires, the moral and physical discipline through which they passed was

not in any important particular different from that to which less

exalted candidates for knighthood were subjected.[20] The page, or, as

he was more anciently and more correctly called, the "valet" or

"damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he was between

seven and eight years old, and the initial phase continued for seven or

eight years longer. He acted as the constant personal attendant of both

his master and mistress. He waited on them in their hall and accompanied

them in the chase, served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to

the camp.[21] From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he

learnt the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love,[22] from his

master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a

spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured tread

of a soldier; and from his master and his huntsmen and falconers the

"mysteries of the woods and rivers," or in other words the rules and

practices of hunting and hawking. When he was between fifteen and

sixteen he became a squire. But no sudden or great alteration was made

in his mode of life. He continued to wait at dinner with the pages,

although in a manner more dignified according to the notions of the age.

He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered the first

or principal cup of wine to his master and his guests, and carried to

them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed their hands before and

after meat. He assisted in clearing the hall for dancing or minstrelsy,

and laid the tables for chess or draughts, and he also shared in the

pastimes for which he had made preparation. He brought his master the

"vin de coucher" at night, and made his early refection ready for him in

the morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied an

always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself to ride the

"great horse," to tilt at the quintain, to wield the sword and

battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and to bear the weight

and overcome the embarrassments of armour. He inured himself to the

vicissitudes of heat and cold, and voluntarily suffered the pains or

inconveniences of hunger and thirst, fatigue and sleeplessness. It was

then too that he chose his "lady-love," whom he was expected to regard

with an adoration at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious

if concealed. And when it was considered that he had made sufficient

advancement in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the

priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to

him.[23] Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating

most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he entered the

service of some valiant and adventurous lord or knight of his own

selection. He now became a "squire of the body," and truly an "armiger"

or "scutifer," for he bore the shield and armour of his leader to the

field, and, what was a task of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and

secured him in his panoply of war before assisting him to mount his

courser or charger. It was his function also to display and guard in

battle the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight

he served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to supply

him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or killed, to

receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight by his side if he

was unequally matched, to rescue him if captured, to bear him to a place

of safety if wounded, and to bury him honourably when dead. And after he

had worthily and bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a

squire, the time came when it was fitting that he should be made a

knight. This, at least, was the current theory; but it is specially

dangerous in medieval history to assume too much correspondence between

theory and fact. In many castles, and perhaps in most, the discipline

followed simply a natural and unwritten code of "fagging" and seniority,

as in public schools or on board men-of-war some hundred years or so

ago.

Modes of conferring Knighthood.

Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed from a very

early period in all countries where chivalry was known. In both of them

the essential portion seems to have been the accolade or stroke of the

sword. But while in the one the accolade constituted the whole or nearly

the whole of the ceremony, in the other it was surrounded with many

additional observances. The former and simpler of these modes was

naturally that used in war: the candidate knelt before "the chief of the

army or some valiant knight," who struck him thrice with the flat of a

sword, pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation which

varied at the creator's will.[24]

In this form a number of knights were made before and after almost every

battle between the 11th and the 16th centuries, and its advantages on

the score of both convenience and economy gradually led to its general

adoption both in time of peace and time of war. On extraordinary

occasions indeed the more elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But

recourse was had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of

the 15th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special

king of knighthood. When Segar, garter king of arms, wrote in the reign

of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with such completeness

that he does not even mention that there were two ways of creating

knights bachelors. "He that is to be made a knight," he says, "is

striken by the prince with a sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the

prince saying, 'Soys Chevalier,' and in times past was added 'Saint

George.' And when the knight rises the prince sayeth 'Avencez.' This is

the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term 'dubbing'

was the old term in this point, not 'creating.' This sort of knights are

by the heralds called knights bachelors." In our days when a knight is

personally made he kneels before the sovereign, who lays a sword drawn,

ordinarily the sword of state, on either of his shoulders and says,

"Rise," calling him by his Christian name with the addition of "Sir"

before it.

Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation of a

knight when the complete procedure was observed. "The ceremonies and

circumstances at the giving this dignity," says Selden, "in the elder

time were of two kinds especially, which we may call courtly and sacred.

The courtly were the feasts held at the creation, giving of robes, arms,

spurs and the like. The sacred were the holy devotions and what else was

used in the church at or before the receiving of the dignity."[25] But

the leading authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in

French, which will be found at length either in the original or

translated by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English

writers.[26] Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, "tant à

cause du detail que de la naïveté du stile et encore plus de la

bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort

sérieusement," while he adds that these ceremonies were essentially

identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy.

The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the

placing of the candidate under the care of two "esquires of honour

grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of

chivalry," who were to be "governors in all things relating to him."

Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut his

hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber, where a

bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and covered with

rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him he entered. While

he was in the bath two "ancient and grave knights" attended him "to

inform, instruct and counsel him touching the order and feats of

chivalry," and when they had fulfilled their mission they poured some

of the water of the bath over his shoulders, signing the left shoulder

with the cross, and retired. He was then taken from the bath and put

into a plain bed without hangings, in which he remained until his body

was dry, when the two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that

"a robe of russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto

that of an hermit." Then the "two ancient and grave knights" returned

and led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them "sporting

and dancing" with "the minstrels making melody." And when they had

been served with wines and spices they went away leaving only the

candidate, the esquires, "the priest, the chandler and the watch," who

kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate passing the night

"bestowing himself in orisons and prayers." At daybreak he confessed

to the priest, heard matins, and communicated in the mass, offering a

taper and a piece of money stuck in it as near the lighted end as

possible, the first "to the honour of God" and the second "to the

honour of the person that makes him a knight." Afterwards he was taken

back to his chamber, and remained in bed until the knights, esquires

and minstrels went to him and aroused him. The knights then dressed

him in distinctive garments, and they then mounted their horses and

rode to the hall where the candidate was to receive knighthood; his

future squire was to ride before him bareheaded bearing his sword by

the point in its scabbard with his spurs hanging from its hilt. And

when everything was prepared the prince or subject who was to knight

him came into the hall, and, the candidate's sword and spurs having

been presented to him, he delivered the right spur to the "most noble

and gentle" knight present, and directed him to fasten it on the

candidate's right heel, which he kneeling on one knee and putting the

candidate's right foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the

candidate's knee with the cross, and in like manner by another "noble

and gentle" knight the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And

then he who was to create the knight took the sword and girded him

with it, and then embracing him he lifted his right hand and smote him

on the neck or shoulder, saying, "Be thou a good knight," and kissed

him. When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music,

and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to

support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it on

the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook awaited

him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee, and said, "If you

do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God forbid), I

shall hack the spurs from your heels."[27]

The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have been so

largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing or giving the

accolade alone that in England it became at last restricted to such

knights as were made at coronations and some other occasions of state.

And to them the particular name of Knights of the Bath was assigned,

while knights made in the ordinary way were called in distinction from

them knights of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in

distinction from knights banneret.[28] It is usually supposed that the

first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation was at the

coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of the Bath as a

companionship or capitular body was instituted the last creation of them

was at the coronation of Charles II. But all knights were also knights

of the spur or "equites aurati," because their spurs were golden or

gilt,--the spurs of squires being of silver or white metal,--and these

became their peculiar badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech.

In the form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the

spurs together with the sword were always employed as the leading and

most characteristic ensigns of knighthood.[29]

With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been entertained

as to both the nature of their dignity and the qualifications they were

required to possess for receiving it at different periods and in

different countries. On the Continent the distinction which is commonly

but incorrectly made between the nobility and the gentry has never

arisen, and it was unknown here while chivalry existed and heraldry was

understood. Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a

gentleman meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain

conditions of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence Du Cange

divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain into three classes:

first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly, chevaliers or caballeros; and

thirdly, écuyers or infanzons; and to the first, who with their several

special titles constituted the greater nobility of either country, he

limits the designation of banneret and the right of leading their

followers to war under a banner, otherwise a "drapeau quarré" or square

flag.[30] Selden shows especially from the parliament rolls that the

term banneret has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to

baron.[31] In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI., lords of

parliament were always created bannerets as well as barons at their

investiture, "part of the ceremony consisting in the display of a

banner, and such 'barones majores' were thereby entitled to the

privilege of having one borne by a retainer before them to the field of

a quadrilateral form."[32] In Scotland, too, lords of parliament and

bannerets were also called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in

England banneret was often corrupted to baronet. "Even in a patent

passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is called

'baronettus' for 'bannerettus.'"[33] In this manner it is not improbable

that the title of baronet may have been suggested to the advisers of

James I. when the order of Baronets was originally created by him, for

it was a question whether the recipients of the new dignity should be

designated by that or some other name.[34] But there is no doubt that as

previously used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not

the name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there are

several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary claim to

that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground of the nature of

their feudal tenure.[35] And generally, at any rate to commence with, it

seems probable that bannerets were in every country merely the more

important class of feudatories, the "ricos hombres" in contrast to the

knights bachelors, who in France in the time of St Louis were known as

"pauvres hommes." In England all the barons or greater nobility were

entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange's observations would

apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility of France and

Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively early period bannerets

whose claims were founded on personal distinction rather than on feudal

tenure gradually came to the front, and much the same process of

substitution appears to have gone on in their case as that which we have

marked in the case of simple knights. According to the _Sallade_ and the

_Division du Monde_, as cited by Selden, bannerets were clearly in the

beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and importance and

nothing more, and different forms for their creation are given in time

of peace and in time of war.[36] But in the French _Gesta Romanorum_ the

warlike form alone is given, and it is quoted by both Selden and Du

Cange. From the latter a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as

the only one generally in force.

[Illustration: PLATE I.

INSIGNIA OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL ORDERS OF KNIGHTHOOD, DRAWN BY

GRACIOUS PERMISSION FROM THOSE IN THE POSSESSION OF HIS LATE MAJESTY

KING EDWARD VII AND ARRANGED IN ACCORDANCE WITH HIS MAJESTY'S WISHES AND

COMMAND.