KITE-FLYING KOSTER, LAURENS
KIT-FOX KOSTROMA (government of Russia)
KITTO, JOHN KOSTROMA (town of Russia)
KITTUR KÖSZEG
KITZINGEN KOTAH
KIU-KIANG FU KOTAS
KIUSTENDIL KOTKA
KIVU KOTRI
KIWI KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIEDRICH VON
KIZILBASHES KOTZEBUE, OTTO VON
KIZIL IRMAK KOUMISS
KIZLYAR KOUMOUNDOUROS, ALEXANDROS
KIZYL-KUM KOUSSO
KJERULF, HALFDAN KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE
KJERULF, THEODOR KOVNO (government of Russia)
KLADNO KOVNO (town of Russia)
KLAFSKY, KATHARINA KOVROV
KLAGENFURT KOWTOW
KLAJ, JOHANN KOZLOV
KLAMATH KRAAL
KLAPKA, GEORG KRAFFT, ADAM
KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS KRAGUYEVATS
KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH KRAKATOA
KLÉBER, JEAN BAPTISTE KRAKEN
KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD KRALYEVO
KLEIST, BERND HEINRICH VON KRANTZ, ALBERT
KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON KRASNOVODSK
KLERKSDORP KRASNOYARSK
KLESL, MELCHIOR KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS
KLINGER, FRIEDRICH VON KRAUSE, KARL CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH
KLINGER, MAX KRAWANG
KLIPSPRINGER KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL
KLONDIKE KREMENCHUG
KLOPP, ONNO KREMENETS
KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH KREMS
KLOSTERNEUBURG KREMSIER
KLOTZ, REINHOLD KREUTZER, KONRADIN
KNARESBOROUGH KREUTZER, RUDOLPH
KNAVE KREUZBURG
KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON KREUZNACH
KNEE KRIEGSPIEL
KNELLER, SIR GODFREY KRIEMHILD
KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN KRILOFF, IVAN ANDREEVICH
KNIFE KRISHNA
KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH KRISHNAGAR
KNIGHT, CHARLES KRISTIANSTAD
KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY KRIVOY ROG
KNIGHT, JOHN BUXTON KROCHMAL, NAHMAN
KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY KRONENBERG
KNIGHT-SERVICE KRONSTADT
KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE KROONSTAD
KNIPPERDOLLINCK, BERNT KROPOTKIN, PETER ALEXEIVICH
KNITTING KROTOSCHIN
KNOBKERRIE KRÜDENER, BARBARA JULIANA
KNOLLES, RICHARD KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT
KNOLLES, SIR ROBERT KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS
KNOLLYS KRUGERSDORP
KNOT (bird) KRUMAU
KNOT (loop of rope) KRUMBACHER, CARL
KNOUT KRUMEN
KNOWLES, SIR JAMES KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF
KNOWLES, JAMES SHERIDAN KRUPP, ALFRED
KNOW NOTHING PARTY KRUSENSTERN, ADAM IVAN
KNOX, HENRY KRUSHEVATS
KNOX, JOHN KSHATTRIYA
KNOX, PHILANDER CHASE KUBAN (river of Russia)
KNOXVILLE KUBAÑ (province of Russia)
KNUCKLE KUBELIK, JAN
KNUCKLEBONES KUBERA
KNUTSFORD KUBLAI KHAN
KOALA KUBUS
KOBDO KUCHAN
KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ KUCH BEHAR
KOCH, ROBERT KUDU
KOCH (tribe) KUENEN, ABRAHAM
KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DE KUEN-LUN
KODAIKANAL KUFA
KODAMA, GENTARO KUHN, FRANZ FELIX ADALBERT
KODUNGALUR KÜHNE, WILLY
KOENIG, KARL DIETRICH EBERHARD KUKA
KOESFELD KU KLUX KLAN
KOHAT KUKU KHOTO
KOHAT PASS KULJA
KOHISTAN KULM
KOHL KULMBACH
KOHLHASE, HANS KULMSEE
KOKOMO KULP
KOKO-NOR KULU
KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAÍ VON KUM
KOKSTAD KUMAIT IBN ZAID
KOLA KUMAON
KOLABA KUMASI
KOLAR KUMISHAH
KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN KUMQUAT
KOLBERG KUMTA
KÖLCSEY, FERENCZ KUMYKS
KOLDING KUNAR
KOLGUEV KUNBIS
KOLHAPUR KUNDT, AUGUST ADOLPH EDUARD EBERHARD
KOLIN KUNDUZ
KOLIS KUNENE
KÖLLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON KUNERSDORF
KOLLONTAJ, HUGO KUNGRAD
KOLOMEA KUNGUR
KOLOMNA KUNKEL VON LOWENSTJERN, JOHANN
KOLOZSVÁR KUNLONG
KOLPINO KUNZITE
KOLS KUOPIO (province of Finland)
KOLYVAÑ KUOPIO (city of Finland)
KOMÁROM KUPRILI
KOMATI KURAKIN, BORIS IVANOVICH
KOMOTAU KURBASH
KOMURA, JUTARO KURDISTAN (country)
KONARAK KURDISTAN (province of Persia)
KONG KURGAN
KONGSBERG KURIA MURIA ISLANDS
KONIA KURILES
KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS KURISCHES HAFF
KÖNIG, KARL RUDOLPH KURNOOL
KÖNIGGRÄTZ KUROKI, ITEI
KÖNIGINHOF KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH
KÖNIGSBERG KURO SIWO
KÖNIGSBORN KURRAM
KÖNIGSHÜTTE KURSEONG
KÖNIGSLUTTER KURSK (government of Russia)
KÖNIGSMARK, MARIA AURORA KURSK (town of Russia)
KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH KURTZ, JOHANN HEINRICH
KÖNIGSSEE KURUMAN
KÖNIGSTEIN KURUMBAS and KURUBAS
KÖNIGSWINTER KURUNEGALA
KONINCK, LAURENT GUILLAUME DE KURUNTWAD
KONINCK, PHILIP DE KURZ, HERMANN
KONITZ KUSAN
KONKAN KUSHALGARH
KONTAGORA KUSHK
KOORINGA KUSTANAISK
KÖPENICK KÜSTENLAND
KOPISCH, AUGUST KUTAIAH
KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ KUTAIS (government of Russia)
KOPRÜLÜ KUTAIS (town of Russia)
KORA KUT-EL-AMARA
KORAN KUTENAI
KORAT KUTTALAM
KORDOFAN KUTTENBERG
KOREA (country) KUTUSOV, MIKHAIL LARIONOVICH
KOREA (Indian tributary state) KUWET
KORESHAN ECCLESIA, THE KUZNETSK
KORIN, OGATA KVASS
KORKUS KWAKIUTL
KÖRMÖCZBÁNYA KWANGCHOW BAY
KÖRNER, KARL THEODOR KWANG-SI
KORNEUBURG KWANG-TUNG
KOROCHA KWANZA
KORSÖR KWEI-CHOW
KORTCHA KYAUKPYU
KORYAKS KYAUKSE
KOSCIUSCO KYD, THOMAS
KOSCIUSZKO, TADEUSZ BONAWENTURA KYFFHÄUSER
KÖSEN KYNASTON, EDWARD
KOSHER KYNETON
KÖSLIN KYOSAI, SHO-FU
KOSSOVO KYRIE
KOSSUTH, FERENCZ LAJOS AKOS KYRLE, JOHN
KOSSUTH, LAJOS KYSHTYM
KITE-FLYING, the art of sending up into the air, by means of the wind,
light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or cloth (called
kites, after the bird--in German _Drache_, dragon), which are attached
to long cords or wires held in the hand or wound on a drum. When made in
the common diamond form, or triangular with a semicircular head, kites
usually have a pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The
tradition is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four
centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use among
Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand from
time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been a national pastime of the
Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese, Annamese, Malays and East
Indians. It is less popular among the peoples of Europe. The origin of
the sport, although obscure, is usually ascribed to religion. With the
Maoris it still retains a distinctly religious character, and the ascent
of the kite is accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans
attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago,
inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached,
which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of divine
succour. Another Korean general is said to have been the first to put
the kite to mechanical uses by employing one to span a stream with a
cord, which was then fastened to a cable and formed the nucleus of a
bridge. In Korea, Japan and China, and indeed throughout Eastern Asia,
even the tradespeople may be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting
for customers. Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as
birds, dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as
much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bamboo strips
covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the ninth day of the
ninth month is "Kites' Day," when men and boys of all classes betake
themselves to neighbouring eminences and fly their kites. Kite-fighting
is a feature of the pastime in Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is
usually stiffened with a mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain.
The kite-flyer manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his
adversary, then allows his cord to drift against his enemy's, and by a
sudden jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays
possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan of
Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a collection
of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear one or more
perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive sound that can be
heard for great distances. The ignorant, believing that these kites
frighten away evil spirits, often keep them flying all night over their
houses.
There are various metaphorical uses of the term "kite-flying," such as
in commercial slang, when "flying a kite" means raising money on credit
(cf. "raising the wind"), or in political slang for seeing "how the wind
blows." And "flying-kites," in nautical language, are the topmost sails.
Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the 18th
century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable kite experiment,
by which he attracted electricity from the air and demonstrated the
electrical nature of lightning. A more systematic use of kites for
scientific purposes may, however, be said to date from the experiments
made in the last quarter of the 19th century. (E. B.)
_Meteorological Use._--Many European and American meteorological
services employ kites regularly, and obtain information not only of the
temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity of the air above. The
kites used are mostly modifications of the so-called box-kites, invented
by L. Hargrave. Roughly these kites may be said to resemble an ordinary
box with the two ends removed, and also the middle part of each of the
four sides. The original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a
rectangular section; in Russia a semicircular section with the curved
part facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamond-shaped
section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to its simplicity
of construction. Stability depends on a multitude of small details of
construction, and long practice and experience are required to make a
really good kite. The sizes most in use have from 30 to 80 sq. ft. of
sail area. There is no difficulty about raising a kite to a vertical
height of one or even two miles on suitable days, but heights exceeding
three miles are seldom reached. On the 29th of November 1905 at
Lindenberg, the Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a
train of six kites attained an altitude of just four miles. The total
lifting surface of these six kites was nearly 300 sq. ft., and the
length of wire a little over nine miles. The kites are invariably flown
on a steel wire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is
not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure upon
it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material that
possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the smallest
possible size. Steel piano wire meets this requirement, for a wire of
1/32 in. diameter will weigh about 16 lb. to the mile, and stand a
strain of some 250-280 lb. before it breaks. Some stations prefer to use
one long piece of wire of the same gauge throughout without a join,
others prefer to start with a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker
wire as more kites are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows.
The first kite is started either with the self-recording instruments
secured in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it. Wire
is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the strength of
the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles per hour. The
quantity that one kite will take depends on the kite and on the wind,
but roughly speaking it may be said that each 10 sq. ft. of lifting
surface on the kite should carry 1000 ft. of 1/32 in. wire without
difficulty. When as much wire as can be carried comfortably has run out
another kite is attached to the line, and the paying out is continued;
after a time a third is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain
upon the wire, and moreover adds to the height and makes it more
uncertain what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds
to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way the risk
of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very uncertain and
is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an exceptional height
the wire must be strained nearly to its breaking point, and under such
conditions a small increase in the strength of the wind will break the
wire, it follows that great heights can only be attained by those who
are willing to risk the trouble and expense of frequently having their
wire and train of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor
in kite-flying. In the S.E. of England in winter it is possible on about
two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of three. The
usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are a few days when
the wind is too strong. (For meteorological results, &c., see
METEOROLOGY.) (W. H. Di.)
_Military Use._--A kite forms so extremely simple a method of lifting
anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been suggested as
being suitable for various military purposes, such as signalling to a
long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or semaphores. Kites have
been used both in the army and in the navy for floating torpedoes on
hostile positions. As much as two miles of line have been paid out. For
purposes of photography a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable
height may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a
bird's-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric
wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs have been
thus obtained in England and America.
The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by a captive
balloon is a still more important one. The chief military advantages to
be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2) they can be used in a
strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to damage, either from the
enemy's fire or from trees, &c., and are easier to mend; (4) they can be
brought into use more quickly; (5) they are very much cheaper, both in
construction and in maintenance, not requiring any costly gas.
Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June 1894
constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, with which he
successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He afterwards improved
the contrivance, using five or six smaller kites attached together in
preference to one large one. With this arrangement he frequently
ascended as high as 100 ft. The kites were hexagonal, being 12 ft. high
and 12 ft. across. The apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes
into a simple roll, weighed in all about 1 cwt. This appliance was
proved to be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the
retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut. H. D. Wise
made some trials in America in 1897 with some large kites of the
Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously himself ascended in
Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft. above the ground. In
the Russian army a military kite apparatus has also been tried, and was
in evidence at the manoeuvres in 1898. Experiments have also been
carried out by most of the European powers. (B. F. S. B.-P.)
KIT-FOX (_Canis [Vulpes] velox_), a small fox, from north-western
America, measuring less than a yard in length, with a tail of nearly a
third this length. There is a good deal of variation in the colour of
the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A specimen in the Zoological
Gardens of London had the back and tail dark grey, the tail tipped with
black, and a rufous wash on the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer
surface of the limbs, with the under surface white. The specific name
was given on account of the extraordinary swiftness of the animal. (See
CARNIVORA.)
KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the son of a
mason at Plymouth, where he was born on the 4th of December 1804. An
accident brought on deafness, and in November 1819 he was sent to the
workhouse, where he was employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund
was raised on his behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the
guardians, having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of
making use of a public library. After preparing a small volume of
miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied dentistry
with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In 1825 he obtained congenial
employment in the printing office of the Church Missionary Society at
Islington, and in 1827 was transferred to the same society's
establishment at Malta. There he remained for eighteen months, but
shortly after his return to England he accompanied Groves and other
friends on a private missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained
personal knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards
applied with tact and skill in the illustration of biblical scenes and
incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was broken up,
and in 1832 Kitto returned to England. On arriving in London he was
engaged in the preparation of various serial publications of the Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, the most important of which were
the _Pictorial History of Palestine_ and the _Pictorial Bible_. The
_Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature_, edited under his superintendence,
appeared in two volumes in 1843-1845 and passed through three editions.
His _Daily Bible Illustrations_ (8 vols. 1849-1853) received an
appreciation which is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of
£100 from the civil list. In August 1854 he went to Germany for the
waters of Cannstatt on the Neckar, where on the 25th of November he
died.
See Kitto's own work, _The Lost Senses_ (1845); J. E. Ryland's
_Memoirs of Kitto_ (1856); and John Eadie's _Life of Kitto_ (1857).
KITTUR, a village of British India, in the Belgaum district of Bombay;
pop. (1901), 4922. It contains a ruined fort, formerly the residence of
a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a disputed succession to this
chiefship in 1824, St John Thackeray, an uncle of the novelist, was
killed when approaching the fort under a flag of truce; and a nephew of
Sir Thomas Munro, governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort
was stormed.
KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Main, 95
m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the junction of the main-lines
to Passau, Würzburg and Schweinfurt. Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 300
yards long, connects it with its suburb Etwashausen on the left bank of
the river. A railway bridge also spans the Main at this point. Kitzingen
is still surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a town-hall, a
grammar school, a richly endowed hospital and two old convents. Its
chief industries are brewing, cask-making and the manufacture of cement
and colours. Considerable trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is
carried on by boats on the Main. Kitzingen possessed a Benedictine abbey
in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of Würzburg.
See F. Bernbeck, _Kitzinger Chronik 745-1565_ (Kitzingen, 1899).
KIU-KIANG FU, a prefecture and prefectural city in the province of
Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on the south bank of the
Yangtsze-kiang, 15 m. above the point where the Kan Kiang flows into
that river from the Po-yang lake, stands in 29° 42´ N. and 116° 8´ E.
The north face of the city is separated from the river by only the width
of a roadway, and two large lakes lie on its west and south fronts. The
walls are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than usually
strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in China,
Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under the Tsin dynasty (A.D.
265-420), it was known as Sin-Yang, under the Liang dynasty (502-557) as
Kiang Chow, under the Suy dynasty (589-618) as Kiu-Kiang, under the Sung
dynasty (960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang has played its part
in the history of the empire, and has been repeatedly besieged and
sometimes taken, the last time being in February 1853, when the
T'ai-p'ing rebels gained possession of the city. After their manner they
looted and utterly destroyed it, leaving only the remains of a single
street to represent the once flourishing town. The position of Kiu-Kiang
on the Yangtsze-kiang and its proximity to the channels of internal
communication through the Po-yang lake, more especially to those leading
to the green-tea-producing districts of the provinces of Kiang-si and
Ngan-hui, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as one of the treaty ports to
be opened under the terms of his treaty (1861). Unfortunately, however,
it stands above instead of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and
this has proved to be a decided drawback to its success as a commercial
port. The immediate effect of opening the town to foreign trade was to
raise the population in one year from 10,000 to 40,000. The population
in 1908, exclusive of foreigners, was officially estimated at 36,000.
The foreign settlement extends westward from the city, along the bank of
the Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded on its extreme west by the P'un
river, which there runs into the Yangtsze. The bund, which is 500 yards
long, was erected by the foreign community. The climate is good, and
though hot in the summer months is invariably cold and bracing in the
winter. According to the customs returns the value of the trade of the
port amounted in 1902 to £2,854,704, and in 1904 to £3,489,816, of which
£1,726,506 were imports and £1,763,310 exports. In 1904 322,266 lb. of
opium were imported.
KIUSTENDIL, the chief town of a department in Bulgaria, situated in a
mountainous country, on a small affluent of the Struma, 43 m. S.W. of
Sofia by rail. Pop. (1906), 12,353. The streets are narrow and uneven,
and the majority of the houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly
notable for its hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are
nine bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver are
obtained from mines near Kiustendil, and vines, tobacco and fruit are
largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the Roman period, when the
town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurelii. In the
10th century it became the seat of a bishopric, being then and during
the later middle ages known by the Slavonic name of Velbuzhd. After the
overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession of
Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who ruled over
northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and killed by the Turks in
1394. In the 15th century Kiustendil was known as Velbushka Banya, and
more commonly as Konstantinova Banya (Constantine's Bath), from which
has developed the Turkish name Kiustendil.
KIVU, a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or Albertine)
rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into which it discharges its
waters by the Rusizi River. On the north it is separated from the basin
of the Nile by a line of volcanic peaks. The length of the lake is about
55 m., and its greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including
islands, of about 1100 sq. m. It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and
is roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west.
The coast-line is much broken, especially on the south-east, where the
indentations present a fjord-like character. The lake is deep, and the
shores are everywhere high, rising in places in bold precipitous cliffs
of volcanic rock. A large island, Kwijwi or Kwichwi, oblong in shape and
traversed by a hilly ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of
the lake, south-west of the centre, and there are many smaller islands.
The lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South of Kivu
the rift-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which the Rusizi now
breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges, emerging from the lake
in a foaming torrent, and descending 2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at
the head of Tanganyika. The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one,
presenting no affinities with the marine or "halolimnic" fauna of
Tanganyika and other Central African lakes, but is similar to that shown
by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the
rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction seems to
have been blocked in recent geological times by the elevation of the
volcanic peaks which dammed back the water, causing it finally to
overflow to the south. This volcanic region is of great interest and has
various names, that most used being Mfumbiro (q.v.), though this name is
sometimes restricted to a single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first
heard of by J. H. Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until
1894, when Count von Götzen passed through the country on his journey
across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were subsequently
explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bethe, E. S. Grogan, J. E. S. Moore,
and Major St Hill Gibbons. The ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood
was claimed by the Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being
settled in 1910, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The
frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and the west shore
of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to Belgium.
See R. Kandt, _Caput Nili_ (Berlin, 1904), and _Karte des Kivusees_,
1: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902); E. S. Grogan
and A. H. Sharpe, _From the Cape to Cairo_ (London, 1900); J. E. S.
Moore, _To the Mountains of the Moon_ (London, 1901); A. St H.
Gibbons, _Africa from South to North_, ii. (London, 1904).
KIWI, or KIWI-KIWI, the Maori name--first apparently introduced to
zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, ii.
210, or _Voy. de la "Coquille," zoologie_, p. 418), and now very
generally adopted in English--of one of the most characteristic forms of
New Zealand birds, the _Apteryx_ of scientific writers. This remarkable
bird was unknown till George Shaw described and figured it in 1813
(_Nat. Miscellany_, pls. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from
the southern coast of that country by Captain Barcley of the ship
"Providence." At Shaw's death, in the same year, it passed into the
possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th earl of Derby, and president
of the Zoological Society, and it is now with the rest of his collection
in the Liverpool Museum. Considering the state of systematic ornithology
at the time, Shaw's assignment of a position to this new and strange
bird, of which he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said
it seemed "to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous
tribes than to any other." And his credit is still greater when we find
the venerable John Latham, who is said to have examined the specimen
with Shaw, placing it some years later among the penguins (_Gen. Hist.
Birds_, x. 394), being apparently led to that conclusion through its
functionless wings and the backward situation of its legs. In this false
allocation, James Francis Stephens also in 1826 acquiesced (_Gen.
Zoology_, xiii. 70). Meanwhile in 1820 K. J. Temminck, who had never
seen a specimen, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which he
applied the name of _Inertes_ (_Man. d'Ornithologie_, i. cxiv.). In 1831
R. P. Lesson, who had previously (_loc. cit._) made some blunders about
it, placed it (_Traité d'Ornithologie_, p. 12), though only, as he says,
"par analogie et _a priori_," in his first division of birds, "Oiseaux
Anomaux," which is equivalent to what we now call _Ratitae_, making of
it a separate family "Nullipennes." At that time no second example was
known, and some doubt was felt, especially on the Continent, as to the
very existence of such a bird [1]--though Lesson had himself when in the
Bay of Islands in April 1824 (_Voy. "Coquille," ut supra_) heard of it;
and a few years later J. S. C. Dumont d'Urville had seen its skin, which
the naturalists of his expedition procured, worn as a tippet by a Maori
chief at Tolaga Bay (Houa-houa),[2] and in 1830 gave what proves to be
on the whole very accurate information concerning it (_Voy.
"Astrolabe,"_ ii. 107). To put all suspicion at rest, Lord Derby sent
his unique specimen for exhibition at a meeting of the Zoological
Society, on the 12th of February 1833 (_Proc. Zool. Society_, 1833, p.
24), and a few months later (_tom. cit._, p. 80) William Yarrell
communicated to that body a complete description of it, which was
afterwards published in full with an excellent portrait (_Trans. Zool.
Society_, vol. i. p. 71, pl. 10). Herein the systematic place of the
species, as akin to the Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and
the author called upon all interested in zoology to aid in further
research as to this singular form. In consequence of this appeal a
legless skin was within two years sent to the society (_Proceedings_,
1835, p. 61) obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second
he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a fortnight,
while in less than another couple of years additional information (_op.
cit._, 1837, p. 24) came from T. K. Short to the effect that he had seen
two living, and that all Yarrell had said was substantially correct,
except underrating its progressive powers. Not long afterwards Lord
Derby received and in March 1838 transmitted to the same society the
trunk and viscera of an _Apteryx_, which, being entrusted to Sir R.
Owen, furnished that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other
specimens of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett,
with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the society in
instalments, and ultimately printed in its _Transactions_ (ii. 257; iii.
277). From this time the whole structure of the kiwi has certainly been
far better known than that of nearly any other bird, and by degrees
other examples found their way to England, some of which were
distributed to the various museums of the Continent and of America.[3]
[Illustration: Kiwi.]
In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery of another
species of the genus (_Proceedings_, 1847, p. 51); and though the story
was not confirmed, a second species was really soon after made known by
John Gould (_tom. cit._, p. 93; _Transactions_, vol. iii, p. 379, pl.
57) under the name of _Apteryx oweni_--a just tribute to the great
master who had so minutely explained the anatomy of the group. Three
years later A. D. Bartlett drew attention to the manifest difference
existing among certain examples, all of which had hitherto been regarded
as specimens of _A. australis_, and the examination of a large series
led him to conclude that under that name two distinct species were
confounded. To the second of these, the third of the genus (according to
his views), he gave the name of _A. mantelli_ (_Proceedings_, 1850, p.
274), and it soon turned out that to this new form the majority of the
specimens already obtained belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to
have reached England alive was presented to the Zoological Society by
Eyre, then lieutenant-governor of New Zealand. This was found to belong
to the newly described _A. mantelli_, and some careful observations on
its habits in captivity were published by John Wolley and another
(_Zoologist_, pp. 3409, 3605).[4] Subsequently the society has received
several other live examples of this form, besides one of the real _A.
australis_ (_Proceedings_, 1872, p. 861), some of _A. oweni_, and one of
a supposed fourth species, _A. haasti_, characterized in 1871 by Potts
(_Ibis_, 1872, p. 35; _Trans. N. Zeal. Institute_, iv. 204; v. 195).[5]
The kiwis form a group of the subclass _Ratitae_ to which the rank of an
order may fitly be assigned, as they differ in many important
particulars from any of the other existing forms of Ratite birds. The
most obvious feature the _Apteryges_ afford is the presence of a back
toe, while the extremely aborted condition of the wings, the position of
the nostrils--almost at the tip of the maxilla--and the absence of an
after-shaft in the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, and
others not less determinative, though more recondite, will be found on
examination. The kiwis are peculiar to New Zealand, and it is believed
that _A. mantelli_ is the representative in the North Island of the
southern _A. australis_, both being of a dark reddish-brown,
longitudinally striped with light yellowish-brown, while _A. oweni_, of
a light greyish-brown transversely barred with black, is said to occur
in both islands. About the size of a large domestic fowl, they are birds
of nocturnal habit, sleeping, or at least inactive, by day, feeding
mostly on earth-worms, but occasionally swallowing berries, though in
captivity they will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Buller writes
(_B. of New Zealand_, p. 362):--
"The kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of wings by
its swiftness of foot. When running it makes wide strides and carries
the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched to its full
extent and inclined forwards. In the twilight it moves about
cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at this time
it bears some outward resemblance. In a quiescent posture, the body
generally assumes a perfectly rotund appearance; and it sometimes, but
only rarely, supports itself by resting the point of its bill on the
ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the daytime, gaping its
mandibles in a very grotesque manner. When provoked it erects the
body, and, raising the foot to the breast, strikes downwards with
considerable force and rapidity, thus using its sharp and powerful
claws as weapons of defence.... While hunting for its food the bird
makes a continual sniffing sound through the nostrils, which are
placed at the extremity of the upper mandible. Whether it is guided as
much by touch as by smell I cannot safely say; but it appears to me
that both senses are used in the action. That the sense of touch is
highly developed seems quite certain, because the bird, although it
may not be audibly sniffing, will always first touch an object with
the point of its bill, whether in the act of feeding or of surveying
the ground; and when shut up in a cage or confined in a room it may be
heard, all through the night, tapping softly at the walls.... It is
interesting to watch the bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for
worms, which constitute its principal food: it moves about with a slow
action of the body; and the long, flexible bill is driven into the
soft ground, generally home to the very root, and is either
immediately withdrawn with a worm held at the extreme tip of the
mandibles, or it is gently moved to and fro, by an action of the head
and neck, the body of the bird being perfectly steady. It is amusing
to observe the extreme care and deliberation with which the bird draws
the worm from its hiding-place, coaxing it out as it were by degrees,
instead of pulling roughly or breaking it. On getting the worm fairly
out of the ground, it throws up its head with a jerk, and swallows it
whole."
The foregoing extract refers to _A. mantelli_, but there is little doubt
of the remarks being equally applicable to _A. australis_, and probably
also to _A. oweni_, though the different proportion of the bill in the
last points to some diversity in the mode of feeding. (A. N.)