Western China consists of highlands often sparsely, and eastern China of
lowlands densely peopled. Western China contains the only provinces
where the population is under 100 per sq. m. From the Tibetan and
Mongolian tablelands project mountain ranges which, ramifying over the
western region, enclose elevated level tracts and lower basins and
valleys. East of this mountainous region, which extends into central
China and covers probably fully half of the kingdom, are, in the north
a great alluvial plain and in the south a vast calcareous tableland
traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation (see Sec.Sec. _Mountains_ and
_Geology_). In north-eastern China there is only one mountain system,
the group of hills---highest peak 5060 ft.---forming the Shan-tung
peninsula. This peninsula was formerly an island, but has been attached
to the mainland by the growth of the alluvial plain. Besides the broad
division of the country into western and eastern China it may also be
considered as divided into three regions by the basins of its chief
rivers, the Hwang-ho (Yellow river) in the north, the Yangtsze-kiang in
the centre, and the Si-kiang (West river) in the south. In the northern
provinces of Kan-suh and Shen-si the basins of the Hwang-ho and
Yangtsze-kiang are separated by a mountain chain with various names--the
eastern termination of the Kuen-lun range of central Asia. These
mountains, in China, attain, in the Tsing-ling Shan, a maximum elevation
of 13,000 ft. East of Shen-si, in Ho-nan the Fu-niu-shan continue the
range, but with decreasing elevation, and beyond this the deltaic plain
is entered.
The watershed between the Yangtsze-kiang and that of the Si-kiang is
less clearly marked. It traverses the immense tableland which occupies a
great part of the south-west provinces of Yun-nan and Kwei-chow and is
continued eastward by the lower tableland of Kwang-si and the Nanshan
hills (whose elevation seldom exceeds 6000 ft.). The basin of the
Yangtsze-kiang forms the whole of central China. Its western border, in
Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, is wholly mountainous, with heights exceeding
19,000 ft. Central Sze-ch'uen, which is shut in by these mountains on
the west, by the Yun-nan and Kwei-chow plateau on the south, by the
Kiu-lung range on the north, and by highlands eastward (save for the
narrow valley through which the Yangtsze-kiang forces its way), is a
vast red sandstone tableland of about 1600 ft. elevation. It is
exceedingly fertile and supports a dense population. Eastward of
Sze-ch'uen the Yangtsze valley is studded with lakes. Finally it enters
the deltaic plain. The basin of the Si-kiang fills the two southern
provinces of Kwang-si and Kwang-tung and contains no very striking
orographic features. It may be added that in the extreme S.W. portion of
China is part of a fourth drainage area. Here the Mekong, Salween,
Song-koi (Red river), &c. flow south to Indo-China.
_The Coast_.--The coast-line, following all the minor indentations,
is reckoned at over 4500 m.; if only the larger inlets and
promontories be regarded, the coast-line is about 2150 m. in length.
Its shape is that of a semicircle, with its most easterly point midway
(30 deg. N.) between its northern and southern extremities. At either end
of this semicircular sweep lies a peninsula, and beyond the peninsula
a gulf. In the north are the peninsula of Shan-tung and the gulf of
Chih-li; in the south the Lien-chow peninsula and the gulf of
Tongking. Due south of Lien-chow peninsula, separated rom it by a
narrow strait, is Hai-nan, the only considerable island of China. From
the northern point of the gulf of Chih-li to 30 deg. N., where is
Hang-chow bay, the shores are flat and alluvial save where the
Shan-tung peninsula juts out. Along this stretch there are few good
natural harbours, except at the mouths of rivers and in the Shan-tung
promontory; the sea is shallow and has many shoals. The waters
bordering the coast of Chih-li are partly frozen in winter; at 10 m.
from the shore the water is only 20 ft. deep. The proximity of Peking
gives its few ports importance; that of Taku is at the mouth of the
Peiho. In Shan-tung, deeply indented on its southern coast, are the
ports of Chi-fu, Wei-hai-wei and Tsing-tao (the last in Kiao-chow
bay). South of Shan-tung and north of the mouth of the Yangtsze huge
sandbanks border the coast, with narrow channels between them and the
shore. The estuary of the Yangtsze is 60 m. across; it contains
islands and sandbanks, but there is easy access to Wusung (Shanghai)
and other river ports. The bay of Hangchow, as broad at its entrance
as the Yangtsze estuary, forms the mouth of the Tsien-tang-kiang. The
Chusan and other groups of islands lie across the entrance of the bay.
South of Hang-chow bay the character of the coast alters. In place of
the alluvial plain, with flat, sandy and often marshy shores, the
coast is generally hilly, often rocky and abrupt; it abounds in small
indentations and possesses numerous excellent harbours; in this region
are Fu-chow, Amoy, Swatow, Hongkong, Macao, Canton and other
well-known ports. The whole of this coast is bordered by small
islands. Formosa lies opposite the S.E. coast, the channel between it
and Fu-kien province being about 100 m. wide. Formosa protects the
neighbouring regions of China from the typhoons experienced farther
north and farther south.
Deltaic Plain.
_Surface_.---As already indicated, one of the most noticeable features
in the surface of China is the immense deltaic plain in the
north-eastern portion of the country, which, curving round the
mountainous districts of Shan-tung, extends for about 700 m. in a
southerly direction from the neighbourhood of Peking and varies from
150 to 500 m. in breadth. This plain is the delta of the Yellow river
and, to some extent, that of the Yangtsze-kiang also. Beginning in the
prefecture of Yung-p'ing Fu, in the province of Chih-li, its outer
limit passes in a westerly direction as far as Ch'ang-p'ing Chow,
north-west of Peking. Thence running a south-south-westerly course it
passes westward of Cheng-ting Fu and Kwang-p'ing Fu till it reaches
the upper waters of the Wei river in Ho-nan. From this point it turns
westward and crosses the Hwang-ho or Yellow river in the prefecture of
Hwai-k'ing. Leaving this river it takes a course a little to the east
of south, and passing west of Ju-ning Fu, in the province of Ho-nan,
it turns in a more easterly direction as far as Luchow Fu. From this
prefecture an arm of the plain, in which lies the Chao Lake, stretches
southward from the Hwai river to the Yangtsze-kiang, and trending
eastward occupies the region between that river and Hangchow Bay. To
the north of this arm rises a hilly district, in the centre of which
stands Nanking. The greater part of this vast plain descends very
gently towards the sea, and is generally below the level of the Yellow
river, hence the disastrous inundations which so often accompany the
rise of that river. Owing to the great quantity of soil which is
brought down by the waters of the Yellow river, and to the absence of
oceanic currents, this delta is rapidly increasing and the adjoining
seas are as rapidly becoming shallower. As an instance, it is said
that the town of P'utai was one Chinese mile[2] west of the seashore
in the year 200 B.C., and in 1730 it was 140 m. inland, thus giving a
yearly encroachment upon the sea of about 100 ft. Again,
Sien-shwuy-kow on the Peiho was on the seashore in A.D. 500, and it is
now about 18 m. inland.
Mountains.
Some of the ranges connected with the mountain system of central Asia
which enter the western provinces of China have been mentioned above,
others may be indicated here. In the eastern portion of Tibet the
Kuen-lun range throws off a number of branches, which spread first of
all in a south-easterly direction and eventually take a north and
south course, partly in the provinces of Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan, where
they divide the beds of the rivers which flow into Siam and French
Indo-China, as well as the principal northern tributaries of the
Yangtsze-kiang. In the north-west, traversing the western portion of
the province of Kan-suh, are parallel ranges running N.W. and S.E. and
forming a prolongation of the northern Tibetan mountains. They are
known as the Lung-shan, Richthofen and Nan-shan, and join on the
south-east the Kuen-lun range. The Richthofen range (locally called
Tien-shan, or Celestial Mountains) attains elevations of over 20,000
ft. Several of its peaks are snowclad, and there are many glaciers.
Forming the northern frontier of the province of Sze-ch'uen run the
Min-shan and the Kiu-lung (or Po-meng) ranges, which, entering China
in 102 deg. E., extend in a general easterly course as far as 112 deg. E. in
the province of Hu-peh. These ranges have an average elevation of 8000
and 11,000 ft. respectively. In the south a number of parallel ranges
spread from the Yun-nan plateau in an easterly direction as far as the
province of Kwang-tung. Then turning north-eastward they run in lines
often parallel with the coast, and cover large areas of the provinces
of Fu-kien, Kiang-si, Cheh-kiang, Hu-nan and southern Ngan-hui, until
they reach the Yangtsze-kiang; the valley of that river from the
Tung-ting Lake to Chin-kiang Fu forming their northern boundary. In
Fu-kien these hills attain the character of a true mountain range with
heights of from 6500 to nearly 10,000 ft. Besides the chief ranges
there are the Tai-hang Mountains in Shan-si, and many others, among
which may be mentioned the ranges--part of the escarpment of the
Mongolian plateau--which form the northern frontier of Chih-li. Here
the highest peak is Ta-kuang-ting-tzu (6500 ft.), about 300 m. N.N.E.
of Peking and immediately north of Wei Ch'ang (the imperial hunting
grounds).
The Yellow River.
_Rivers and Canals._--The rivers of China are very numerous and there
are many canals. In the north the rivers are only navigable by small
craft; elsewhere they form some of the most frequented highways in the
country. The two largest rivers, the Yangtsze-kiang and the Hwang-ho
(Yellow river), are separately noticed. The Hwang-ho (length about
2400 m.) has only one important tributary in China, the Wei-ho, which
rises in Kan-suh and flows through the centre of Shen-si. Below the
confluence the Hwang-ho enters the plains. According to the Chinese
records this portion of the river has changed its course nine times
during 2500 years, and has emptied itself into the sea at different
mouths, the most northerly of which is represented as having been in
about 39 deg. N., or in the neighbourhood of the present mouth of the
Peiho, and the most southerly being that which existed before the
change in 1851-1853, in 34 deg. N. Owing to its small value as a navigable
highway and to its propensity to inundate the regions in its
neighbourhood, there are no considerable towns on its lower course.
The Yangtsze-kiang.
The Yangtsze-kiang is the chief waterway of China. The river, flowing
through the centre of the country, after a course of 2900 m., empties
itself into the Yellow Sea in about 31 deg. N. Unlike the Yellow river,
the Yangtsze-kiang is dotted along its navigable portions with many
rich and populous cities, among which are Nanking, An-ch'ing
(Ngank'ing), Kiu-kiang, Hankow and I-ch'ang. From its mouth to
I-ch'ang, about 1000 m., the river is navigable by large steamers.
Above this last-named city the navigation becomes impossible for any
but light native craft or foreign vessels specially constructed for
the navigation, by reason of the rapids which occur at frequent
intervals in the deep mountain gorges through which the river runs
between Kwei-chow and I-ch'ang. Above Kwei-chow it receives from the
north many tributaries, notably the Min, which water the low
table-land of central Sze-ch'uen. The main river itself has in this
province a considerable navigable stretch, while below I-ch'ang it
receives the waters of numerous navigable affluents. The Yangtsze
system is thus all important in the economic and commercial
development of China.
Perhaps the most remarkable of the affluents of the Yangtsze is the
Han-kiang or Han river. It rises in the Po-meng mountains to the north
of the city of Ning-kiang Chow in Shen-si. Taking a generally easterly
course from its source as far as Fan-cheng, it from that point takes a
more southerly direction and empties itself into the Yangtsze-kiang at
Han-kow, "the mouth of the Han." Here it is only 200 ft. wide, while
higher up it widens to 2600 ft. It is navigable by steamers for 300 m.
The summer high-water line is for a great part of its course, from
I-ch'eng Hien to Han-kow, above the level of its banks. Near
Sien-t'ao-chen the elevation of the plain above low water is no more
than 1 ft., and in summer the river rises about 26 ft. above its
lowest level. To protect themselves against inundations the natives
have here, as elsewhere, thrown up high embankments on both sides of
the river, but at a distance from the natural banks of about 50 to 100
ft. This intervening space is flooded every year, and by the action of
the water new layers of sand and soil are deposited every summer, thus
strengthening the embankments from season to season.
The Hwai-ho is a large river of east central China flowing between the
Hwang-ho and the Yangtsze-kiang. The Hwai-ho and its numerous
affluents (it is said to have 72 tributaries) rise in Ho-nan. The main
river flows through the centre of Ngan-hui, in which province it
receives from the N.W. the Sha-ho, Fei-ho and other important
affluents. Formerly it received through the Sha-ho part of the waters
of the Hwang-ho. The Hwai-ho flows into the Hungtso lake, through
which it feeds the Grand Canal, not far from the old course of the
Hwang-ho, and probably at one time joined that river not far from its
mouth. It has a length of about 800 m. and is navigable from the point
where it leaves the hill country of Ho-nan to Lake Hungtso. It is
subject to violent floods, which inundate the surrounding country for
a distance of 10 to 20 m. Many of its tributaries are also navigable
for considerable distances.
Grand Canal.
Next in importance to the Yangtsze-kiang as a water highway is the
Yun-ho, or, as it is generally known in Europe, the Grand Canal. This
magnificent artificial river reaches from Hang-chow Fu in the province
of Cheh-kiang to Tientsin in Chih-li, where it unites with the Peiho,
and thus may be said to extend to Tung-chow in the neighbourhood of
Peking. According to the itineraries published by Pere Gandar, the
total length of the canal is 3630 _li_, or about 1200 m. A rough
measurement, taking account only of the main bends of the canal, makes
its length 850 m. After leaving Hang-chow the canal passes round the
eastern border of the Tai-hu or Great Lake, surrounding in its course
the beautiful city of Su-chow, and then trends in a generally
north-westerly direction through the fertile districts of Kiang-su as
far as Chin-kiang on the Yangtsze-kiang. In this, the southern
section, the slope is gentle and water is plentiful (from 7 ft. at low
water to 11 ft., and occasionally 13 ft. at high water). Between
Su-chow and Chin-kiang the canal is often over 100 ft. wide, and its
sides are in many places faced with stone. It is spanned by fine stone
bridges, and near its banks are many memorial arches and lofty
pagodas. In the central portion of the canal, that is between
Chin-kiang and Tsing-kiang-pu, at which latter place it crosses the
dry channel which marks the course of the Yellow river before 1852,
the current is strong and difficult to ascend in the upward (northern)
journey. This part of the canal skirts several lakes and is fed by the
Hwai-ho as it issues from the Hungtso lake. The country lying west of
the canal is higher than its bed; while the country east is lower than
the canal. The two regions are known respectively as Shang-ho (above
the river) and Ssia-ho (below the river). Waste weirs opening on the
Ssia-ho (one of the great rice-producing areas of China) discharge the
surplus water in flood seasons. The northern and considerably the
longest section of the canal extends from the old bed of the Yellow
river to Tientsin. It largely utilizes existing rivers and follows
their original windings. Between Tsing-kiang-pu and the present course
of the Yellow river the canal trends N.N.W., skirting the highlands of
Shan-tung. In this region it passes through a series of lagoons, which
in summer form one lake--Chow-yang. North of that lake on the east
bank of the canal, is the city of Tsi-ning-chow. About 25 m. N. of
that city the highest level of the canal is reached at the town of Nan
Wang. Here the river Wen enters the canal from the east, and about 30
m. farther N. the Yellow river is reached. On the west side of the
canal, at the point where the Yellow river now cuts across it, there
is laid down in Chinese maps of the 18th century a dry channel which
is described as being that once followed by the Yellow river, i.e.
before it took the channel it abandoned in 1851-1853. The passage of
the Yellow river to the part of the canal lying north of that stream
is difficult, and can only be effected at certain levels of the
river. Frequently the waters of the river are either too low or the
current is too strong to permit a passage. Leaving this point the
canal passes through a well-wooded and hilly country west of
Tung-p'ing Chow and east of Tung-ch'ang Fu. At Lin-ching Chow it is
joined at right angles by the Wei river in the midst of the city. Up
to this point, i.e. from Tsing-kiang-pu to Lin-ching Chow, a distance
of over 300 m., navigation is difficult and the water-supply often
insufficient. The differences of level, 20 to 30 ft., are provided for
by barrages over which the boats--having discharged their cargo--are
hauled by windlasses. Below the junction with the Wei the canal
borrows the channel of the river and again becomes easily navigable.
Crossing the frontier into Chih-li, between Te Chow and Tsang Chow,
which it passes to the west, it joins the Peiho at Tientsin, after
having received the waters of the Keto river in the neighbourhood of
Tsing Hien.[3]
The most ancient part of the canal is the section between the Yangtsze
and the Hwai-ho. This part is thought, on the strength of a passage in
one of the books of Confucius, to have been built c. 486 B.C. It was
repaired and enlarged in the 3rd century A.D. The southern part,
between the Yangtsze and Hang-chow, was built early in the 7th century
A.D. The northern part is stated to have been constructed in the three
years 1280-1283. The northern portion of the canal is now of little
use as a means of communication between north and south.[4] It is
badly built, neglected and charged with the mud-laden waters of the
Yellow river. The "tribute fleet" bearing rice to Peking still uses
this route; but the rice is now largely forwarded by sea. The central
and southern portions of the canal are very largely used.
The Peiho (length about 350 m.) is of importance as being the high
waterway to Peking. Taking its rise in the Si-shan, or Western
Mountains, beyond Peking, it passes the city of T'sung-chow, the port
of Peking, and Tientsin, where it meets the waters of the Hun-ho and
empties itself into the gulf of Chih-li at the village of Taku. The
Peiho is navigable for small steamers as far as Tientsin during the
greater part of the year, but from the end of November to the
beginning of March it is frozen up.
The Si-kiang.
In the southern provinces the Si-kiang, or Western river, is the most
considerable. It has a length of over 1000 m. This river takes its
rise in the prefecture of Kwang-nan Fu in Yun-nan, whence it reaches
the frontier of Kwang-si at a distance of about 90 li from its source.
Then trending in a north-easterly direction it forms the boundary
between the two provinces for about 150 li. From this point it takes a
generally south-easterly course, passing the cities of Tsien Chow,
Fung-e Chow, Shang-lin Hien, Lung-ngan Hien, Yung-kang Chow and
Nan-ning Fu to Yung-shan Hien. Here it makes a bend to the north-east,
and continues this general direction as far as Sin-chow Fu, a distance
of 800 li, where it meets and joins the waters of the Kien-kiang from
the north. Its course is then easterly, and after passing Wu-chow Fu
it crosses the frontier into Kwang-tung. In this part of its course it
flows through a gorge 3 m. long and in places but 270 yds. in width.
Both above and below this gorge it is 1 m. wide. Some 30 m. above
Canton it divides into two main and several small branches. The
northern branch, called Chu-kiang, or Pearl river, flows past Fat-shan
and Canton and reaches the sea through the estuary called the Bocca
Tigris or Bogue, at the mouth of which is the island of Hong-Kong. The
southern branch, which retains the name of Si-kiang, reaches the sea
west of Macao. Near the head of its delta the Si-kiang receives the
Pei-kiang, a considerable river which flows through Kwang-tung in a
general N. to S. direction. Like the Yangtsze-kiang the Si-kiang is
known by various names in different parts of its course. From its
source to Nan-ning Fu in Kwang-si it is called the Si-yang-kiang, or
river of the Western Ocean; from Nan-ning Fu to Sin-chow Fu it is
known as the Yu-kiang, or the Bending river; and over the remainder of
its course it is recognized by the name of the Si-kiang, or Western
river. The Si-kiang is navigable as far as Shao-king, 130 m., for
vessels not drawing more than 15 ft. of water, and vessels of a light
draught may easily reach Wu-chow Fu, in Kwang-si, which is situated 75
m. farther up. In winter the navigation is difficult above Wu-chow Fu.
Above that place there is a rapid at low water, but navigation is
possible to beyond Nan-ning Fu.
[Illustration: CHINA]
_Lakes._--There are numerous lakes in the central provinces of China.
The largest of these is the Tung-t'ing in Hu-nan, which, according to
the Chinese geographers, is upwards of 800 li, or 266 m., in
circumference. In native gazetteers its various portions are known
under distinct names; thus it is said to include the Ts'ing-ts'ao, or
Green Grass Lake; the Ung, or Venerable Lake; the Chih-sha, or Red
Sand Lake; the Hwang-yih, or Imperial Post-house Lake; the Ngan-nan,
or Peaceful Southern Lake; and the Ta-tung, or Great Deep Lake. In
ancient times it went by the name of the Kiu-kiang Hu, or Lake of the
Nine Rivers, from the fact that nine rivers flowed into it. Its chief
affluents are the Siang-kiang, which rises in the highlands in the
north of Kwang-si and flows in a general N.N.E. direction, and the
Yuen-kiang, which flows N. and then E. from the eastern border of
Kwei-chow. The lake is connected with the Yangtsze-kiang by two
canals, the Taping and the Yochow Fu. In summer it is fed by the
overflow from the Yangtsze-kiang; in winter it pours its waters into
that river through the Yochow Fu canal. During the winter and spring
the water of the lake is so low that the shallow portions become
islands, separated by rivers such as the Siang and Yuen, and
numberless streams; but in summer, owing to the rise in the waters of
the Yangtsze-kiang, the whole basin of the lake is filled. It is then
about 75 m. long and 60 m. broad. About 180 m. E. of the Tung-t'ing
lake is the Poyang lake, which occupies the low-lying part of the
province of Kiang-si, and is connected with the Yangtsze by the Hu-kow
canal. The Poyang lake is also subject to a wide difference between
high and low water, but not quite to the same extent as the Tung-t'ing
lake, and its landmarks are more distinctly defined. It is about 90 m.
long by 20 broad. The T'ai lake, in the neighbourhood of Su-chow Fu,
is also celebrated for its size and the beauty of its surroundings. It
is about 150 m. in circumference, and is dotted over with islands, on
which are built temples for the devotees of religion, and
summer-houses for the votaries of pleasure from the rich and
voluptuous cities of Hang-chow and Su-chow. The boundary line between
the provinces of Cheh-kiang and Kiang-su crosses its blue waters, and
its shores are divided among thirteen prefectures. Besides these lakes
there are, among others, two in Yun-nan, the Kun-yang-hai (Tien-chi)
near Yun-nan Fu, which is 40 m. long and is connected with the
Yangtsze-kiang by the Pu-to river, and the Erh-hai (Urh-hai) to the
east of the city of Tali.
_The Great Wall._--Along the northern provinces of Chih-li, Shan-si,
Shen-si and Kan-suh, over 22 deg. of longitude (98 deg. to 120 deg. E.), stretches
the Great Wall of China, built to defend the country against foreign
aggression. It was begun in the 3rd century B.C., was repaired in the
15th century, and in the 16th century was extended by 300 m. Following
the windings the wall is 1500 m. long. Starting near the seashore[5]
at Shan-hai-kwan on the gulf of Liao-tung, where the Chinese and
Manchurian frontiers meet, it goes eastward past Peking (which is
about 35 m. to the south) and then trends S. and E. across Shan-si to
the Hwang-ho. From the neighbourhood of Peking to the Hwang-ho there
is an inner and an outer wall. The outer (northern) wall passes
through Kalgan, thus guarding the pass into Mongolia. A branch wall
separates the greater part of the western frontier of Chih-li from
Shan-si. West of the Hwang-ho the Great Wall forms the northern
frontier of Shen-si, and west of Shen-si it keeps near the northern
frontier of Kan-suh, following for some distance in that province the
north bank of the Hwang-ho. It ends at Kiayu-kwan (98 deg. 14'E.) just
west of Su-chow. This part of the wall was built to protect the one
main artery leading from central Asia to China through Kan-suh and
Shen-si by the valley of the Wei-ho, tributary of the Hwang-ho. There
is a branch wall in Kan-suh running west and south to protect the
Tibetan frontier. The height of the wall is generally from 20 to 30
ft., and at intervals of some 200 yds. are towers about 40 ft. high.
Its base is from 15 to 25 ft. thick and its summit 12 ft. wide. The
wall is carried over valleys and mountains, and in places is over 4000
ft. above sea-level. Military posts are still maintained at the chief
gates or passes--at Shan-hai-kwan, the Kalgan pass, the Yenmun pass
(at the N. of Shan-si) and the Kaiyu pass in the extreme west, through
which runs the caravan route to Barkal in Turkestan. Colonel A.W.S.
Wingate, who in the opening years of the 20th century visited the
Great Wall at over twenty places widely apart and gathered many
descriptions of it in other places, states that its position is
wrongly shown "on the maps of the day" (1907) in a number of places;
while in others it had ceased to exist, "the only places where it
forms a substantial boundary being in the valley bottoms, on the
passes and where it crosses main routes. These remarks apply with
particular force to the branch running south-west from the Nan-k'ow
pass and forming the boundary of Chih-li and Shan-si provinces." In
Colonel Wingate's opinion the wall was originally built by degrees and
in sections, not of hewn stone, but of round boulders and earth, the
different sections being repaired as they fell into ruin. "Only in the
valley bottoms and on the passes was it composed of masonry or
brickwork. The Mings rebuilt of solid masonry all those sections
through which led a likely road for invading Tatars to follow, or
where it could be seen at a distance from the sky-line." The building
of the wall "was a sufficiently simple affair," not to be compared
with the task of building the pyramids of Egypt.[6]
_Climate._--The climate over so vast an area as China necessarily
varies greatly. The southern parts of Yun-nan, Kwang-si and Kwang-tung
(including the city of Canton) lie within the tropics. The northern
zone (in which lies Peking) by contrast has a climate which resembles
that of northern Europe, with winters of Arctic severity. The central
zone (in which Shanghai is situated) has a generally temperate
climate. But over both northern and central China the influence of the
great plateau of Mongolia tends to establish uniform conditions
unusual in so large an area. The prevailing winds during summer--the
rainy season--are south-easterly, caused by heat and the ascending
current of air over the sandy deserts of central Asia, thus drawing in
a current from the Pacific Ocean. In the winter the converse takes
place, and the prevailing winds, descending from the Mongolian
plateau, are north and north-west, and are cold and dry. From October
to May the climate of central China is bracing and enjoyable. The
rainfall is moderate and regular.
In northern China the inequalities both of temperature and rainfall
are greater than in the central provinces. In the province of Chih-li,
for example, the heat of summer is as intense as is the cold of
winter. In summer the rains often render the plain swampy, while the
dry persistent westerly winds of spring create dust storms
(experienced in Peking from March to June). The rainfall is, however,
uncertain, and thus the harvests are precarious. The provinces of
Shan-tung and Shan-si are peculiarly liable to prolonged periods of
drought, with consequent severe famines such as that of 1877-1878,
when many millions died. In these regions the air is generally
extremely dry, and the daily variations of temperature consequent on
excessive radiation are much greater than farther south.
Accurate statistics both of heat and rainfall are available from a few
stations only. The rainfall on the southern coasts is said to be about
100 in. yearly; at Peking the rainfall is about 24 in. a year. In the
coast regions the temperatures of Peking, Shanghai and Canton may be
taken as typical of those of the northern, central and southern zones.
In Peking (39 deg. N.) the mean annual temperature is about 53 deg. F.,
the mean for January 23 deg., for July 79 deg. In Shanghai (31 deg. 11'
N.)[7] the mean annual temperature is 59 deg., the mean for January 36.2
deg., for July 80.4 deg. In Canton (23 deg. 15' N.) the mean annual
temperature is 70 deg., the mean for January 54 deg., for July 82 deg.
The range of temperature, even within the tropics, is noteworthy. At
Peking and Tientsin the thermometer in winter falls sometimes to 5 deg.
below zero and rises in summer to 105 deg. (at Taku 107 deg. has been
recorded); in Shanghai in winter the thermometer falls to 18 deg. and in
summer rises to 102 deg. In Canton frost is said to have been recorded,
but according to the _China Sea Directory_ the extreme range is from 38
deg. to 100 deg.[8] The climate of Shanghai, which resembles, but is
not so good as, that of the Yangtsze-kiang valley generally, is fairly
healthy, but there is an almost constant excess of moisture. The summer
months, July to September, are very hot, while snow usually falls in
December and January.
At Canton and along the south coast the hot season corresponds with
the S.W. monsoon; the cool season--mid October to end of April--with
the N.E. monsoon. Farther north, at Shanghai, the S.W. monsoon is
sufficiently felt to make the prevailing wind in summer southerly.
_Provinces._--China proper is divided into the following provinces:
Cheh-kiang, Chih-li, Fu-kien, Ngan-hui (An-hui), Ho-nan, Hu-nan,
Hu-peh, Kan-suh, Kiang-si, Kiang-su, Kwang-si, Kwang-tung, Kwei-chow,
Shan-si, Shan-tung, Shen-si, Sze-ch'uen and Yun-nan. See the separate
notices of each province and the article on Sheng-king, the southern
province of Manchuria. (X.)
_Geology._
The Palaeozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of
the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary
deposits are estuarine and freshwater or else of terrestrial origin.
From the close of the Palaeozoic period down to the present day the
greater part of the empire has been dry land, and it is only in the
southern portion of Tibet and in the western Tian Shan that any
evidence of a Mesozoic sea has yet been found. The geological sequence
may be summarized as follows:--
_Archean._--Gneiss, crystalline schists, phyllites, crystalline
limestones. Exposed in Liao-tung, Shan-tung, Shan-si, northern Chih-li
and in the axis of the mountain ranges, e.g. the Kuen-lun and the
ranges of southern China.
_Sinian._--Sandstones, quartzites, limestones. Sometimes rests
unconformably upon the folded rocks of the Archaen system; but
sometimes, according to Loczy, there is no unconformity. Covers a
large area in the northern part of China proper; absent in the eastern
Kuen-lun; occurs again in the ranges of S.E. China. In Liao-tung
Cambrian fossils have been found near the summit of the series; they
belong to the oldest fauna known upon the earth, the fauna of the
_Olenellus_ zone. It is, however, not improbable that in many places
beds of considerably later date have been included in the Sinian
system.
_Ordovician._--Ordovician fossils have been found in the Lung-shan,
Kiang-su (about 50 m. east of Nan-king), in the south-west of
Cheh-kiang and in the south-east of Yun-nan. Ordovician beds probably
occur also in the Kuen-lun.
_Silurian._--Limestones and slates with Silurian corals and other
fossils have been found in Sze-ch'uen.
_Devonian._--Found in Kan-suh and in the Tsing-ling-shan, but becomes
much more important in southern China. Occurs also on the south of the
Tian-shan, in the Altyn-tagh, the Nan-shan and the western Kuen-lun.
_Carboniferous._--Covers a large area in northern China, in the
plateau of Shen-si and Shan-si, extending westwards in tongues between
the folds of the Kuen-lun. In this region it consists of a lower
series of limestones and an upper series of sandstones with seams of
coal, which may perhaps be in part of Permian age. This is probably
the most extensive coalfield in the world.
In south China the whole series consists chiefly of limestones, and
the coal seams are comparatively unimportant. Carboniferous beds are
also found in the Tian-shan, the Nan-shan, Kan-suh, on the southern
borders of the Gobi, &c.
_Mesozoic._--Marine Triassic beds containing fossils similar to those
of the German Muschelkalk have been found by Loczy near Chung-tien, on
the eastern border of the Tibetan plateau. Elsewhere, however, the
Mesozoic is represented chiefly by a red sandstone, which covers the
greater part of Sze-ch'uen and fills also a number of troughs amongst
the older beds of southern China. No marine fossils are found in this
sandstone, but remains of plants are numerous, and these belong to the
Rhaetic, Lias and Lower Oolite. No Cretaceous beds are known in China
excepting in S. Tibet (on the shores of the Tengri-nor) and in the
western portion of the Tian-shan.
_Cainozoic and Recent._--No marine deposits of this age are known.
Although the loess of the great plain and the sand of the desert are
still in process of formation, the accumulation of these deposits
probably began in the Tertiary period.
_Volcanic Rocks._--Amongst the Archean rocks granitic and other
intrusions are abundant, but of more modern volcanic activity the
remains are comparatively scanty. In south China there is no evidence
of Tertiary or Post-Tertiary volcanoes, but groups of volcanic cones
occur in the great plain of north China. In the Liao-tung and
Shan-tung peninsulas there are basaltic plateaus, and similar
outpourings occur upon the borders of Mongolia. All these outbursts
appear to be of Tertiary or later data.
_Loess._--One of the most characteristic deposits of China is the
loess, which not merely imparts to north China the physical character
of the scenery, but also determines the agricultural products, the
transport, and general economic life of the people of that part of the
country. It is peculiar to north China and it is not found south of
the Yangtsze. The loess is a solid but friable earth of
brownish-yellow colour, and when triturated with water is not unlike
loam, but differs from the latter by its highly porous and tubular
structure. The loess soil is extremely favourable to agriculture. (See
LOESS and _infra, Sec. Agriculture._)
The loess is called by the Chinese _Hwang-t'u_, or yellow earth, and
it has been suggested that the imperial title _Hwang-ti_, Yellow
Emperor or Ruler of the Yellow, had its origin in the fact that the
emperor is lord of the loess or yellow earth.
Structure.
Structurally, China proper may be divided into two regions, separated
from each other by the folded range of the Tsing-ling-shan, which is a
continuation of the folded belt of the Kuen-lun. North of this chain
the Palaeozoic beds are in general nearly horizontal, and the
limestones and sandstones of the Sinian and Carboniferous systems form
an extensive plateau which rises abruptly from the western margin of
the great plain of northern China. The plateau is deeply carved by the
rivers which flow through it; and the strata are often faulted, but
they are never sharply folded. South of the Tsing-ling-shan, on the
other hand, the Palaeozoic beds are thrown into a series of folds
running from W. 30 deg. S. to E. 30 deg. N., which form the hilly region
of southern China. Towards Tongking these folds probably bend southwards
and join the folds of Further India. Amongst these folded beds lie
trough-like depressions filled with the Mesozoic red sandstone which
lies unconformably upon the Palaeozoic rocks.
The present configuration of China is due, in a very considerable
degree, to faulting. The abrupt eastern edge of the Shan-si plateau,
where it overlooks the great plain, is a line of fault, or rather a
series of step faults, with the downthrow on the east; and von
Richthofen has shown reason to believe that this line of faulting is
continued far to the south and to the north. He believed also that the
present coast-line of China has to a large extent been determined by
similar faults with their downthrow on the east.
Concerning the structure of the central Asian plateau our knowledge is
still incomplete. The great mountain chains, the Kuen-lun, the
Nan-shan and the Tian-shan, are belts of folding; but the Mongolian
Altai is a horst--a strip of ancient rock lying between two faults and
with a depressed area upon each side. In the whole of this northern
region faulting, as distinct from folding, seems to have played an
important part. Along the southern margin of the Tian-shan there is a
remarkable trough-like depression which appears to lie between two
approximately parallel faults. (P. LA.)
_Fauna_.
China lies within two zoological provinces or regions, its southern
portion forming a part of the Oriental or Indian region and having a
fauna close akin to that of the western Himalaya, Burma and Siam,
whereas the districts to the north of Fu-chow and south of the
Yangtsze-kiang lie within the eastern Holarctic (Palaearctic) region,
or rather the southern fringe of the latter, which has been separated
as the Mediterranean transitional region. Of these two divisions of
the Chinese fauna, the northern one is the more interesting, since it
forms the chief home of a number of peculiar generic types, and also
includes types represented elsewhere at the present day (exclusive in
one case of Japan) only in North America. The occurrence in China of
these types common to the eastern and western hemispheres is important
in regard to the former existence of a land-bridge between Eastern
Asia and North America by way of Bering Strait.
Of the types peculiar to China and North America the alligator of the
Yangtsze-kiang is generically identical with its Mississippi relative.
The spoon-beaked sturgeon of the Yangtsze and Hwang-ho is, however,
now separated, as _Psephurus_, from the closely allied American
_Polyodon_. Among insectivorous mammals the Chinese and Japanese
shrew-moles, respectively forming the genera _Uropsilus_ and
_Urotrichus_, are represented in America by _Neurotrichus_. The giant
salamander of the rivers of China and Japan and the Chinese mandarin
duck are by some included in the same genera as their American
representatives, while by others they are referred to genera apart.
Whichever view we take does not alter their close relationship. One
wapiti occurs on the Tibetan frontier, and others in Manchuria and
Amurland.
As regards mammals and birds, the largest number of generic and
specific types peculiar to China are met with in Sze-ch'uen. Foremost
among these is the great panda (_Aeluropus melanoleucus_),
representing a genus by itself, probably related to bears and to the
true panda (_Aelurus_), the latter of which has a local race in
Sze-ch'uen. Next come the snub-nosed monkeys (_Rhinopithecus_), of
which the typical species is a native of Sze-ch'uen, while a second is
found on the upper Mekong, and a third in the mountains of central
China. In the Insectivora the swimming-shrew (_Nectogale_) forms
another generic type peculiar to Sze-ch'uen, which is also the sole
habitat of the mole-like _Scaptochirus_, of _Uropsilus_, near akin to
the Japanese _Urotrichus_, of _Scaptonyx_, which connects the latter
with the moles (_Talpa_), and of _Neotetracus_, a relative of the
Malay rat-shrews (_Gymnura_). Here also may be mentioned the
raccoon-dog, forming the subgenus _Nyctereutes_, common to China and
Japan. The Himalayan black and the Malay bear have each a local race
in Sze-ch'uen, where the long-haired Fontanier's cat (_Felis tristis_)
and the Tibet cat (_F. scripta_) connect Indo-Malay species with the
American ocelots, while the bay cat (_F. temmincki_), a Malay type, is
represented by local forms in Sze-ch'uen and Fu-chow. The Amurland
leopard and Manchurian tiger likewise constitute local races of their
respective species.
Among ruminants, the Sze-ch'uen takin represents a genus (_Budorcas_)
found elsewhere in the Mishmi Hills and Bhutan, while serows
(_Nemorhaedus_) and gorals (_Urotragus_), allied to Himalayan and
Burmo-Malay types, abound. The Himalayan fauna is also represented by
a race of the Kashmir hangul deer. Of other deer, the original habitat
of Pere David's milu (_Elaphurus_), formerly kept in the Peking park,
is unknown. The sika group, which is peculiar to China, Japan and
Formosa, is represented by _Cervus hortulorum_ in Manchuria and the
smaller _C. manchuricus_ and _sika_ in that province and the Yangtsze
valley; while musk-deer (_Moschus_) abound in Kan-suh and Sze-ch'uen.
The small water-deer (_Hydropotes_ or _Hydrelaphus_) of the Yangtsze
valley represents a genus peculiar to the country, as do the three
species of tufted deer (_Elaphodus_), whose united range extends from
Sze-ch'uen to Ning-po and I-ch'ang. Muntjacs (_Cervulus_) are likewise
very characteristic of the country, to which the white-tailed,
plum-coloured species, like the Tenasserim _C. crinifrons_, are
peculiar. The occurrence of races of the wapiti in Manchuria and
Amurland has been already mentioned.
To refer in detail to the numerous forms of rodents inhabiting China
is impossible here, and it must suffice to mention that the
flying-squirrels (_Pteromys_) are represented by a large and handsome
species in Sze-ch'uen, where is also found the largest kind of
bamboo-rat (_Rhizomys_), the other species of which are natives of the
western Himalaya and the Malay countries. Dwarf hamsters of the genus
_Cricetulus_ are natives of the northern provinces. In the extreme
south, in Hai-nan, is found a gibbon ape (_Hylobates_), while langur
(_Semnopithecus_) and macaque monkeys (_Macacus_) likewise occur in
the south, one of the latter also inhabiting Sze-ch'uen.
To give an adequate account of Chinese ornithology would require space
many times the length of this article. The gorgeous mandarin duck
(_Aix galerita_) has already been mentioned among generic types common
to America. In marked distinction to this is the number of species of
pheasants inhabiting north-western China, whence the group ranges into
the eastern Himalaya. Among Chinese species are two of the three
species of blood-pheasants (_Ithagenes_), two tragopans (_Ceriornis_
or _Tragopan_), a monal (_Lophophorus_), three out of the five species
of _Crossoptilum_, the other two being Tibetan, two kinds of
_Pucrasia_, the gorgeous golden and Amherst's pheasants alone
representing the genus _Chrysolophus_, together with several species
of the typical genus _Phasianus_, among which it will suffice to
mention the long-tailed _P. reevesi_. The Himalayan bamboo-partridges
(_Bambusicola_) have also a Chinese representative. The only other
large bird that can be mentioned is the Manchurian crane, misnamed
_Grus japonensis_. Pigeons include the peculiar subgenus
_Dendroteron_; while among smaller birds, warblers, tits and finches,
all of an Eastern Holarctic type, constitute the common element in the
avifauna. Little would be gained by naming the genera, peculiar or
otherwise.
China has a few peculiar types of freshwater tortoises, among which
_Ocadia sinensis_ represents a genus unknown elsewhere, while there is
also a species of the otherwise Indian genus _Damonia_. The Chinese
alligator, _Alligator sinensis_, has been already mentioned. Among
lizards, the genera _Plestiodon_, _Mabuia_, _Tachydromus_ and _Gecko_,
of which the two latter are very characteristic of the Oriental
region, range through China to Japan; and among snakes, the Malay
python (_Python reticulatus_) is likewise Chinese. The giant
salamander (_Cryptobranchus_, or _Megalobatrachus, maximus_)
represents, as mentioned above, a type found elsewhere only in North
America, while _Hynobius_ and _Onychodactylus_ are peculiar generic
types of salamanders. Among fishes, it must suffice to refer to the
spoon-beaked sturgeon (_Psephurus_) of the Yangtsze-kiang, and the
numerous members of the carp family to be found in the rivers of
China. From these native carp the Chinese have produced two highly
coloured breeds, the goldfish and the telescope-eyed carp.
Among the invertebrates special mention may be made of the great
ailanthus silk-moth (_Attacus cynthia_) of northern China and Japan,
and also of its Manchurian relative _A. pernyi_; while it may be added
that the domesticated "silkworm" (_Bombyx mori_) is generally believed
to be of Chinese origin, although this is not certain. Very
characteristic of China is the abundance of handsomely coloured
swallow-tailed butterflies of the family _Papilionidae_. The Chinese
kermes (_Coccus sinensis_) is also worth mention, on account of it
yielding wax. As regards land and freshwater snails, China exhibits a
marked similarity to Siam and India; the two groups in which the
Chinese province displays decided peculiarities of its own being
_Helix_ (in the wider sense) and _Clausilia_. There are, for instance,
nearly half a score of subgenera of _Helix_ whose headquarters are
Chinese, while among these, forms with sinistral shells are relatively
common. The genus _Clausilia_ is remarkable on account of attaining a
second centre of development in China, where its finest species,
referable to several subgenera, occur. Carnivorous molluscs include a
peculiar slug (_Rathouisia_) and the shelled genera _Ennea_ and
_Streptaxis_. In the western provinces species of _Buliminus_ are
abundant, and in the operculate group _Heudeia_ forms a peculiar type
akin to _Helicina_, but with internal foldings to the shell.
Lastly, it has to be mentioned that the waters of the Yangtsze-kiang
are inhabited by a small jelly-fish, or medusa (_Limnocodium kawaii_),
near akin to _L. sowerbii_, which was discovered in the hot-house
tanks in the Botanical Gardens in the Regent's Park, London, but whose
real home is probably the Amazon. (R. L.*)
_Flora_.
The vegetation of China is extremely rich, no fewer than 9000 species
of flowering plants having been already enumerated, of which nearly a
half are endemic or not known to occur elsewhere. Whole provinces are
as yet only partially explored; and the total flora is estimated to
comprise ultimately 12,000 species. China is the continuation eastward
of the great Himalayan mass, numerous chains of mountains running
irregularly to the sea-board. Thousands of deep narrow valleys form
isolated areas, where peculiar species have been evolved. Though the
greater part of the country has long ago been cleared of its primeval
forest and submitted to agriculture, there still remain some extensive
forests and countless small woods in which the original flora is well
preserved. Towards the north the vegetation is palaearctic, and
differs little in its composition from that of Germany, Russia and
Siberia. The flora of the western and central provinces is closely
allied to that of the Himalayas and of Japan; while towards the south
this element mingles with species derived from Indo-China, Burma and
the plain of Hindostan. Above a certain elevation, decreasing with the
latitude, but approximately 6000 ft. in the Yangtsze basin, there
exist in districts remote from the traffic of the great rivers,
extensive forests of conifers, like those of Central Europe in
character, but with different species of silver fir, larch, spruce and
Cembran pine. Below this altitude the woods are composed of deciduous
and evergreen broad-leafed trees and shrubs, mingled together in a
profusion of species. Pure broad-leafed forests of one or two species
are rare, though small woods of oak, of alder and of birch are
occasionally seen. There is nothing comparable to the extensive beech
forests of Europe, the two species of Chinese beech being sporadic and
rare trees. The heaths, _Calluna_ and _Erica_, which cover great
tracts of barren sandy land in Europe, are absent from China, where
the Ericaceous vegetation is made up of numerous species of
_Rhododendron_, which often cover vast areas on the mountain slopes.
Pine forests occur at low levels, but are always small in extent.
The appearance of the vegetation is very different from that of the
United States, which is comparable to China in situation and in
extent. Though there are 60 species of oak in China, many with
magnificent foliage and remarkable cupules, the red oaks, so
characteristic of North America, with their bristle-pointed leaves,
turning beautiful colours in autumn, are quite unknown. The great
coniferous forest west of the Rocky Mountains has no analogue in
China, the gigantic and preponderant Douglas fir being absent, while
the giant _Sequoias_ are represented only on a small scale by
_Cryptomeria_, which attains half their height.
Certain remnants of the Miocene flora which have disappeared from
Europe are still conspicuous and similar in North America and China.
In both regions there are several species of _Magnolia_; one species
each of _Liriodendron, Liquidambar_ and _Sassafras_; and curious
genera like _Nyssa, Hamamelis, Decumaria_ and _Gymnocladus_. The
swamps of the south-eastern states, in which still survive the once
widely spread _Taxodium_ or deciduous cypress, are imitated on a small
scale by the marshy banks of rivers near Canton, which are clad with
_Glyptostrobus_, the "water-pine" of the Chinese. _Pseudolarix,
Cunninghamia_ and _Keteleeria_ are coniferous genera peculiar to
China, which have become extinct elsewhere. The most remarkable tree
in China, the only surviving link between ferns and conifers, _Ginkgo
biloba_, has only been seen in temple gardens, but may occur wild in
some of the unexplored provinces. Its leaves have been found in the
tertiary beds of the Isle of Mull.
Most of the European genera occur in China, though there are curious
exceptions like the plane tree, and the whole family of the
_Cistaceae_, which characterize the peculiar _maquis_ of the
Mediterranean region. The rhododendrons, of which only four species
are European, have their headquarters in China, numbering 130 species,
varying in size from miniature shrubs 6 in. high to tall trees.
_Lysimachia, Primula, Clematis, Rubus_ and _Gentiana_ have each a
hundred species, extraordinary variable in habit, in size and in
colour of the flowers. The ferns are equally polymorphic, numbering
400 species, and including strange genera like _Archangiopteris_ and
_Cheiropteris_, unknown elsewhere. About 40 species of bamboos have
been distinguished; the one with a square stem from Fu-kien is the
most curious.
With a great wealth of beautiful flowering shrubs and herbaceous
plants, the Chinese at an early period became skilled horticulturists.
The emperor Wu Ti established in 111 B.C. a botanic garden at
Ch'ang-an, into which rare plants were introduced from the west and
south. Many garden varieties originated in China. The chrysanthemum,
perhaps the most variable of cultivated flowers, is derived from two
wild species (small and inconspicuous plants), and is mentioned in the
ancient Chinese classics. We owe to the skill of the Chinese many
kinds of roses, lilies, camellias and peonies; and have introduced
from China some of the most ornamental plants in our gardens, as
_Wistaria, Diervilla, Kerria, Incarvillea, Deutzia, Primula sinensis,
Hemerocallis_, &c. The peach and several oranges are natives of China.
The varnish tree (_Rhus vernicifera_), from which lacquer is obtained;
the tallow tree (_Sapium sebiferum_); the white mulberry, on which
silkworms are fed; and the tea plant were all first utilized by the
Chinese. The Chinese have also numerous medicinal plants, of which
ginseng and rhubarb are best known. Nearly all our vegetables and
cereals have their counterpart in China, where there are numerous
varieties not yet introduced into Europe, though some, like the Soy
bean, are now attracting great attention. (A. HE.*)
AUTHORITIES.--L. Richard (S.J.), _Geographie de l'empire de Chine_
(Shanghai, 1905)--the first systematic account of China as a whole in
modern times. The work, enlarged, revised and translated into English
by M. Kennelly (S.J.), was reissued in 1908 as Richard's
_Comprehensive Geography of the Chinese Empire and Dependencies_. This
is the standard authority for the country and gives for each section
bibliographical notes. It has been used in the revision of the present
article. Valuable information on northern, central and western China
is furnished by Col. C.C. Manifold and Col. A.W.S. Wingate in the
_Geog. Journ._ vol. xxiii. (1904) and vol. xxix. (1907). Consult also
Marshall Broomhall (ed.), _The Chinese Empire: a General and
Missionary Survey_ (London, 1907); B. Willis, E. Blackwelder and
others, _Research in China_, vol. i. part i. "Descriptive Topography
and Geology," part ii. "Petrography and Zoology," and Atlas
(Washington, Carnegie Institution, 1906-1907); Forbes and Hemsley,
"Enumeration of Chinese Plants," in _Journ. Linnean Soc. (Bot.)_,
vols. xxiii. and xxxvi.; Bretschneider, _History of European Botanical
Discoveries in China_; E. Tiessen, _China das Reich der achtzehn
Provinzen_, Teil i. "Die allgemeine Geographie des Landes" (Berlin,
1902); and _The China Sea Directory_ (published by the British
Admiralty), a valuable guide to the coasts: vol. ii. (5th ed., 1906)
deals with Hong-Kong and places south thereof, vol. iii. (4th ed.,
1906, supp. 1907) with the rest of the Chinese coast; vol. i. (5th
ed., 1906) treats of the islands and straits in the S.W. approach to
the China Sea. Much of China has not been surveyed, but considerable
progress has been made since 1900. _The Atlas of the Chinese Empire_
(London, 1908), a good general atlas, which, however, has no hill
shading, gives maps of each province on the scale of 1:3,000,000. The
preface contains a list of the best regional maps.
_The Journal af the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_
contains papers on all subjects relating to China.